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The effects of carrageenan and pectin on some quality characteristics of low-fat beef frankfurters
Meat Science 64 (2003) 199–206 www.elsevier.com/locate/meatsci
The effects of carrageenan and pectin on some quality characteristics of low-fat beef frankfurters§ Kezban Candogan*, Nuray Kolsarici Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University, 06110 Diskapi Ankara, Turkey Received 6 August 2001; received in revised form 28 June 2002; accepted 1 July 2002
Abstract Effects of carrageenan (0.3, 0.5, or 0.7%) and carrageenan (0.3, 0.5, or 0.7%) with a pectin gel (20%) on some quality characteristics of low-fat beef frankfurters were evaluated in comparison to a high-fat control (HFC) and a low-fat control (LFC). While low-fat frankfurters had < 3.0% fat, 73–76% moisture, 13–14% protein, HFC had 17% fat, 59% moisture, and 14% protein. A reduction of 50–59% in cholesterol was determined in low fat beef frankfurters as compared to HFC (P <0.05). Better process yield and emulsion stability, and less purge were observed with increasing carrageenan concentration. Treatment groups showed higher water holding capacity (WHC) than LFC, and lower WHC than HFC (P< 0.05). With increasing carrageenan concentration, WHC increased and penetrometer value decreased in low-fat frankfurters. # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Low-fat frankfurters; Carrrageenan; Pectin; Beef
1. Introduction In recent years, many consumers have limited their dietary intake of fat and calories due to diet and health concerns. Consumer interest in reducing dietary fat and calorie intake has encouraged meat technologists to develop low-fat meat product formulations having good economical value and desirable palatability. Fat in processed meat products contributes functional and organoleptical characteristics. In manufacturing low-fat meat products, reducing regular fat content to a certain level without any other application results in an increase in toughness of the product (Barbut & Mittal, 1989), and is not economical. In order to achieve favorable product characteristics in reducing fat content, several functional ingredients capable of improving water binding and modifying texture are of interest to meat processors. One of the approaches to produce lowfat meat products is replacement of fat with vegetable oils (Bloukas & Paneras, 1993; John, Buyck, Keeton, §
This study was supported by Turkish Scientific and Industrial Research Institute (TUBITAK), Project No.TOGTAG-1498. * Corresponding author. Fax: +90-312-317-8711. E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Candogan).
Leu, & Smith, 1986; Marquez, Ahmed, West, & Johnson, 1989), which results in a product having reduced cholesterol level with similar sensory characteristics to high fat control. However, with the use of vegetable oils in low-fat products, rancidity would increase and calorie content would not be reduced as desired. Substituting water for fat in low-fat processed meat products improves sensory and texture characteristics (Ahmed, Miller, Lyon, Vaughters, & Reagan, 1990; Claus, Hunt, & Kastner, 1989) whereas it leads to increased cooking loss and purge. Because of the fact that water addition alone could not provide all quality characteristics to the final product, the focus has been directed to the use of texture-modifying ingredients having good water binding ability. Connective tissue proteins (Eilert, Blackmer, Mandigo, & Calkins, 1993; Leteleir, Kastner, Kenney, Kropf, Hunt, & Garcia Zepeda, 1995), soy proteins (McMindes, 1991; Sofos & Allen, 1977) and hydrocolloids (Foeding & Ramsey, 1986, 1987; Wallingford & Labuza, 1983) are the ingredients that have found potential use in manufacturing low-fat meat products. Among these, hydrocolloids with their unique characteristics in building texture, stability and emulsification are of great interest in lowfat processed meat area due to their ability of binding
0309-1740/03/$ - see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0309-1740(02)00181-X
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water and forming gels. Alginate, carrageenans, xanthan gum, locust bean gum, cellulose derivatives, starches and pectins are some of the examples of hydrocolloids that have been studied in low-fat meat products (Berry, 1994; Desmond & Troy, 1998; Foeding & Ramsey, 1986; Mittal & Barbut, 1993; Trius, Sebranek, Rust, & Carr, 1994a, 1994b; Wallingford & Labuza, 1983). Carrageenans, sulfated polymers of galactose and anhydrogalactose, are produced from red seaweeds by extraction and have three main fractions, iota-, kappaand lambda-carrageenans. While iota- and kappa-carrageenans have the ability to form thermoreversible gels, lambda-carrageean is a thickener, not a gelling agent. Due to their different structural characteristics, these three fractions are commercially available as mixture prepared considering specific food applications (Giese, 1992). As a result of the interaction with water through both ionic and hydrogen bonding, carrageenans are capable of structuring water, thus, have high water binding ability (Labuza & Busk, 1979). Another functional ingredient, pectin, consisting mainly of galacturonic acid and galacturonic acid methyl ester units, is commercially produced from citrus peels and apple pomace, and classified according to its degree of esterification. Pectin has been used as thickener, emulsifier, stabiliser and gelling agent in variety of food products as low-methyl ester and high-methyl ester pectin (Sanderson, 1981). Commercially available pectins tailor-made to act as a fat replacer having its own characteristics have found potential use in low-fat food products including processed meat. It is generally recommended for use with water binding agents to improve sensory characteristics of low-fat foods (Desmond & Troy, 1998; Jensen, 1992; Lindley, 1993; Thestrup, 1993). Our objective was to determine the effects of carrageenan, and carrageenan with a pectin gel, on chemical, physical and textural characteristics of low-fat beef frankfurters during refrigerated storage.
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials Fresh boneless beef and sheep back fat were obtained from Ankara University Kenan Evren Farm, Ankara, Turkey. After removal of trimmable fat, lean beef and sheep back fat were separately ground through a 9.0mm plate and stored at 18 C for maximum 1 week before frankfurter production. Carrageenan (Genugel Carrageenan type ME-83, a mixture of approximately 2/3 kappa- and 1/3 iota-carrageenan) and pectin (SLENDID1 type 100, low-methyl ester pectin) were provided by TEKNAROM, Istanbul, Turkey (a subdivision of CP Kelko Aps, division of HERCULES, Inc., Denmark). Slendid was added to the product after preparing a gel with following formulation: 95.25% water, 4.46% slendid and 0.47% CaCl2. 2.2. Frankfurter manufacture The lean beef and fat were thawed at 4 C for 24 h and reground through 3-mm plate. Appropriate amounts of beef and fat calculated for eight group frankfurter batters were weighed and stored at 4 C for subsequent use on the day of frankfurter preparation. Eight groups of batters were prepared using the ingredient levels shown in Table 1 by chopping beef, fat and the ingredients in a cutter according to the procedure followed by Kolsarici and Guven (1998). Treatment groups consisted of (1) high-fat control (HFC), (2) low-fat control (LFC), (3) 0.3% carrageenan added group (0.3C): no extra fat addition +20% water and 0.3% carrageenan addition, (4) 0.5% carrageenan added group (0.5C) no extra fat addition+20% water and 0.5% carrageenan addition; (5) 0.7% carrageenan added group (0.7C): no extra fat addition+20% water and 0.7% carrageenan addition; (6) 0.3% carrageenan+pectin gel
Table 1 Ingredient levels (g) for frankfurters with different levels of carrageenan (C) and pectin gel (PG) Ingredient/component Lean Beef Fat Ice/water Carrageenan Pectin gel Seasonings Starch Sugar Polyphosphates Monosodium glutamate Ascorbic acid Salt NaNO2 a
HFC 2412 900 900 – – 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
LFC a
(53.6) (20.0) (20.0)
(0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
2412 – 1800 – – 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
0.3C (53.6) (40.0)
(0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
2398.5 – 1800 13.5 – 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
0.5C (53.3) (40.0) (0.3) (0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
As percentage (%). HFC, high-fat control; LFC, low-fat control
2389.5 – 1800 22.5 – 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
0.7C (53.1) (40.0) (0.5) (0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
2380.5 – 1800 31.5 – 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
(52.9) (40.0) (0.7) (0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
0.3+PG
0.5+PG
0.7+PG
2398.5 – 900 13.5 900 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
2389.5 – 900 22.5 900 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
2380.5 – 900 31.5 900 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 0.1 2.1 84 0.633
(53.3) (20.0) (0.3) (20.0) (0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
