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The Effect of Wire Pens, Floor Pens and Cages on Bone Characteristics of Laying Hens1
The Effect of Wire Pens, Floor Pens and Cages on Bone Characteristics of Laying Hens 1 L. O. ROWLAND, JR. AND R. H. HARMS Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Gainesville, Florida 32601 (Received for publication March 19, 1970)
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Experiment 1. A total of 165 commercial egg production type pullets (Welp) 21 weeks of age were randomly divided into four groups. These birds received a basal diet (Table 1) containing calcium and phosphorus levels of 3.00% and 0.70%, respectively, during a five month treatment period. Forty-five pullets were equally divided among three floor pens 1.52 m. X 1.68 m. with peanut hulls for litter; 45 were equally divided among three similar 1
Florida Agr. Exp. Sta. Journal Series No. 3574.
TABLE 1.—Composition, of diet Ingredient Yellow Corn Soybean Meal (50% protein) Alfalfa Meal (20% protein) Ground Limestone Defluorinated Phosphate (18% P and 32% Ca) Iodized Salt Micro-ingredients*
% of diet 69.90 19.00 2.SO 5.90 1.95 0.25 0.50
* Supplied per kg. of diet: 6,600 I.U. vitamin A, 2,200 I.C.U. vitamin D 3 , 500 mg. choline chloride, 40 mg. niacin, 4.4 mg. riboflavin, 13 mg. pantothenic acid, 22 meg. vitamin B,i, 22 mg. ethoxyquin, 20 mg. iron, 2 mg. copper, 198 meg. cobalt, 1.1 mg. iodine, 99 meg. zinc, 83.6 mg. manganese and 2.2 mg. menadione.
floor pens which had a raised wire floor (2.5 cm. X 5.2 cm. mesh) which prevented the recycling of fecal material; 75 pullets were placed in individual cages 20.3 cm. X 45.7 cm. in size. Twenty-five of the caged pullets received the basal diet to which 10% fecal material from under their cages was added in order to simulate coprophagy. At the end of the five-month feeding period the hens were sacrificed and the left tibia was removed from each bird. These were defleshed after cooking for approximately five minutes in boiling water, air dried at room temperature for 48 hours, and broken on the Allo-Kramer Shear Press using the procedure described by Rowland et al. (1967). After breaking, the tibiae were ashed according to the procedure as outlined by A.O.A.C. (1965). Specific gravity was measured on all eggs laid one day prior to terminating the experiment. Body weight of all hens was obtained at the end of the experiment. Experiment 2. In this experiment, 140
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Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at NERL on May 22, 2015
QEVERAL factors which may lead to osk - ' teoporosis or bone fragility include a deficiency of sex hormones, calcium deficiency, malnutrition, or a lack of normal stimulation due to stress and/or strain such as encountered by prolonged recumbency, plaster casts, etc. (Jackson, 1967). It has been well established by Trueta (1968) that immobilization, bed rest, and lack of muscular activity are all factors contributing to osteoporosis in humans. It was also demonstrated that bone rarefaction occurred in rabbits whose feet and legs were immobilized by plaster casts. It has been demonstrated (Rowland et al., 1968) that hens maintained in cages had a lower bone breaking strength and a lower tibia ash than those kept in floor pens. It is possible that hens kept in cages develop osteoporosis or bone fragility more rapidly than floor birds due to a lack of exercise. Therefore, these studies were conducted to determine if exercise could be a factor in regulating osteoporosis in hens.
1224
L. O. ROWLAND, JR. AND R. H. HARMS TABLE 2.—Tibia breaking strength, body
weights, and percent tibia ash of hens1 Experiment 1
Treatment
FloorPen Wire Pen Cage Cage+M*
Breaking Tibia strength ash (kg.) (%) 20.24" 56.17" 20.29"b 56.93"b 14.36 b 53.88b 15.48 54.34
Experiment 2
Body weight (gms.)
Breaking Tibia strength ash (kg.) (%)
1588" 1548" 1370bb 1304
21.70" 59.55" 22.59" 59.48" 20.20" 57.77" — —
1 Different superscripts within a column indicate a significant difference at 0.05 level according to Duncan's multiple range test. 2 10% manure on an air dried basis was mixed with the basal.
