- Email: [email protected]
The Effects of Polyphosphates on Several Organoleptic, Physical, and Chemical Properties of Stored Precooked Frozen Chickens
TOE CLIPPING TABLE 5.—Influence of toe-clipping on percent condemnation Toms
Hens Normal ToT toes clipped toes clipped A 1.89± ,27a 2.26± .31 0.80+.17 0.86±.15 B 3.45± .67 3.26± .68 1.94±.53 2.37+.54 C 2.54± .30 2.37± .35 1.19±.18 0.85± .32
Year Plant 1969
Normai
Toe.
1970 A 2.47+1.42 4.08± .82 1.23±.20 0.83+.16 B 3.34±1.16 3.61+ .65 1.37+.53 1.96+.38 C 3.43+1.98 3.49+1.72 0.95+.14 0.81±.27 a
Mean and corresponding standard error.
1970, for both toms and hens but variation within the groups was quite high and no significant differences resulted. In all plants, toms tended to have a higher condemnation rate than did hens. REFERENCES Berg, R. W., 1969. Management memorandum. Toe-clipping for better grade. Turkey World, 44: No. 2, page 24. Marsden, S. J., and J. H. Martin, 1949. Turkey Management. Fifth Edition. The Interstate Press. Nicholas Turkey News, 1971. Turkey toe-clipping. Volume 14, No. 4, April.
The Effects of Polyphosphates on Several Organoleptic, Physical, and Chemical Properties of Stored Precooked Frozen Chickens D . R. L A N D E S
Department of Food Science, University of Georgia, College of Agriculture Experiment Stations, Georgia Station, Experiment, Georgia 30212 (Received for publication August 16,1971) A BSTRA CT A study was conducted to determine the effects of marinating broiler quarters in 0, 6 or 12% polyphosphate solutions before baking and frozen storage on several organoleptic, physical, and chemical properties. The percent cooked yield of the quarters increased with increases in polyphosphate content of the marinade. Phosphorus content of the cooked tissue increased as the polyphosphate content of the marinade increased, with the light meat absorbing more phosphate than the dark meat. Organoleptic evaluation of the quarters indicated that chicken and meaty flavors decreased throughout the storage period with increased polyphosphate levels in the marinade. There was no difference in fatty flavor except a t 1 month storage when the 6 and 12% polyphosphate treatments had lower scores. Apart from 0 month storage, the scores for rancid flavor were decreased by polyphosphate treatment. Warmed over flavor was decreased by increased polyphosphate treatment throughout the study. An objectionable baking soda like flavor was present and increased in intensity with increased polyphosphate treatment. Over-all flavor ratings were decreased markedly with increased polyphosphate treatment at 0 and 1 month of frozen storage, but after 3 and 6 months of storage the decrease with increased polyphosphate treatment was not as pronounced. The polyphosphate treated quarters were consistently more tender and juicy. POULTRY SCIENCE 51: 641-646, 1972
C
ERTAIN cooked meats which receive high palatability rating? immediately after cooking deteriorate in flavor rapidly after a few hours of refrigerated storage (Tims and Watts, 1958). Various terms such as "stale,"
"rancid," "left over," and "warmed over" have been used to describe this characteristic change in flavor. The reduction of oxidative deterioration and the enhancement of certain textural and juiciness qualities following
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at East Tennessee State University on June 22, 2015
a wide numerical difference in percent condemnation between turkeys with normal toes and toe-clipped turkeys in plant A,
641
642
D. R. LANDES
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Fresh iced broilers were obtained from a commercial poultry processing plant and transported to the laboratory. The birds were quartered with each quarter being tagged and weighed. Twelve quartered birds were placed in each of three solutions containing 0, 6 or 12% Kena1 and were allowed to marinate in these solutions for 12 hr. at 35°F. Upon removal from the solutions, the quarters were allowed to drain. Each quarter was weighed, wrapped in aluminum foil, and baked for 1 hr. at 325°F. in a circulating air oven. After cooling, the cooked quarters were removed from the foil and cooking juices, and the weights of the drained product determined. They were then placed back in the foil containing the cooking juices, rewrapped and frozen at 0°F. After the foil wrapped quarters 1 Kena is the registered trade name for a food grade polyphosphate marketed by Calgon Corporation, Calgon Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15230.