(53.1) (20.0) (0.5) (20.0) (0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
(52.9) (20.0) (0.7) (20.0) (0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
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(PG) added group (0.3C+PG): no extra fat addition+20% water and 0.3% carrageenan+20% PG addition; (7) 0.5% carrageenan+PG added group (0.5C+PG): no extra fat addition+20% water and 0.5% carrageenan+20% PG addition; (8) 0.7% carrageenan+PG added group (0.7C+PG): no extra fat addition+20% water and 0.7% carrageenan+20% PG addition. Batters were vacuum stuffed into approximately 24 mm diameter natural casings (sheep intestines) and hand-linked to form approximately 15 cm links in length. The frankfurters were then hung on cooking racks and cooked in a Fessmann smokehouse (Wilhelm Fessmann GmbH u. Co., Winnenden, Germany). The cooking schedule followed was: 60–65 C for 20 min, smoking at 67–68 C for 30 min and cooking at 75 C to an internal temperature of 68 C. Temperatures of frankfurters were measured using a 20-gauge hypodermic probe-type thermocouple connected to a Doric temperature recorder (Trendicator 410A, San Diego, CA, USA) which could be inserted and withdrawn intermittently during cooking. After showering with cold water with a temperature of 12 1 C for 10 min, frankfurters were chilled at 4 1 C for 4 h, vacuum-packaged in polyamide-ionomer polyethylene pouches having an oxygen permeability of 45 cm3/m2/24 h/690 mmHg (at 25 C and 0% RH) and held at 4 1 C for 49 days for further analysis. 2.3. Proximate analyses and cholesterol content Moisture, protein (N6.25), fat, and ash contents were determined initially in duplicate for each sample following AOAC (1990) methods. For cholesterol analysis, total lipids of the frankfurters were extracted using the method suggested by Bligh and Dyer (1959). After saponification of the lipids, cholesterol in the unsaponifiable fraction was detected using spectrophotometric procedure reported by Rudel and Moris (1973)
201
2.6. Purge loss Duplicate packages were examined for purge loss at 2week intervals over the storage period and purge loss was expressed as percent (Bishop, Olson, & Knipe, 1993). 2.7. Water-holding capacity (WHC) A press technique reported by Zayas and Lin (1989) was used to determine the water-holding capacity of frankfurters. Lower water-holding capacity values indicate better water-holding capacity. 2.8. Penetrometer value Sur-Berlin Model PNR-6 Penetrometer (Chemo Technik Neubeuer G.m.b.H., Germany) equipped with a total of 100 g load weight (0.98 N) was used to evaluate frankfurters for hardness over 49-day storage period according to the ASTM D 1321 standard method (Anonymous, 1975). Samples were removed from the packages, left at room temperature for 1 h, and duplicate frankfurters from two different packages were cut into 3 cm long pieces from the center of frankfurters. The needle was placed at the cross section surface of the sample and the instrument was turned on for 5 s to produce puncture longitunally. Depth of the puncture was determined in millimeter in triplicate for each frankfurter. Lower depth indicates harder texture. 2.9. Statistical analyses Data from two replications were analyzed using the general linear model (GLM) analysis of variance procedure of SAS (1996) in a complete randomized block design. When analysis of variance revealed a significant effect (P< 0.05), treatment means were separated using the least significant difference (LSD) procedure of SAS.
2.4. Emulsion stability 3. Results and discussion Before stuffing, triplicate frankfurter batters from each group were analyzed for emulsion stability using the method described by Morrison, Webb, Blumer, Ivey, and Hag (1971) and modified by Whiting (1984). Water and fat exudates were measured and total exudate was calculated as sum of the water and fat exudates. 2.5. Process yield After stuffing the weight) and after (processed weight), percentage process weights.
batters into the casings (initial heat processing and smoking frankfurters were weighed and yield was calculated from the
3.1. Proximate composition and cholesterol content Moisture content of the low-fat frankfurters, including low-fat control and frankfurters formulated with different levels of carrageenan and pectin gel, ranged between 73.19 and 76.59% due to extra water addition to the frankfurter formulations. High-fat control had significantly lower moisture content (59.59%) than any other frankfurter groups (P < 0.05; Table 2). Protein, fat and ash contents were around 13.14–13.85%, 1.88– 2.46% and 2.13–2.65% respectively in low-fat frankfurters and 13.97%, 17.07% and 2.29% in HFC, respectively. The fat content of HFC was naturally higher (P < 0.05) than those of low-fat frankfurters since
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Table 2 Proximate composition (%) and cholesterol content (mg/100 g sample) of frankfurters formulated with different levels of carrageenan (C) and carrageenan with pectin gel (PG) Attribute Moisture Ash
HFC
LFC
0.3C
0.5C
0.7C
a
76.59 a(1.12)
73.81 cd(1.67)
73.19 d(1.25)
74.86 cb(1.41) 76.03 a(1.29)
2.29 bc(0.15)
2.13 c(0.37)
2.37 bc(0.35)
2.65 a(0.22)
13.14 c(0.36)
13.62 abc(0.75)
13.44 abc(0.38)
2.23 bcd(0.16)
2.21 bcd(0.29)
59.59 e(0.62)
Protein
13.97 a(0.37)
Fat
17.07 a(0.49)
Cholesterol
93.25 a(1.77)
a
2.36 bc(0.38) 46.33 b(4.04)
44.48 bcd(3.79) 44.89 bc(4.25)
0.3C+PG
2.37 bc(0.24)
0.7C+PG
74.44 c(0.72)
75.88 ab(0.64)
2.36 bc(0.23)
13.20 bc(0.84) 13.16 c(0.81) 2.46 b(0.59)
0.5C+PG
2.53 ab(0.32)
2.42 ab(0.14)
13.85 ab(0.63) 13.50 abc (0.87)
2.27 bc(0.18)
1.88 d(0.13)
41.69 ed(1.44) 44.85 bc(2.06) 40.99 e(2.79)
2.08 cd(0.30) 42.45 cde(3.58)
Standard Deviation. Means in a row not having a common letter are different (P <0.05). HFC, high-fat control; LFC, low-fat control.
compared with the carrageenan or carrageenan with PG added frankfurters, HFC and LFC had the highest and the lowest emulsion stability (P < 0.05), respectively, in terms of total exudate released except for 0.7C. Increasing carrageenan concentration was effective on improving emulsion stability with or without PG. Hughes, Cofrades, and Troy (1997) also reported increased emulsion stability in frankfurters formulated with carrageenan. Among the low-fat frankfurter batters, 0.7% carrageenan incorporation resulted in the highest (P < 0.05) emulsion stability (as total volume released) showing similar emulsion stability to HFC (P > 0.05). However, no significant difference was observed between batter with 0.5 and 0.7% carrageenan added, with or without PG. In the PG added groups, the total and water exudates released during emulsion stability test were significantly higher than the ones carrageenan added only (P < 0.05). Thus, PG incorporation into the frankfurter formulations with carrageenan was not effective on the stability of batter although stability of the PG added groups was higher (P < 0.05) than that of LFC, which can be attributed to carrageenan effect. Process yield is a practical method for determination of the weight loss during process steps such as cooking and smoking in the production of meat products.
there was no extra fat addition in the formulations of these products. HFC had the highest (P < 0.05) cholesterol content (93.25 mg/100g; Table 2). Reduction of fat from 17.07% to less than 3.0% resulted in 50–56% lower cholesterol in low-fat frankfurters. McMindes (1991) noted that 20% lower cholesterol content was obtained when the regular fat content of patties (20%) was reduced to 10% with soy protein addition. Egbert, Huffman, Chen, and Dylewski (1991) also stated significant reduction in cholesterol content of low-fat patties (7% fat) as compared with the patties with 20% fat. Cholesterol content of frankfurters was reduced significantly when 60% of fat in the formulation substituted with peanut oil (Marquez, Ahmed, West, & Johnson, 1989). This significant decrease in cholesterol with reduction in fat content of meat products is of great importance from the consumer point of view, especially when saturated fat intake is limited in the diet. 3.2. Emulsion stability and process yield The effects of carrageenan and pectin gel addition to the low-fat frankfurter formulations, on emulsion stability of the frankfurter batters (as water, fat, and total exudates released) were shown in Table 3. When
Table 3 Emulsion stability (as ml water, fat, and total exudates released from 30 g batter) and process yields of frankfurter batters formulated with different levels of carrageenan (C) and carrageenan with pectin gel (PG) Attribute Emulsion stability Water exudate Fat exudate Total exudate Process yield a
HFC 1.58 f (0.16)a 0.3 1.88 f(0.16) 86.92 a(0.16)
LFC
0.3C
0.5C
0.7C
0.3C+PG
0.5C+PG
0.7C+PG
4.93 a(0.23) 0.1 5.03 a(0.23)
2.85 d(0.21) 0.1 2.95 d(0.21)
2.03 e(0.15) 0.1 2.13 e(0.15)
1.85 e(0.14) 0.1 1.95 ef(0.14)
3.75 b(0.24) 0.1 3.85 b(0.24)
3.48 c(0.26) 0.1 3.58 c(0.24)
3.38 c(0.21) 0.1 3.48 c(0.21)
81.86 c(0.63)
83.67 b(0.54)
86.01 a(0.13)
87.15 a(0.19)
81.84 c(0.96)
84.49 b(0.02)
86.82 a(0.08)
Standard Deviation. Means in a row not having a common letter are different (P <0.05). HFC, high-fat control; LFC, low-fat control.