RESULTS Experiment 1. Hens maintained in cages for five months had significantly lower tibia breaking strength, tibia ash percent and body weight than hens maintained on the floor and in wire pens (Table 2). The addition of 10% feces to the diet did not significantly influence bone strength, tibia ash percent, or body weight of hens maintained in cages; however, they consumed approximately 10% more feed. The specific gravity of eggs from the cage, cage plus manure, floor, and wire floor pen hens was 1.082, 1.093, 1.085, and 1.083, respectively. These values did not differ significantly. Experiment 2. In the repeat study using a different strain of pullets, a similar trend
DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY
Two experiments were conducted to study the influence of wire floor, cage confinement, and feeding feces on bone strength and percent bone ash of chickens. Hens confined to cages, thus with restricted activity, had a lower bone ash and bone strength than floor hens. These data indicate that a wire floor per se does not account for a decrease in strength in cage hens, nor does recycling of nutrients greatly influence bone characteristics as measured in this study. In the first experiment, a greater difference between groups was found than in the second experiment. A speculative explanation might be tied in with seasonal effects. The first experiment was terminated in the warm weather while the second experiment was terminated in cool weather. It is also possible that a strain difference may exist. It is concluded that the differences in tibia ash and tibia breaking strength of hens in cages is due to confinement and probably by lack of exercise and not to recycling of fecal nutrients. REFERENCES Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1965. Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Washington, D.C. Duncan, D. B., 1965. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics, 11: 1-42. Jackson, W. P. U., 1967. Calcium Metabolism and Bone Disease. Edward Arnold Publishers, London. Rowland, L. O., Jr., R. H. Harms, H. R. Wilson, I. J. Ross and J. L. Fry, 1967. Breaking strength
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at NERL on May 22, 2015
Babcock pullets 24 weeks of age were divided into three groups. Forty-five pullets were divided equally among three floor pens with wire floors; 45 were assigned to floor pens with peanut hulls for litter; 50 pullets were placed in individual 20.3 cm. X 45.7 cm. cages. The birds were fed the same basal diet (Table 1) as previously used. They were sacrificed after five months of lay and breaking strength and bone ash determined as outlined in Experiment 1. Statements of probability in this paper are based on Duncan's multiple range test (1955).
was observed; the caged hens had numerically, but not significantly, lower tibia breaking strengths and tibia ash (Table 2). Again no differences were found between the floor hens and those maintained in wire floor pens.
1225
EFFECT OF PENS ON BONE
of chick bones as an indication of dietary calcium and phosphorus adequacy. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 126:399-401. Rowland, L. O., Jr., H. R. Wilson, J. L. Fry and R. H. Harms, 1968. A comparison of bone
strength of caged and floor layers and roosters. Poultry Sci. 48: 2013-201S. Trueta, J., 1968. Studies of the Development of Decay of the Human Frame. W. B. Saunders Company. Philadelphia.
Influence of a Thiamine Deficiency on Basal Metabolic Rate, Specific Dynamic Effect and the Efficiency of Energy Utilization L. S. S. Guo AND J. D. SUMMERS
Department of Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
T
HE observation that animals suffering from a vitamin Bj deficiency have a depressed gaseous metabolic rate is well recognized (Kleiber, 1945). Voris (1937) reported a lower basal metabolic rate in vitamin Bx deficient rats as compared with that of pair-fed controls supplied with a vitamin B concentrate. Similar results have also been observed with man (Williams et al., 1942), pigeons (Claudio, 1959) and mice (Bhagat and Lockett, 1961). Studying the specific dynamic effect or heat increment, of a diet high in carbohydrate with thiamine deficient rats, Ring et al. (1947) showed that with 2 or 10 mg./kg. of dietary thiamine the specific dynamic effect was about twice as high as that of a diet with no thiamine. McClure et al. (1934) have investigated the effect of a thiamine deficiency on the efficiency of metabolizable energy utilization. These authors noted that rats fed vitamin B deficient diets had similar metabolizable energy values as compared with that of normal subjects. In contrast however, Voris (1937) showed that the efficiency of metabolizable energy utilization was decreased by approximately 12% when rats were thiamine deficient. Studies by Lockhart et al. (1966) indicated that a thiamine
deficiency had the greatest effect on metabolizable energy as compared with other B vitamin deficiencies. The decrease amounting to approximately 6.5% of maximum efficiency. In attempting to study the metabolic alterations accompanying a thiamine deficiency consideration has been given to the fact that the results obtained may be complicated by some nonspecific factors such as reduced feed intake or gastrointestinal digestibility problems when the deficiency develops to the point where acute gross symptoms become apparent. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of a dietary deficiency of thiamine on energy utilization in the chicken when fed ad libitum or where normal dietary levels were maintained by force feeding. The influence of a deficiency of thiamine on basal metabolic rate and specific dynamic effect were also studied. EXPERIMENTAL
Mature Single Comb White Leghorn cockerels of approximately 20 months of age were used in the first experiment. These were maintained in individual wire metabolism cages and housed in an air-conditioned room maintained at 20° to 22°C.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at NERL on May 22, 2015
(Received for publication March 23, 1970)
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Experiment 1. A total of 165 commercial egg production type pullets (Welp) 21 weeks of age were randomly divided into four groups. These birds received a basal diet (Table 1) containing calcium and phosphorus levels of 3.00% and 0.70%, respectively, during a five month treatment period. Forty-five pullets were equally divided among three floor pens 1.52 m. X 1.68 m. with peanut hulls for litter; 45 were equally divided among three similar 1
Florida Agr. Exp. Sta. Journal Series No. 3574.