were completely frozen they were placed in large plastic bags and stored for 0 (1 day), 1,3, or 6 mo. atO°F. For sensory evaluation, six quarters at a time were removed from the freezer and heated from the frozen state for 30 min. at 425°F. in a conventional kitchen range oven. After reheating, the quarters were coded for evaluation. Each quarter was judged by five panelists who were asked to evaluate the samples for several specific flavor characteristics (See Fig. 1). The different flavor characteristics were defined as follows: chicken flavor, that distinct flavor which is characteristic of freshly cooked chicken; meaty flavor, the general flavor associated with all fresh meat products; fatty (oily) flavor, the flavor associated with oily mouth feel; rancid flavor, the flavor that is characteristic of oxidized fats; and warmed over flavor, the flavor that develops in meat products that have been cooked and reheated. Following evaluation by the panel, the remaining meat from each of the quarters was separated from the bone, skin, and fat, and passed through a food chopper twice. Total phosphorus content of this material was determined by the official photometric method of the A.O.A.C. (1960). Significance of various treatment effects was evaluated using standard computer procedures for analyses of varaince, Duncan's multiple range tests, and simple correlations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Average yields of the broiler quarters after marinating in the solutions containing different levels of polyphosphate and after baking are shown in Table 1. There was some moisture uptake by all of the quarters. Those marinated in the 0 and 6% polyphosphate solutions had
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at East Tennessee State University on June 22, 2015
the addition of polyphosphates to cooked poultry meat have been established (Tims and Watts, 1958; Thomson, 1964; Schermerhorn et ah, 1963; May et ah, 1963; and Monk et ah, 1964). Along with these advantages of adding polyphosphates to poultry meat there is some indication that flavor may be enhanced (May et ah, 1963). This has also been observed by Marion (1970). The nature of this flavor enhancement has not been described by these research groups or any other group to date. This investigation was initiated primarily to determine the effects of the addition of polyphosphates on several organoleptic characteristics of stored, precooked frozen chicken. Certain physical and chemical evaluations were also performed.
643
POLYPHOSPHATES AND POULTRY MEAT Date.
Name. Flavor Characterization* Intensity Slight
Moderate
Very Much
Character 1 2
Sample 3 4 5
1 2
Sample 3 4 5 6
1 2
Sample 3 4 5 6
* If any of the above flavors or any other distinct flavor(s) (add to list) is present check the appropriate intensity level. Juiciness Rating (check one)
Over-all Flavor Rating (check one) 1 2
Sample 3 4 5
1 2
6
Like very much Like moderately Neither like nor dislike Dislike moderately Dislike very much
Sample 3 4 5 6
Very juicy Moderately juicy Neither juicy nor dry Moderately dry Very dry Tenderness Rating (check one) 1 2
Sample 3 4 5
Very tender Moderately tender Neither tender nor tough Moderately tough Very tough FIG. 1. Score sheet for evaluation of baked chicken
significantly greater uptake than quarters marinated in the 12% polyphosphate solution. The cooked yield for the quarters marinated in the 12% polyphosphate solution was significantly greater than for those marinated in the solution with no polyphosphate. Quarters marinated in the 6% polyphosphate solution were intermediate in cooked yield. These results are similar to those of Schermerhorn et al. (1963) and Mountney and Arganosa (1963).
Fig. 2 shows the average levels of phosphorus content, with standard deviations, for the baked quarters marinated in the solutions of different polyphosphate content. As the level of polyphosphate in the marinade increased, the phosphorous content of the tissue increased, with the light meat absorbing more phosphorus than the dark meat. This higher absorption of phosphate by the light meat was not due to increased water absorption, and may indicate that the light meat may
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at East Tennessee State University on June 22, 2015
Chicken flavor Meaty flavor Fatty (oily) flavor Rancid flavor Warmed over (left over) flavor
644
D . R. L A N D E S
TABLE 1.—Average yields of broiler quarters after marinating in solutions containing three levels of polyphosphate and after baking t 30
Marinade (% polyphosphate)
n = Number of Samples
I 20 110
0 % Marinated Yield2 % Cooked Yield2
6
12
1.00
104.0"1 104.1" 101.0 b b b 75.91* 80.77" 82.70
0.90 iinn
1
Values in a row followed by the same superscript are not different at the 5% level of probability. 2 Per cent yields were based on initial weights of the quarters.