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According to the process yield results in the study (Table 3), carrageenan addition, particularly at concentrations higher than 0.3%, resulted in better yield after smoking and cooking steps. While LFC had 81.86% yield, process yields of 0.5C, 0.7C, and 0.7C+PG added frankfurters were 86.05%, 87.15% and 86.82%, respectively, which were similar to that of HFC (P > 0.05). Significantly lower (P < 0.05) yield was observed in LFC and 0.3C+PG added frankfurters as compared to the others. In low-fat frankfurters formulated with carrageenan, as carrageenan concentration increased from 0.3% to 0.5 or 0.7%, both emulsion stability of batter and process yield showed significant increases (P < 0.05). Carrageenan at the concentration of 0.5% when added alone and of 0.7% with or without pectin gel resulted in greatest improvement in process yield showing similar (P > 0.05) values to HFC. The increase in process yield with carrageenan addition due to less cook loss during processing can be attributed to improvement of the hydration and binding properties of the product (DeFreitas, Sebranek, Olson, & Carr, 1997; Hughes, Cofrades, & Troy, 1997). 3.3. Purge loss High-fat controls had the lowest (P < 0.05) purge loss over refrigerated storage as compared with low-fat frankfurters (Table 4). Bloukas and Paneras (1993) also reported higher purge loss in frankfurters formulated with olive oil containing 11% less fat than HFC. Lowfat control had generally higher purge loss (P < 0.05) than any other low-fat treatments except for 0.3C at day 0, and 0.3C and 0.5C at day 14 and day 28 (P > 0.05). Within only carrageenan added frankfurters, as carrageenan concentration increased, a decrease in purge loss was observed, which was only significant (P < 0.05) at day 14 and 28 when carrageenan concentration increased from 0.3 to 0.7%. Shand, Sofos, and Schmidt (1994) found that kappa-carrageenan addition at 0.5 and 1.0% levels to structured beef rolls reduced purge in vacuum-packaged slices during refrigerated storage. Since PG added frankfurters had lower batter stability
(Table 3), increasing purge loss was expected for these group frankfurters. However, PG containing frankfurters particularly with higher carrageenan levels resulted in lower purge loss over longer storage periods having the lowest purge loss within low-fat frankfurter groups at day 42 (P < 0.05). This purge loss reducing effect of PG might be due to its stability after cooking and during refrigerated storage. Purge loss increased (P < 0.05) at day 14 in all low-fat frankfurter groups while the increase was observed in HFC at day 28 (Table 4). In general, there was no change (P > 0.05) in purge loss of frankfurters between day 14 and day 28 in low-fat frankfurter groups. While there was an increase (P < 0.05) in purge loss of LFC and only carrageenan added frankfurters at day 42 having the greatest (P < 0.05) purge losses during refrigerated storage, purge losses of HFC and PG containing frankfurters did not show significant changes over time (P > 0.05) after day 28 and after day 14. These increases in purge loss with storage time were in agreement with the findings of Bloukas and Paneras (1993) and Hensley and Hand (1995) in low-fat frankfurters. Lin, Keeton, Gilchrist, and Cross (1988) noted that significant increase in water loss was a result of the decrease in fat:protein ratio in meat products. Therefore, with significant reduction in fat content of the frankfurter formulations, water released from the product to the package was higher in low-fat products as compared with the products with high fat content. 3.4. Water-holding capacity Water-holding capacity, determined initially and over the 49-day storage period, is shown in Table 5. HFC with approximately 50% lower water content in the formulation than low-fat frankfurters had the greatest (P < 0.05) WHC over the refrigerated storage period, while LFC generally showed the weakest (P < 0.05) WHC at earlier stages of storage. Within the low-fat frankfurters, improvements in WHC (P < 0.05) was observed as carrageenan concentration increased, however, WHC never reached to HFC level in those frank-
Table 4 Purge loss (%) in the frankfurters formulated with different levels of carrageenan and carrageenan (C) with pectin gel (PG) during refrigerated storage Days
HFC
LFC
0.3C
0.5C
0.7C
0.3C+PG
0.5C+PG
0.7C+PG
0
2.13 dB(0.54)a
5.01 aC(0.06)
4.36 abC(0.11)
3.94 bcC(0.23)
3.81 bcC(0.13)
3.74 bcB(0.11)
3.65 cB(0.08)
3.39 cB(0.08)
14
2.53 dB(0.71)
5.77 aB(0.48)
5.73 aB(0.42)
5.56 abB(0.40)
5.03 bcB(0.06)
4.96 bcA(0.35)
4.58 cA(0.15)
4.54 cA(0.18)
28
3.26 eA(1.03)
5.97 aB(0.57)
5.70 abB((1.69)
5.57 abcB(0.32)
4.98 cdB(0.52)
5.08 bcA(0.41)
4.82 dA(0.33)
4.72 dA(0.34)
42
3.77 dA(1.54)
8.18 aA(0.64)
7.30 bA(0.19)
7.21 bA(0.17)
7.04 bA(0.16)
5.24 cA(0.41)
5.09 cA(0.35)
5.10 cA(0.08)
a
Standard Deviation. Means in a row (a, b, c, d, e across frankfurter groups) not having a common letter are different (P<0.05). Means in a column (A, B across storage days) not having a common letter are different (P <0.05). HFC, high-fat control; LFC, low-fat control.