TABLE 1.—Composition, of diet Ingredient Yellow Corn Soybean Meal (50% protein) Alfalfa Meal (20% protein) Ground Limestone Defluorinated Phosphate (18% P and 32% Ca) Iodized Salt Micro-ingredients*
% of diet 69.90 19.00 2.SO 5.90 1.95 0.25 0.50
* Supplied per kg. of diet: 6,600 I.U. vitamin A, 2,200 I.C.U. vitamin D 3 , 500 mg. choline chloride, 40 mg. niacin, 4.4 mg. riboflavin, 13 mg. pantothenic acid, 22 meg. vitamin B,i, 22 mg. ethoxyquin, 20 mg. iron, 2 mg. copper, 198 meg. cobalt, 1.1 mg. iodine, 99 meg. zinc, 83.6 mg. manganese and 2.2 mg. menadione.
floor pens which had a raised wire floor (2.5 cm. X 5.2 cm. mesh) which prevented the recycling of fecal material; 75 pullets were placed in individual cages 20.3 cm. X 45.7 cm. in size. Twenty-five of the caged pullets received the basal diet to which 10% fecal material from under their cages was added in order to simulate coprophagy. At the end of the five-month feeding period the hens were sacrificed and the left tibia was removed from each bird. These were defleshed after cooking for approximately five minutes in boiling water, air dried at room temperature for 48 hours, and broken on the Allo-Kramer Shear Press using the procedure described by Rowland et al. (1967). After breaking, the tibiae were ashed according to the procedure as outlined by A.O.A.C. (1965). Specific gravity was measured on all eggs laid one day prior to terminating the experiment. Body weight of all hens was obtained at the end of the experiment. Experiment 2. In this experiment, 140
1223
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at NERL on May 22, 2015
QEVERAL factors which may lead to osk - ' teoporosis or bone fragility include a deficiency of sex hormones, calcium deficiency, malnutrition, or a lack of normal stimulation due to stress and/or strain such as encountered by prolonged recumbency, plaster casts, etc. (Jackson, 1967). It has been well established by Trueta (1968) that immobilization, bed rest, and lack of muscular activity are all factors contributing to osteoporosis in humans. It was also demonstrated that bone rarefaction occurred in rabbits whose feet and legs were immobilized by plaster casts. It has been demonstrated (Rowland et al., 1968) that hens maintained in cages had a lower bone breaking strength and a lower tibia ash than those kept in floor pens. It is possible that hens kept in cages develop osteoporosis or bone fragility more rapidly than floor birds due to a lack of exercise. Therefore, these studies were conducted to determine if exercise could be a factor in regulating osteoporosis in hens.
1224
L. O. ROWLAND, JR. AND R. H. HARMS TABLE 2.—Tibia breaking strength, body
weights, and percent tibia ash of hens1 Experiment 1
Treatment
FloorPen Wire Pen Cage Cage+M*
Breaking Tibia strength ash (kg.) (%) 20.24" 56.17" 20.29"b 56.93"b 14.36 b 53.88b 15.48 54.34
Experiment 2
Body weight (gms.)
Breaking Tibia strength ash (kg.) (%)
1588" 1548" 1370bb 1304
21.70" 59.55" 22.59" 59.48" 20.20" 57.77" — —
1 Different superscripts within a column indicate a significant difference at 0.05 level according to Duncan's multiple range test. 2 10% manure on an air dried basis was mixed with the basal.