0 70 ea° Q 60'
i
0.500 40
require less marinating t h a n the dark meat to reach a desirable phosphate level. D a t a from sensory evaluations are summarized in Table 2. I n all storage periods, the intensities of chicken flavor and meaty flavor were highest in the quarters marinated in the 0 % polyphosphate solution and lowest in the quarters marinated in the 1 2 % polyphosphate solution. Those marinated in the 6 % polyphosphate solution were intermediate. T h e differences between the t r e a t m e n t extremes were statistically significant for all storage periods. F a t t y flavor intensity tended to be higher in the quarters marinated in the 0 % polyphosphate solution than those marinated in the 6 and 12% polyphosphate solu-
0.300 20II 10 0 00
MARINADE |% Polyphosphate)
F I G . 2. Average phosphorus content of baked chicken marinated in solutions containing three levels of polyphosphate before cooking.
tions, b u t the difference was not statistically significant. With the exception of the initial storage period, the intensity of the rancid flavor was greatest for the quarters marinated in the 0 % polyphosphate solution. T h e difference was significant statistically at the 6 mo. storage period. At this period the intensity of the
TABLE 2.—Average scores for several flavor and textural characteristics of baked chicken after frozen storage and reheating Storage Time (mo Flavor Characteristic
0 Polypi- osphate level
Chicken Flavor 2 Meaty Flavor 2 F a t t y Flavor 2 Rancid Flavor 2 Warmed Over Flavor 2 Chemical Flavor 2 Over-all Flavor 3 Juiciness" Tenderness- 1
1.83»" 1.70" b 1.02" 0.83" 0.48" 0.38" 0.20h 0.22b 0.87" 0 . 5 3 b 0.07 c n . 9 2 b 3.63" 3 . 1 8 b 3 . 0 8 b 3.87" 2 . 7 2 b 4.10"
(%)
1)
6
12 1.45 b 0.65b 0.43" 0.35" 0.60 1 ' 1.50» 2.68'' 3.83» 4.20"
1 Polyphosphat 5 level
(%)
)
3 Polyphosphate level
(%)
6 Polyphosphate level
0
6
12
0
6
12
0
6
12
1.75 s 1.30" 0.60" 0.40" 1.03" 0.07" 3.53" 3.03b 3.07b
1.10 b 1.07" 0.38h 0.28" 0.68b 1.18 b 2.82b 3.58" 3.82"
I.17b 0.77b 0.38b 0.28" 0.63b 1.80" 2.38r 3.60" 3.90"
1.90" 1.22" 0.28" 0.45" 0.82" 0.08" 3.45" 2.93b 2.95b
1.37 b 0.98" 0.28" 0.23" 0.52" 0.62b 3.48" 3.97" 4.15"
I.15b 0.83" 0.42" 0.33" 0.67" 1.47" 3.08b 4.17" 4.28"
1 .72" 0.70" 0.47" 0.87" 1.12" 0.10° 3.13" 3.05b 3.00b
1 .45" 0.58" 0.40"b 0.47 0.70b 1.17 b 3.08" 4.10" 4.13"
0.92b 0.48b 0.27" 0.43b 0.58>> 1.80" 2.45b 4.13" 4.33"
1 Values in a row within a given storage time period followed by the same superscript are^not different at the 5% level of prob ability. 2 T h e range for scoring the samples for intensity of the flavor characteristic was 0 = a b s e n t , 1 = slight, 2 ^ m o d e r a t e , and 3 = v e r y much. 3 A scoring range of 1-5 was used with 1 and 5 being opposite extremes, with 1 being dislike very much, very dry, or very tough.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at East Tennessee State University on June 22, 2015
"•
POLYPHOSPHATES AND POULTRY M E A T
645
TABLE 3.—Correlation of fatty flavor and rancid flavor with warmed over flavor in baked chicken after frozen storage and reheating Storage Time (mo.) 0
Fatty Flavor: Warmed Over Flavor Rancid Flavor: Warmed Over Flavor
1
3
6
r
r
r
0.617**1 0.748**
0.619** 0.537**
0.161* 0.551**
r 0.240" 0.826s
1 Values for r followed by ** are significant at the 1% level of probability and those followed by * are significant at the 5% level of probability.