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Table 5 Water holding capacity values of frankfurters formulated with different levels of carrageenan (C) and carrageenan with pectin gel (PG) during refrigerated storage Days
HFC
LFC
0.3C
0.5C
0.7C
0.3C+PG
0.5C+PG
0.7C+PG
0
0.709 gBC (0.003)a
0.870 aBC (0.001)
0.859 bABC (0.001)
0.835 cCD (0.001)
0.823 dC (0.001)
0.815 eC (0.001)
0.813 efE (0.001)
0.810 fC (0.001)
7
0.707 fC (0.004)
0.871 aAB (0.001)
0.846 bCD (0.009)
0.833 cCD (0.002)
0.816 deCD (0.002)
0.823 dBC (0.003)
0.823 dC (0.001)
0.812 eC (0.001)
14
0.736 dAB (0.008)
0.877 aA (0.001)
0.869 abAB (0.002)
0.863 abA (0.005)
0.857 bA (0.003)
0.840 cA (0.008)
0.834 cA (0.007)
0.830 cA (0.18)
21
0.755 gA (0.002)
0.867 aBC (0.002)
0.858 bBC (0.002)
0.845 cBC (0.002)
0.835 dB (0.005)
0.828 eB (0.001)
0.823 eBC (0.002)
0.815 fBC (0.001)
28
0.704 eCD (0.014)
0.863 aC (0.004)
0.854 abC (0.005)
0.848 bcB (0.001)
0.839 cB (0.002)
0.821 dBC (0.004)
0.820 dCD (0.003)
0.812 dC (0.001)
35
0.676 dDE (0.011)
0.874 aAB (0.004)
0.873 aA (0.007)
0.863 abA (0.003)
0.858 bA (0.006)
0.828 cB (0.007)
0.830 cAB (0.001)
0.821 cAB (0.004)
42
0.657 adEF (0.005)
0.838 aD (0.004)
0.835 aD (0.011)
0.831 abD (0.010)
0.812 cD (0.007)
0.817 bcC (0.003)
0.813 cE (0.001)
0.813 cBC (0.002)
49
0.631 bF (0.026)
0.835 aD (0.002)
0.838 aD (0.005)
0.824 aD (0.007)
0.813 aCD (0.002)
0.814 aC (0.003)
0.814 aDE (0.002)
0.816 aBC (0.002)
a
Standard Deviation. Means in a row (a, b, c, d, e, f, g across frankfurter groups) not having a common letter are different (P <0.05). Means in a column (A, B, C, D, E, F across storage days) not having a common letter are different (P<0.05). HFC, high-fat control; LFC, low-fat control
furters (P < 0.05). WHC improving effect of carrageenan was not significant (P > 0.05) at longer storage time (after day 14). Foeding and Ramsey (1987) reported significant increases in WHC of meat batters containing 10% fat when 0.5% and 1.0% iota carrageenan was used. Bater, Descapms, and Maurer (1992) studied
water binding ability of kappa-carrageenan in turkey breasts and found that addition of 0.5% kappa-carrageenan to the brine injected into turkey breasts reduced expressible juice determined by press technique as compared with the control product. This WHC improving effect of carrageenans is attributed to gum–water inter-
Table 6 Penetrometer values of frankfurters formulated with different levels of carrageenan (C) and carrageenan with pectin gel (PG) during refrigerated storage Days
HFC
LFC
Day 0
119.5 eA (3.5)a 102.0 fB (4.2) 99.0 eBC (2.8) 92.5 eCD (3.5) 91.5 eD (2.1) 94.5 fCD (2.1) 93.5 dCD (3.5) 93.5 cCD (0.8)
189.0 (9.3) 173.5 (6.4) 165.0 (7.1) 155.5 (4.9) 153.5 (4.7) 157.0 (1.4) 152.5 (3.5) 151.0 (4.2)
Day 7 Day 14 Day 21 Day 28 Day 35 Day 42 Day 49
aA aB aBC aC aC aC aC aC
0.3C
0.5C
170.0 bA (5.6) 162.0 bAB (7.8) 150.0 bBC (4.2) 144.5 bC (6.8) 133.5 bC (10.6) 138.5 bC (6.4) 135.0 bC (7.1) 146.0 aBC (4.2)
158.0 (9.9) 148.5 (6.4) 145.5 (3.5) 139.5 (6.3) 125.5 (9.2) 136.5 (7.8) 131.5 (6.4) 141.5 (4.9)
0.7C cA cAB bcABC bcBCD bcD bcBCD bCD aBCD
154.5 (9.2) 144.0 (8.9) 139.5 (0.1) 135.5 (6.4) 115.5 (4.9) 127.5 (2.2) 122.0 (1.4) 138.5 (7.8)
cA cAB cABC cBC cdE cdCDE bcDE aBC
0.3C+PG
0.5C+PG
0.7C+PG
140.5 (2.2) 131.0 (2.8) 127.5 (0.7) 124.5 (7.1) 111.5 (9.2) 127.0 (2.8) 115.0 (7.1) 111.0 (7.2)
137.5 (2.1) 130.5 (4.9) 124.5 (3.5) 120.5 (3.5) 109.5 (7.8) 118.0 (4.2) 112.5 (6.4) 106.0 (8.5)
130.0 dA (1.4) 125.0 dAB (1.4) 120.5 dABC (2.1) 116.0 dBCD (4.2) 102.5 deDE (7.8) 115.0 eBCDE (5.6) 110.5 cCDE (7.8) 101.5 cbE (10.6)
dDA dAB dB dBC cdD cdB cDC bD
dA dAB dBC dBCD cdDE deBCDE cCDE cbE
a Standard Deviation. Means in a row (a, b, c, d, e, f across frankfurter groups) not having a common letter are different (P<0.05). Means in a column (A, B, C, D, E across storage days) not having a common letter are different (P< 0.05). HFC, high-fat control; LFC, low-fat control
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action or gum:protein:water interaction which depends on pH, structure of carrageenan molecules, concentration and other compounds in the environment (Foeding & Ramsey, 1986; Wallingford & Labuza, 1983). At earlier stages of storage (until day 42), PG added low-fat frankfurters had generally better (P < 0.05) WHC than other frankfurters particularly with the synergistic effect of increasing carrageenan concentration. In general, WHC showed an increase (P< 0.05) towards the end of storage period. However, this increase was probably due to free water released from the product over time. With the decrease in pH, water binding capacity of proteins might have decreased resulting in water exudates in the packages. Thus, with the loss of free water from the product, the amount of water separated by pressing method would naturally be less. This phenomenon brought about a proportional increase in WHC in all treatments.
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4. Conclusions With the success in production of low-fat frankfurters by incorporation of hydrocolloids in the formulation without extra fat addition, cholesterol content was reduced significantly in the final low-fat product. Replacing fat with carrageenan or carrageenan with PG in low-fat frankfurter formulations provided better functional characteristics as compared to LFC. Carrageenan was more effective when it was used at higher concentrations. The higher carrageenan concentration improved functionality of PG in low-fat frankfurters.
Acknowledgements We thank TEKNAROM Ltd., subdivision of CP Kelko Aps (a division of HERCULES Incorporated, Denmark), for supplying carrageenan and pectin.
3.5. Penetrometer values HFC and LFC had generally the lowest (the hardest in texture) and the highest (the softest in texture) penetrometer values (P < 0.05), respectively, during refrigerated storage (Table 6). Hensley and Hand (1995) noted that the greater the fat content in frankfurter formulations the harder the final product. A negative correlation between hardness and moisture content of frankfurters was also noted by Sutton, Hand, and Newkirk (1995). Substitution of muscle proteins, the major components in the development of a desirable structure of meat products, leads to less soluble myofibrillar protein, thus, less protein interactions occurred resulting in a softer texture in frankfurters (He & Sebranek, 1996). In the present study, with increasing carrageenan concentration, a decrease (P < 0.05) in penetrometer value was determined in low fat frankfurters with either carrageenan or carrageenan with PG indicating that increasing carrageenan concentrations resulted in a harder texture. However, this hardness increasing effect of carrageenan was only significant (P < 0.05) for only carrrageenan added low-fat frankfurters when carrageenan concentration increased from 0.3% to 0.7% in the formulation. This hardness increasing effect of carrageenan was also reported by Matulis, McKeith, Sutherland, and Brewer (1995) and He and Sebranek (1996). Low-fat frankfurters containing PG had the lowest (P < 0.05) penetrometer value at earlier stages of storage (until day 28) as compared to LFC and only carrageenan added ones indicating that PG incorporation brought about firmer products. Storage time was a significant factor (P < 0.05) in decreasing the penetrometer value, thus, increasing the hardness of the frankfurters. This increased hardness in all frankfurters was likely due to water loss from the product (purge) during refrigerated storage.