RESULTS Experiment 1. Hens maintained in cages for five months had significantly lower tibia breaking strength, tibia ash percent and body weight than hens maintained on the floor and in wire pens (Table 2). The addition of 10% feces to the diet did not significantly influence bone strength, tibia ash percent, or body weight of hens maintained in cages; however, they consumed approximately 10% more feed. The specific gravity of eggs from the cage, cage plus manure, floor, and wire floor pen hens was 1.082, 1.093, 1.085, and 1.083, respectively. These values did not differ significantly. Experiment 2. In the repeat study using a different strain of pullets, a similar trend
DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY
Two experiments were conducted to study the influence of wire floor, cage confinement, and feeding feces on bone strength and percent bone ash of chickens. Hens confined to cages, thus with restricted activity, had a lower bone ash and bone strength than floor hens. These data indicate that a wire floor per se does not account for a decrease in strength in cage hens, nor does recycling of nutrients greatly influence bone characteristics as measured in this study. In the first experiment, a greater difference between groups was found than in the second experiment. A speculative explanation might be tied in with seasonal effects. The first experiment was terminated in the warm weather while the second experiment was terminated in cool weather. It is also possible that a strain difference may exist. It is concluded that the differences in tibia ash and tibia breaking strength of hens in cages is due to confinement and probably by lack of exercise and not to recycling of fecal nutrients. REFERENCES Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1965. Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Washington, D.C. Duncan, D. B., 1965. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics, 11: 1-42. Jackson, W. P. U., 1967. Calcium Metabolism and Bone Disease. Edward Arnold Publishers, London. Rowland, L. O., Jr., R. H. Harms, H. R. Wilson, I. J. Ross and J. L. Fry, 1967. Breaking strength
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at NERL on May 22, 2015
Babcock pullets 24 weeks of age were divided into three groups. Forty-five pullets were divided equally among three floor pens with wire floors; 45 were assigned to floor pens with peanut hulls for litter; 50 pullets were placed in individual 20.3 cm. X 45.7 cm. cages. The birds were fed the same basal diet (Table 1) as previously used. They were sacrificed after five months of lay and breaking strength and bone ash determined as outlined in Experiment 1. Statements of probability in this paper are based on Duncan's multiple range test (1955).
was observed; the caged hens had numerically, but not significantly, lower tibia breaking strengths and tibia ash (Table 2). Again no differences were found between the floor hens and those maintained in wire floor pens.
1225
EFFECT OF PENS ON BONE
of chick bones as an indication of dietary calcium and phosphorus adequacy. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 126:399-401. Rowland, L. O., Jr., H. R. Wilson, J. L. Fry and R. H. Harms, 1968. A comparison of bone
strength of caged and floor layers and roosters. Poultry Sci. 48: 2013-201S. Trueta, J., 1968. Studies of the Development of Decay of the Human Frame. W. B. Saunders Company. Philadelphia.
Influence of a Thiamine Deficiency on Basal Metabolic Rate, Specific Dynamic Effect and the Efficiency of Energy Utilization L. S. S. Guo AND J. D. SUMMERS
Department of Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
T
HE observation that animals suffering from a vitamin Bj deficiency have a depressed gaseous metabolic rate is well recognized (Kleiber, 1945). Voris (1937) reported a lower basal metabolic rate in vitamin Bx deficient rats as compared with that of pair-fed controls supplied with a vitamin B concentrate. Similar results have also been observed with man (Williams et al., 1942), pigeons (Claudio, 1959) and mice (Bhagat and Lockett, 1961). Studying the specific dynamic effect or heat increment, of a diet high in carbohydrate with thiamine deficient rats, Ring et al. (1947) showed that with 2 or 10 mg./kg. of dietary thiamine the specific dynamic effect was about twice as high as that of a diet with no thiamine. McClure et al. (1934) have investigated the effect of a thiamine deficiency on the efficiency of metabolizable energy utilization. These authors noted that rats fed vitamin B deficient diets had similar metabolizable energy values as compared with that of normal subjects. In contrast however, Voris (1937) showed that the efficiency of metabolizable energy utilization was decreased by approximately 12% when rats were thiamine deficient. Studies by Lockhart et al. (1966) indicated that a thiamine
deficiency had the greatest effect on metabolizable energy as compared with other B vitamin deficiencies. The decrease amounting to approximately 6.5% of maximum efficiency. In attempting to study the metabolic alterations accompanying a thiamine deficiency consideration has been given to the fact that the results obtained may be complicated by some nonspecific factors such as reduced feed intake or gastrointestinal digestibility problems when the deficiency develops to the point where acute gross symptoms become apparent. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of a dietary deficiency of thiamine on energy utilization in the chicken when fed ad libitum or where normal dietary levels were maintained by force feeding. The influence of a deficiency of thiamine on basal metabolic rate and specific dynamic effect were also studied. EXPERIMENTAL
Mature Single Comb White Leghorn cockerels of approximately 20 months of age were used in the first experiment. These were maintained in individual wire metabolism cages and housed in an air-conditioned room maintained at 20° to 22°C.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at NERL on May 22, 2015
(Received for publication March 23, 1970)