The chemical flavor was described by the panel as a flavor similar to that of baking soda, and this flavor increased in intensity as the level of polyphosphate treatment increased. The increases at
each level were statistically significant. This flavor was highly offensive to the panel, as indicated by the significant decreases in the over-all flavor ratings with increases in the level of polyphosphate treatment at 0 and 1 mo. of storage. However, after 3 and 6 mo. of storage, the over-all flavor ratings for the quarters marinated in the 6% polyphosphate solution were not different from those marinated in the 0% polyphosphate solution, indicating that the buildup of rancid and warmed over flavors in the quarters marinated in the 0% polyphosphate solution were beginning to be reflected in the over-all flavor rating by the panel. It is apparent from the taste panel results that the levels of treatment with polyphosphate used in this study adversely affected the over-all flavor ratings. However, the quarters had no seasoning or breading material to help mask the soda-like taste that was objectionable to the panel. It is highly probable that the over-all flavor ratings for all treatments would have been higher if the quarters had received some type of poultry seasoning. The ratings for juiciness and tenderness of the quarters marinated in the 6 and 12% polyphosphate solutions were consistently higher than for the quarters marinated in the 0% polyphosphate solution. This was expected and confirms work reported previously (May et
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at East Tennessee State University on June 22, 2015
rancid flavor of the quarters marinated in the 12% polyphosphate solution was significantly greater than that of the other two groups. The reason was not evident. Warmed over flavor intensity was greater in the quarters marinated in the 0% polyphosphate solution than in the other two treatments at all storage times. The differences were statistically significant for all periods except 3 mo. One might expect fatty flavor and rancid flavor to be closely related to warmed over flavor. To obtain an indication of the relationship between these flavor characteristics, correlation coefficients were determined (Table 3). In these analyses it was assumed that the relationship of these flavor characteristics with each other was not dependent upon the level of polyphosphate in the quarters. Although all of the correlation coefficients were statistically significant, the squares of the r values indicate that a relatively low percentage of variation in warmed over flavor was associated with variation in fatty flavor or rancid flavor. This indicates that much of the variation in warmed over flavor could not be explained by oxidative deterioration of the lipid present in the tissue.
646
D. R. LANDES
ah, 1963; Klose et ah, 1963; and Spencer and Smith, 1962). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1960. Official Method of Analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 9th Edition. Klose, A. A., A. A. Campbell and H. L. Hanson, 1963. Influence of polyphosphates in chilling water on quality of poultry meat. Poultry Sci. 42: 743-749. Marion, J. E., 1970. Personal Communication. May, K. N., R. L. Helmer and R. L. Saffle, 1963.
A Re-evaluation of the Ovulatory Cycle of the Domestic Hen (Galius domesticus) R O B E R T C. FITZSIMMONS
Embryology Laboratory, Poultry Science Department, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (Received for publication August 16, 1971) ABSTRACT A re-evaluation of the present information relating to the maintenance of the ovulatory cycle in the laying hen has been presented. Based on these data a new working hypothesis is proposed to explain the occurrence of the two LH peaks following each ovulation. The first LH peak is stimulated by the onset of light. The second LH peak occurs 18 hours after the preceding ovulation and is stimulated by the development of the ruptured follicle. The importance of the temporal relationship of these two peaks to the maintenance of the ovulatory cycle is also discussed. POULTEY SCIENCE 51: 646-651, 1972
A
VARIETY of studies have been conducted on the effect that day length (light plus dark cycle) has on the subsequent egg laying pattern in avian species. Short days of less than 24 hours have the
effect of shortening the length of a clutch while longer days (i.e. 25 hours) increase clutch length (Bastian and Zarrow, 1955 and Biellier and Ostmann, 1960). Many proposals have been put forth to
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at East Tennessee State University on June 22, 2015
The author wishes to thank the Calgon Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania for supplying the Kena, and Gold Kist, Inc., Atlanta, Georgia, for supplying the broilers used in this study. The advice and assistance of Miss Josephine Miller, Mr. J. C. Elrod and Dr. J. R. Allison during statistical analysis of the data is greatly appreciated by the author.