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Matulis, R. J., McKeith, F. K., Sutherland, J. W., & Brewer, M. S. (1995). Sensory characteristics of frankfurters as affected by salt, fat, soy protein, and carrageenan. Journal of Food Science, 60(1), 48–54. McMindes, M. K. (1991). Applications of isolated soy protein in lowfat meat products. Food Technology, 45(12), 61–64. Mittal, G. S., & Barbut, S. (1993). Effects of various cellulose gums on the quality parameters of low-fat breakfast sausages. Meat Science, 35, 93–103. Morrison, G. S., Webb, N. B., Blumer, T. N., Ivey, F. J., & Hag, A. (1971). Relationship between composition and stability of sausagetype emulsions. Journal of Food Science, 36, 426–428. Rudel, L. L., & Moris, M. D. (1973). Determination of cholesterol using o-phythaldehyde. Journal of Food Research, 14, 364–366. Sanderson, G. R. (1981). Polysaccharides in foods. Food Technology, 35(7), 50–57. SAS. (1996). SAS/STAT user’s guide. Release 6.12. Cary, NC: Statistical Analysis System Institute, Inc. Shand, P. J., Sofos, J. N., & Schmidt, G. R. (1994). Kappa-carrageenan, sodium chloride and temperature affect yield and texture of structured beef rolls. Journal of Food Science, 59(2), 282–287. Sofos, J. N., & Allen, C. E. (1977). Effects of lean meat source and levels of fat and soy protein on the properties of wiener-type products. Journal of Food Science, 42(4), 875–878. Sutton, D. S., Hand, L. W., & Newkirk, K. A. (1995). Reduced fat, high moisture beef frankfurters as affected by chopping temperature. Journal of Food Science, 60(3), 580–582. Thestrup, N. (1993). The new potantial of pectin. Food Manufacture (7), 55–56. Trius, A., Sebranek, J. G., Rust, R. E., & Carr, J. M. (1994a). Low-fat bologna and beaker sausage: effects of carrageenan and chloride salts. Journal of Food Science, 59(5), 941–945. Trius, A., Sebranek, R. E., Rust, R. E., & Carr, J. M. (1994b). Carrageenans in beaker sausage as affected by pH and sodium tripolyphosphate. Journal of Food Science, 59(5), 947–951. Wallingford, L., & Labuza, T. P. (1983). Evaluation of the water binding properties of food hydrocolloids by physical/chemical methods. Journal of Food Science, 48, 1–5. Whiting, R. C. (1984). Stability and gel strength of frankfurter batters made with reduced sodium chloride. Journal of Food Science, 49, 1350–1354 1362. Zayas, J. F., & Lin, C. S. (1989). Corn germ protein in frankfurters: textural, color, and sensory characteristics and storage stability. Journal of Food Quality, 12, 283–303.
The effects of carrageenan and pectin on some quality characteristics of low-fat beef frankfurters§ Kezban Candogan*, Nuray Kolsarici Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University, 06110 Diskapi Ankara, Turkey Received 6 August 2001; received in revised form 28 June 2002; accepted 1 July 2002
Abstract Effects of carrageenan (0.3, 0.5, or 0.7%) and carrageenan (0.3, 0.5, or 0.7%) with a pectin gel (20%) on some quality characteristics of low-fat beef frankfurters were evaluated in comparison to a high-fat control (HFC) and a low-fat control (LFC). While low-fat frankfurters had < 3.0% fat, 73–76% moisture, 13–14% protein, HFC had 17% fat, 59% moisture, and 14% protein. A reduction of 50–59% in cholesterol was determined in low fat beef frankfurters as compared to HFC (P <0.05). Better process yield and emulsion stability, and less purge were observed with increasing carrageenan concentration. Treatment groups showed higher water holding capacity (WHC) than LFC, and lower WHC than HFC (P< 0.05). With increasing carrageenan concentration, WHC increased and penetrometer value decreased in low-fat frankfurters. # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Low-fat frankfurters; Carrrageenan; Pectin; Beef
1. Introduction In recent years, many consumers have limited their dietary intake of fat and calories due to diet and health concerns. Consumer interest in reducing dietary fat and calorie intake has encouraged meat technologists to develop low-fat meat product formulations having good economical value and desirable palatability. Fat in processed meat products contributes functional and organoleptical characteristics. In manufacturing low-fat meat products, reducing regular fat content to a certain level without any other application results in an increase in toughness of the product (Barbut & Mittal, 1989), and is not economical. In order to achieve favorable product characteristics in reducing fat content, several functional ingredients capable of improving water binding and modifying texture are of interest to meat processors. One of the approaches to produce lowfat meat products is replacement of fat with vegetable oils (Bloukas & Paneras, 1993; John, Buyck, Keeton, §
This study was supported by Turkish Scientific and Industrial Research Institute (TUBITAK), Project No.TOGTAG-1498. * Corresponding author. Fax: +90-312-317-8711. E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Candogan).
Leu, & Smith, 1986; Marquez, Ahmed, West, & Johnson, 1989), which results in a product having reduced cholesterol level with similar sensory characteristics to high fat control. However, with the use of vegetable oils in low-fat products, rancidity would increase and calorie content would not be reduced as desired. Substituting water for fat in low-fat processed meat products improves sensory and texture characteristics (Ahmed, Miller, Lyon, Vaughters, & Reagan, 1990; Claus, Hunt, & Kastner, 1989) whereas it leads to increased cooking loss and purge. Because of the fact that water addition alone could not provide all quality characteristics to the final product, the focus has been directed to the use of texture-modifying ingredients having good water binding ability. Connective tissue proteins (Eilert, Blackmer, Mandigo, & Calkins, 1993; Leteleir, Kastner, Kenney, Kropf, Hunt, & Garcia Zepeda, 1995), soy proteins (McMindes, 1991; Sofos & Allen, 1977) and hydrocolloids (Foeding & Ramsey, 1986, 1987; Wallingford & Labuza, 1983) are the ingredients that have found potential use in manufacturing low-fat meat products. Among these, hydrocolloids with their unique characteristics in building texture, stability and emulsification are of great interest in lowfat processed meat area due to their ability of binding
0309-1740/03/$ - see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0309-1740(02)00181-X
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water and forming gels. Alginate, carrageenans, xanthan gum, locust bean gum, cellulose derivatives, starches and pectins are some of the examples of hydrocolloids that have been studied in low-fat meat products (Berry, 1994; Desmond & Troy, 1998; Foeding & Ramsey, 1986; Mittal & Barbut, 1993; Trius, Sebranek, Rust, & Carr, 1994a, 1994b; Wallingford & Labuza, 1983). Carrageenans, sulfated polymers of galactose and anhydrogalactose, are produced from red seaweeds by extraction and have three main fractions, iota-, kappaand lambda-carrageenans. While iota- and kappa-carrageenans have the ability to form thermoreversible gels, lambda-carrageean is a thickener, not a gelling agent. Due to their different structural characteristics, these three fractions are commercially available as mixture prepared considering specific food applications (Giese, 1992). As a result of the interaction with water through both ionic and hydrogen bonding, carrageenans are capable of structuring water, thus, have high water binding ability (Labuza & Busk, 1979). Another functional ingredient, pectin, consisting mainly of galacturonic acid and galacturonic acid methyl ester units, is commercially produced from citrus peels and apple pomace, and classified according to its degree of esterification. Pectin has been used as thickener, emulsifier, stabiliser and gelling agent in variety of food products as low-methyl ester and high-methyl ester pectin (Sanderson, 1981). Commercially available pectins tailor-made to act as a fat replacer having its own characteristics have found potential use in low-fat food products including processed meat. It is generally recommended for use with water binding agents to improve sensory characteristics of low-fat foods (Desmond & Troy, 1998; Jensen, 1992; Lindley, 1993; Thestrup, 1993). Our objective was to determine the effects of carrageenan, and carrageenan with a pectin gel, on chemical, physical and textural characteristics of low-fat beef frankfurters during refrigerated storage.
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials Fresh boneless beef and sheep back fat were obtained from Ankara University Kenan Evren Farm, Ankara, Turkey. After removal of trimmable fat, lean beef and sheep back fat were separately ground through a 9.0mm plate and stored at 18 C for maximum 1 week before frankfurter production. Carrageenan (Genugel Carrageenan type ME-83, a mixture of approximately 2/3 kappa- and 1/3 iota-carrageenan) and pectin (SLENDID1 type 100, low-methyl ester pectin) were provided by TEKNAROM, Istanbul, Turkey (a subdivision of CP Kelko Aps, division of HERCULES, Inc., Denmark). Slendid was added to the product after preparing a gel with following formulation: 95.25% water, 4.46% slendid and 0.47% CaCl2. 2.2. Frankfurter manufacture The lean beef and fat were thawed at 4 C for 24 h and reground through 3-mm plate. Appropriate amounts of beef and fat calculated for eight group frankfurter batters were weighed and stored at 4 C for subsequent use on the day of frankfurter preparation. Eight groups of batters were prepared using the ingredient levels shown in Table 1 by chopping beef, fat and the ingredients in a cutter according to the procedure followed by Kolsarici and Guven (1998). Treatment groups consisted of (1) high-fat control (HFC), (2) low-fat control (LFC), (3) 0.3% carrageenan added group (0.3C): no extra fat addition +20% water and 0.3% carrageenan addition, (4) 0.5% carrageenan added group (0.5C) no extra fat addition+20% water and 0.5% carrageenan addition; (5) 0.7% carrageenan added group (0.7C): no extra fat addition+20% water and 0.7% carrageenan addition; (6) 0.3% carrageenan+pectin gel
Table 1 Ingredient levels (g) for frankfurters with different levels of carrageenan (C) and pectin gel (PG) Ingredient/component Lean Beef Fat Ice/water Carrageenan Pectin gel Seasonings Starch Sugar Polyphosphates Monosodium glutamate Ascorbic acid Salt NaNO2 a
HFC 2412 900 900 – – 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
LFC a
(53.6) (20.0) (20.0)
(0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
2412 – 1800 – – 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
0.3C (53.6) (40.0)
(0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
2398.5 – 1800 13.5 – 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
0.5C (53.3) (40.0) (0.3) (0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
As percentage (%). HFC, high-fat control; LFC, low-fat control
2389.5 – 1800 22.5 – 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
0.7C (53.1) (40.0) (0.5) (0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
2380.5 – 1800 31.5 – 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
(52.9) (40.0) (0.7) (0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
0.3+PG
0.5+PG
0.7+PG
2398.5 – 900 13.5 900 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
2389.5 – 900 22.5 900 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 2.1 2.1 84 0.633
2380.5 – 900 31.5 900 32.2 140.6 14 12.6 0.1 2.1 84 0.633
(53.3) (20.0) (0.3) (20.0) (0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
(53.1) (20.0) (0.5) (20.0) (0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
(52.9) (20.0) (0.7) (20.0) (0.71) (3.12) (0.31) (0.28) (0.05) (0.05) (1.87) (0.01)
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(PG) added group (0.3C+PG): no extra fat addition+20% water and 0.3% carrageenan+20% PG addition; (7) 0.5% carrageenan+PG added group (0.5C+PG): no extra fat addition+20% water and 0.5% carrageenan+20% PG addition; (8) 0.7% carrageenan+PG added group (0.7C+PG): no extra fat addition+20% water and 0.7% carrageenan+20% PG addition. Batters were vacuum stuffed into approximately 24 mm diameter natural casings (sheep intestines) and hand-linked to form approximately 15 cm links in length. The frankfurters were then hung on cooking racks and cooked in a Fessmann smokehouse (Wilhelm Fessmann GmbH u. Co., Winnenden, Germany). The cooking schedule followed was: 60–65 C for 20 min, smoking at 67–68 C for 30 min and cooking at 75 C to an internal temperature of 68 C. Temperatures of frankfurters were measured using a 20-gauge hypodermic probe-type thermocouple connected to a Doric temperature recorder (Trendicator 410A, San Diego, CA, USA) which could be inserted and withdrawn intermittently during cooking. After showering with cold water with a temperature of 12 1 C for 10 min, frankfurters were chilled at 4 1 C for 4 h, vacuum-packaged in polyamide-ionomer polyethylene pouches having an oxygen permeability of 45 cm3/m2/24 h/690 mmHg (at 25 C and 0% RH) and held at 4 1 C for 49 days for further analysis. 2.3. Proximate analyses and cholesterol content Moisture, protein (N6.25), fat, and ash contents were determined initially in duplicate for each sample following AOAC (1990) methods. For cholesterol analysis, total lipids of the frankfurters were extracted using the method suggested by Bligh and Dyer (1959). After saponification of the lipids, cholesterol in the unsaponifiable fraction was detected using spectrophotometric procedure reported by Rudel and Moris (1973)
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2.6. Purge loss Duplicate packages were examined for purge loss at 2week intervals over the storage period and purge loss was expressed as percent (Bishop, Olson, & Knipe, 1993). 2.7. Water-holding capacity (WHC) A press technique reported by Zayas and Lin (1989) was used to determine the water-holding capacity of frankfurters. Lower water-holding capacity values indicate better water-holding capacity. 2.8. Penetrometer value Sur-Berlin Model PNR-6 Penetrometer (Chemo Technik Neubeuer G.m.b.H., Germany) equipped with a total of 100 g load weight (0.98 N) was used to evaluate frankfurters for hardness over 49-day storage period according to the ASTM D 1321 standard method (Anonymous, 1975). Samples were removed from the packages, left at room temperature for 1 h, and duplicate frankfurters from two different packages were cut into 3 cm long pieces from the center of frankfurters. The needle was placed at the cross section surface of the sample and the instrument was turned on for 5 s to produce puncture longitunally. Depth of the puncture was determined in millimeter in triplicate for each frankfurter. Lower depth indicates harder texture. 2.9. Statistical analyses Data from two replications were analyzed using the general linear model (GLM) analysis of variance procedure of SAS (1996) in a complete randomized block design. When analysis of variance revealed a significant effect (P< 0.05), treatment means were separated using the least significant difference (LSD) procedure of SAS.
2.4. Emulsion stability 3. Results and discussion Before stuffing, triplicate frankfurter batters from each group were analyzed for emulsion stability using the method described by Morrison, Webb, Blumer, Ivey, and Hag (1971) and modified by Whiting (1984). Water and fat exudates were measured and total exudate was calculated as sum of the water and fat exudates. 2.5. Process yield After stuffing the weight) and after (processed weight), percentage process weights.
batters into the casings (initial heat processing and smoking frankfurters were weighed and yield was calculated from the
3.1. Proximate composition and cholesterol content Moisture content of the low-fat frankfurters, including low-fat control and frankfurters formulated with different levels of carrageenan and pectin gel, ranged between 73.19 and 76.59% due to extra water addition to the frankfurter formulations. High-fat control had significantly lower moisture content (59.59%) than any other frankfurter groups (P < 0.05; Table 2). Protein, fat and ash contents were around 13.14–13.85%, 1.88– 2.46% and 2.13–2.65% respectively in low-fat frankfurters and 13.97%, 17.07% and 2.29% in HFC, respectively. The fat content of HFC was naturally higher (P < 0.05) than those of low-fat frankfurters since
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Table 2 Proximate composition (%) and cholesterol content (mg/100 g sample) of frankfurters formulated with different levels of carrageenan (C) and carrageenan with pectin gel (PG) Attribute Moisture Ash
HFC
LFC
0.3C
0.5C
0.7C
a
76.59 a(1.12)
73.81 cd(1.67)
73.19 d(1.25)
74.86 cb(1.41) 76.03 a(1.29)
2.29 bc(0.15)
2.13 c(0.37)
2.37 bc(0.35)
2.65 a(0.22)
13.14 c(0.36)
13.62 abc(0.75)
13.44 abc(0.38)
2.23 bcd(0.16)
2.21 bcd(0.29)
59.59 e(0.62)
Protein
13.97 a(0.37)
Fat
17.07 a(0.49)
Cholesterol
93.25 a(1.77)
a
2.36 bc(0.38) 46.33 b(4.04)
44.48 bcd(3.79) 44.89 bc(4.25)
0.3C+PG
2.37 bc(0.24)
0.7C+PG
74.44 c(0.72)
75.88 ab(0.64)
2.36 bc(0.23)
13.20 bc(0.84) 13.16 c(0.81) 2.46 b(0.59)
0.5C+PG
2.53 ab(0.32)
2.42 ab(0.14)
13.85 ab(0.63) 13.50 abc (0.87)
2.27 bc(0.18)
1.88 d(0.13)
41.69 ed(1.44) 44.85 bc(2.06) 40.99 e(2.79)
2.08 cd(0.30) 42.45 cde(3.58)
Standard Deviation. Means in a row not having a common letter are different (P <0.05). HFC, high-fat control; LFC, low-fat control.
compared with the carrageenan or carrageenan with PG added frankfurters, HFC and LFC had the highest and the lowest emulsion stability (P < 0.05), respectively, in terms of total exudate released except for 0.7C. Increasing carrageenan concentration was effective on improving emulsion stability with or without PG. Hughes, Cofrades, and Troy (1997) also reported increased emulsion stability in frankfurters formulated with carrageenan. Among the low-fat frankfurter batters, 0.7% carrageenan incorporation resulted in the highest (P < 0.05) emulsion stability (as total volume released) showing similar emulsion stability to HFC (P > 0.05). However, no significant difference was observed between batter with 0.5 and 0.7% carrageenan added, with or without PG. In the PG added groups, the total and water exudates released during emulsion stability test were significantly higher than the ones carrageenan added only (P < 0.05). Thus, PG incorporation into the frankfurter formulations with carrageenan was not effective on the stability of batter although stability of the PG added groups was higher (P < 0.05) than that of LFC, which can be attributed to carrageenan effect. Process yield is a practical method for determination of the weight loss during process steps such as cooking and smoking in the production of meat products.
there was no extra fat addition in the formulations of these products. HFC had the highest (P < 0.05) cholesterol content (93.25 mg/100g; Table 2). Reduction of fat from 17.07% to less than 3.0% resulted in 50–56% lower cholesterol in low-fat frankfurters. McMindes (1991) noted that 20% lower cholesterol content was obtained when the regular fat content of patties (20%) was reduced to 10% with soy protein addition. Egbert, Huffman, Chen, and Dylewski (1991) also stated significant reduction in cholesterol content of low-fat patties (7% fat) as compared with the patties with 20% fat. Cholesterol content of frankfurters was reduced significantly when 60% of fat in the formulation substituted with peanut oil (Marquez, Ahmed, West, & Johnson, 1989). This significant decrease in cholesterol with reduction in fat content of meat products is of great importance from the consumer point of view, especially when saturated fat intake is limited in the diet. 3.2. Emulsion stability and process yield The effects of carrageenan and pectin gel addition to the low-fat frankfurter formulations, on emulsion stability of the frankfurter batters (as water, fat, and total exudates released) were shown in Table 3. When
Table 3 Emulsion stability (as ml water, fat, and total exudates released from 30 g batter) and process yields of frankfurter batters formulated with different levels of carrageenan (C) and carrageenan with pectin gel (PG) Attribute Emulsion stability Water exudate Fat exudate Total exudate Process yield a
HFC 1.58 f (0.16)a 0.3 1.88 f(0.16) 86.92 a(0.16)
LFC
0.3C
0.5C
0.7C
0.3C+PG
0.5C+PG
0.7C+PG
4.93 a(0.23) 0.1 5.03 a(0.23)
2.85 d(0.21) 0.1 2.95 d(0.21)
2.03 e(0.15) 0.1 2.13 e(0.15)
1.85 e(0.14) 0.1 1.95 ef(0.14)
3.75 b(0.24) 0.1 3.85 b(0.24)
3.48 c(0.26) 0.1 3.58 c(0.24)
3.38 c(0.21) 0.1 3.48 c(0.21)
81.86 c(0.63)
83.67 b(0.54)
86.01 a(0.13)
87.15 a(0.19)
81.84 c(0.96)
84.49 b(0.02)
86.82 a(0.08)
Standard Deviation. Means in a row not having a common letter are different (P <0.05). HFC, high-fat control; LFC, low-fat control.
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According to the process yield results in the study (Table 3), carrageenan addition, particularly at concentrations higher than 0.3%, resulted in better yield after smoking and cooking steps. While LFC had 81.86% yield, process yields of 0.5C, 0.7C, and 0.7C+PG added frankfurters were 86.05%, 87.15% and 86.82%, respectively, which were similar to that of HFC (P > 0.05). Significantly lower (P < 0.05) yield was observed in LFC and 0.3C+PG added frankfurters as compared to the others. In low-fat frankfurters formulated with carrageenan, as carrageenan concentration increased from 0.3% to 0.5 or 0.7%, both emulsion stability of batter and process yield showed significant increases (P < 0.05). Carrageenan at the concentration of 0.5% when added alone and of 0.7% with or without pectin gel resulted in greatest improvement in process yield showing similar (P > 0.05) values to HFC. The increase in process yield with carrageenan addition due to less cook loss during processing can be attributed to improvement of the hydration and binding properties of the product (DeFreitas, Sebranek, Olson, & Carr, 1997; Hughes, Cofrades, & Troy, 1997). 3.3. Purge loss High-fat controls had the lowest (P < 0.05) purge loss over refrigerated storage as compared with low-fat frankfurters (Table 4). Bloukas and Paneras (1993) also reported higher purge loss in frankfurters formulated with olive oil containing 11% less fat than HFC. Lowfat control had generally higher purge loss (P < 0.05) than any other low-fat treatments except for 0.3C at day 0, and 0.3C and 0.5C at day 14 and day 28 (P > 0.05). Within only carrageenan added frankfurters, as carrageenan concentration increased, a decrease in purge loss was observed, which was only significant (P < 0.05) at day 14 and 28 when carrageenan concentration increased from 0.3 to 0.7%. Shand, Sofos, and Schmidt (1994) found that kappa-carrageenan addition at 0.5 and 1.0% levels to structured beef rolls reduced purge in vacuum-packaged slices during refrigerated storage. Since PG added frankfurters had lower batter stability
(Table 3), increasing purge loss was expected for these group frankfurters. However, PG containing frankfurters particularly with higher carrageenan levels resulted in lower purge loss over longer storage periods having the lowest purge loss within low-fat frankfurter groups at day 42 (P < 0.05). This purge loss reducing effect of PG might be due to its stability after cooking and during refrigerated storage. Purge loss increased (P < 0.05) at day 14 in all low-fat frankfurter groups while the increase was observed in HFC at day 28 (Table 4). In general, there was no change (P > 0.05) in purge loss of frankfurters between day 14 and day 28 in low-fat frankfurter groups. While there was an increase (P < 0.05) in purge loss of LFC and only carrageenan added frankfurters at day 42 having the greatest (P < 0.05) purge losses during refrigerated storage, purge losses of HFC and PG containing frankfurters did not show significant changes over time (P > 0.05) after day 28 and after day 14. These increases in purge loss with storage time were in agreement with the findings of Bloukas and Paneras (1993) and Hensley and Hand (1995) in low-fat frankfurters. Lin, Keeton, Gilchrist, and Cross (1988) noted that significant increase in water loss was a result of the decrease in fat:protein ratio in meat products. Therefore, with significant reduction in fat content of the frankfurter formulations, water released from the product to the package was higher in low-fat products as compared with the products with high fat content. 3.4. Water-holding capacity Water-holding capacity, determined initially and over the 49-day storage period, is shown in Table 5. HFC with approximately 50% lower water content in the formulation than low-fat frankfurters had the greatest (P < 0.05) WHC over the refrigerated storage period, while LFC generally showed the weakest (P < 0.05) WHC at earlier stages of storage. Within the low-fat frankfurters, improvements in WHC (P < 0.05) was observed as carrageenan concentration increased, however, WHC never reached to HFC level in those frank-
Table 4 Purge loss (%) in the frankfurters formulated with different levels of carrageenan and carrageenan (C) with pectin gel (PG) during refrigerated storage Days
HFC
LFC
0.3C
0.5C
0.7C
0.3C+PG
0.5C+PG
0.7C+PG
0
2.13 dB(0.54)a
5.01 aC(0.06)
4.36 abC(0.11)
3.94 bcC(0.23)
3.81 bcC(0.13)
3.74 bcB(0.11)
3.65 cB(0.08)
3.39 cB(0.08)
14
2.53 dB(0.71)
5.77 aB(0.48)
5.73 aB(0.42)
5.56 abB(0.40)
5.03 bcB(0.06)
4.96 bcA(0.35)
4.58 cA(0.15)
4.54 cA(0.18)
28
3.26 eA(1.03)
5.97 aB(0.57)
5.70 abB((1.69)
5.57 abcB(0.32)
4.98 cdB(0.52)
5.08 bcA(0.41)
4.82 dA(0.33)
4.72 dA(0.34)
42
3.77 dA(1.54)
8.18 aA(0.64)
7.30 bA(0.19)
7.21 bA(0.17)
7.04 bA(0.16)
5.24 cA(0.41)
5.09 cA(0.35)
5.10 cA(0.08)
a
Standard Deviation. Means in a row (a, b, c, d, e across frankfurter groups) not having a common letter are different (P<0.05). Means in a column (A, B across storage days) not having a common letter are different (P <0.05). HFC, high-fat control; LFC, low-fat control.
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Table 5 Water holding capacity values of frankfurters formulated with different levels of carrageenan (C) and carrageenan with pectin gel (PG) during refrigerated storage Days
HFC
LFC
0.3C
0.5C
0.7C
0.3C+PG
0.5C+PG
0.7C+PG
0
0.709 gBC (0.003)a
0.870 aBC (0.001)
0.859 bABC (0.001)
0.835 cCD (0.001)
0.823 dC (0.001)
0.815 eC (0.001)
0.813 efE (0.001)
0.810 fC (0.001)
7
0.707 fC (0.004)
0.871 aAB (0.001)
0.846 bCD (0.009)
0.833 cCD (0.002)
0.816 deCD (0.002)
0.823 dBC (0.003)
0.823 dC (0.001)
0.812 eC (0.001)
14
0.736 dAB (0.008)
0.877 aA (0.001)
0.869 abAB (0.002)
0.863 abA (0.005)
0.857 bA (0.003)
0.840 cA (0.008)
0.834 cA (0.007)
0.830 cA (0.18)
21
0.755 gA (0.002)
0.867 aBC (0.002)
0.858 bBC (0.002)
0.845 cBC (0.002)
0.835 dB (0.005)
0.828 eB (0.001)
0.823 eBC (0.002)
0.815 fBC (0.001)
28
0.704 eCD (0.014)
0.863 aC (0.004)
0.854 abC (0.005)
0.848 bcB (0.001)
0.839 cB (0.002)
0.821 dBC (0.004)
0.820 dCD (0.003)
0.812 dC (0.001)
35
0.676 dDE (0.011)
0.874 aAB (0.004)
0.873 aA (0.007)
0.863 abA (0.003)
0.858 bA (0.006)
0.828 cB (0.007)
0.830 cAB (0.001)
0.821 cAB (0.004)
42
0.657 adEF (0.005)
0.838 aD (0.004)
0.835 aD (0.011)
0.831 abD (0.010)
0.812 cD (0.007)
0.817 bcC (0.003)
0.813 cE (0.001)
0.813 cBC (0.002)
49
0.631 bF (0.026)
0.835 aD (0.002)
0.838 aD (0.005)
0.824 aD (0.007)
0.813 aCD (0.002)
0.814 aC (0.003)
0.814 aDE (0.002)
0.816 aBC (0.002)
a
Standard Deviation. Means in a row (a, b, c, d, e, f, g across frankfurter groups) not having a common letter are different (P <0.05). Means in a column (A, B, C, D, E, F across storage days) not having a common letter are different (P<0.05). HFC, high-fat control; LFC, low-fat control
furters (P < 0.05). WHC improving effect of carrageenan was not significant (P > 0.05) at longer storage time (after day 14). Foeding and Ramsey (1987) reported significant increases in WHC of meat batters containing 10% fat when 0.5% and 1.0% iota carrageenan was used. Bater, Descapms, and Maurer (1992) studied
water binding ability of kappa-carrageenan in turkey breasts and found that addition of 0.5% kappa-carrageenan to the brine injected into turkey breasts reduced expressible juice determined by press technique as compared with the control product. This WHC improving effect of carrageenans is attributed to gum–water inter-
Table 6 Penetrometer values of frankfurters formulated with different levels of carrageenan (C) and carrageenan with pectin gel (PG) during refrigerated storage Days
HFC
LFC
Day 0
119.5 eA (3.5)a 102.0 fB (4.2) 99.0 eBC (2.8) 92.5 eCD (3.5) 91.5 eD (2.1) 94.5 fCD (2.1) 93.5 dCD (3.5) 93.5 cCD (0.8)
189.0 (9.3) 173.5 (6.4) 165.0 (7.1) 155.5 (4.9) 153.5 (4.7) 157.0 (1.4) 152.5 (3.5) 151.0 (4.2)
Day 7 Day 14 Day 21 Day 28 Day 35 Day 42 Day 49
aA aB aBC aC aC aC aC aC
0.3C
0.5C
170.0 bA (5.6) 162.0 bAB (7.8) 150.0 bBC (4.2) 144.5 bC (6.8) 133.5 bC (10.6) 138.5 bC (6.4) 135.0 bC (7.1) 146.0 aBC (4.2)
158.0 (9.9) 148.5 (6.4) 145.5 (3.5) 139.5 (6.3) 125.5 (9.2) 136.5 (7.8) 131.5 (6.4) 141.5 (4.9)
0.7C cA cAB bcABC bcBCD bcD bcBCD bCD aBCD
154.5 (9.2) 144.0 (8.9) 139.5 (0.1) 135.5 (6.4) 115.5 (4.9) 127.5 (2.2) 122.0 (1.4) 138.5 (7.8)
cA cAB cABC cBC cdE cdCDE bcDE aBC
0.3C+PG
0.5C+PG
0.7C+PG
140.5 (2.2) 131.0 (2.8) 127.5 (0.7) 124.5 (7.1) 111.5 (9.2) 127.0 (2.8) 115.0 (7.1) 111.0 (7.2)
137.5 (2.1) 130.5 (4.9) 124.5 (3.5) 120.5 (3.5) 109.5 (7.8) 118.0 (4.2) 112.5 (6.4) 106.0 (8.5)
130.0 dA (1.4) 125.0 dAB (1.4) 120.5 dABC (2.1) 116.0 dBCD (4.2) 102.5 deDE (7.8) 115.0 eBCDE (5.6) 110.5 cCDE (7.8) 101.5 cbE (10.6)
dDA dAB dB dBC cdD cdB cDC bD
dA dAB dBC dBCD cdDE deBCDE cCDE cbE
a Standard Deviation. Means in a row (a, b, c, d, e, f across frankfurter groups) not having a common letter are different (P<0.05). Means in a column (A, B, C, D, E across storage days) not having a common letter are different (P< 0.05). HFC, high-fat control; LFC, low-fat control
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action or gum:protein:water interaction which depends on pH, structure of carrageenan molecules, concentration and other compounds in the environment (Foeding & Ramsey, 1986; Wallingford & Labuza, 1983). At earlier stages of storage (until day 42), PG added low-fat frankfurters had generally better (P < 0.05) WHC than other frankfurters particularly with the synergistic effect of increasing carrageenan concentration. In general, WHC showed an increase (P< 0.05) towards the end of storage period. However, this increase was probably due to free water released from the product over time. With the decrease in pH, water binding capacity of proteins might have decreased resulting in water exudates in the packages. Thus, with the loss of free water from the product, the amount of water separated by pressing method would naturally be less. This phenomenon brought about a proportional increase in WHC in all treatments.
205
4. Conclusions With the success in production of low-fat frankfurters by incorporation of hydrocolloids in the formulation without extra fat addition, cholesterol content was reduced significantly in the final low-fat product. Replacing fat with carrageenan or carrageenan with PG in low-fat frankfurter formulations provided better functional characteristics as compared to LFC. Carrageenan was more effective when it was used at higher concentrations. The higher carrageenan concentration improved functionality of PG in low-fat frankfurters.
Acknowledgements We thank TEKNAROM Ltd., subdivision of CP Kelko Aps (a division of HERCULES Incorporated, Denmark), for supplying carrageenan and pectin.
3.5. Penetrometer values HFC and LFC had generally the lowest (the hardest in texture) and the highest (the softest in texture) penetrometer values (P < 0.05), respectively, during refrigerated storage (Table 6). Hensley and Hand (1995) noted that the greater the fat content in frankfurter formulations the harder the final product. A negative correlation between hardness and moisture content of frankfurters was also noted by Sutton, Hand, and Newkirk (1995). Substitution of muscle proteins, the major components in the development of a desirable structure of meat products, leads to less soluble myofibrillar protein, thus, less protein interactions occurred resulting in a softer texture in frankfurters (He & Sebranek, 1996). In the present study, with increasing carrageenan concentration, a decrease (P < 0.05) in penetrometer value was determined in low fat frankfurters with either carrageenan or carrageenan with PG indicating that increasing carrageenan concentrations resulted in a harder texture. However, this hardness increasing effect of carrageenan was only significant (P < 0.05) for only carrrageenan added low-fat frankfurters when carrageenan concentration increased from 0.3% to 0.7% in the formulation. This hardness increasing effect of carrageenan was also reported by Matulis, McKeith, Sutherland, and Brewer (1995) and He and Sebranek (1996). Low-fat frankfurters containing PG had the lowest (P < 0.05) penetrometer value at earlier stages of storage (until day 28) as compared to LFC and only carrageenan added ones indicating that PG incorporation brought about firmer products. Storage time was a significant factor (P < 0.05) in decreasing the penetrometer value, thus, increasing the hardness of the frankfurters. This increased hardness in all frankfurters was likely due to water loss from the product (purge) during refrigerated storage.
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