Effect of phosphate treatment on carcass weight changes and organoleptic quality of cut-up chicken. Poultry Sci. 42: 24-32. Monk, J. A., G. J. Mountney and I. Prudent, 1964. Effect of phosphate treatment and cooking method on moisture losses of poultry meat. Food Technol. 18: 226-229. Mountney, G. J., and F. C. Arganosa, 1963. The effect of phosphates on moisture absorption, retention and cooking losses of broiler carcasses. Poultry Sci. 42: 384-388. Schermerhorn, E. P., R. L. Adams and W. J. Stadelman, 1963. Effects of polyphosphates on water uptake, moisture retention, and cooking loss in broilers. Poultry Sci. 42: 107-110. Spencer, J. V., and L. E. Smith, 1962. The effect of chilling chicken fryers in a solution of polyphosphates upon moisture uptake, microbial spoilage, tenderness, juiciness and flavor. Poultry Sci. 41: 1685, Abstract. Thomson, J. E., 1964. Effect of polyphosphates on oxidative deterioration of commercially cooked fryer chickens. Food Technol. 18: 147-148. Tims, M. J., and B. M. Watts, 1958. Protection of cooked meats with phosphates. Food Technol. 12: 240-243.
Hens Normal ToT toes clipped toes clipped A 1.89± ,27a 2.26± .31 0.80+.17 0.86±.15 B 3.45± .67 3.26± .68 1.94±.53 2.37+.54 C 2.54± .30 2.37± .35 1.19±.18 0.85± .32
Year Plant 1969
Normai
Toe.
1970 A 2.47+1.42 4.08± .82 1.23±.20 0.83+.16 B 3.34±1.16 3.61+ .65 1.37+.53 1.96+.38 C 3.43+1.98 3.49+1.72 0.95+.14 0.81±.27 a
Mean and corresponding standard error.
1970, for both toms and hens but variation within the groups was quite high and no significant differences resulted. In all plants, toms tended to have a higher condemnation rate than did hens. REFERENCES Berg, R. W., 1969. Management memorandum. Toe-clipping for better grade. Turkey World, 44: No. 2, page 24. Marsden, S. J., and J. H. Martin, 1949. Turkey Management. Fifth Edition. The Interstate Press. Nicholas Turkey News, 1971. Turkey toe-clipping. Volume 14, No. 4, April.
The Effects of Polyphosphates on Several Organoleptic, Physical, and Chemical Properties of Stored Precooked Frozen Chickens D . R. L A N D E S
Department of Food Science, University of Georgia, College of Agriculture Experiment Stations, Georgia Station, Experiment, Georgia 30212 (Received for publication August 16,1971) A BSTRA CT A study was conducted to determine the effects of marinating broiler quarters in 0, 6 or 12% polyphosphate solutions before baking and frozen storage on several organoleptic, physical, and chemical properties. The percent cooked yield of the quarters increased with increases in polyphosphate content of the marinade. Phosphorus content of the cooked tissue increased as the polyphosphate content of the marinade increased, with the light meat absorbing more phosphate than the dark meat. Organoleptic evaluation of the quarters indicated that chicken and meaty flavors decreased throughout the storage period with increased polyphosphate levels in the marinade. There was no difference in fatty flavor except a t 1 month storage when the 6 and 12% polyphosphate treatments had lower scores. Apart from 0 month storage, the scores for rancid flavor were decreased by polyphosphate treatment. Warmed over flavor was decreased by increased polyphosphate treatment throughout the study. An objectionable baking soda like flavor was present and increased in intensity with increased polyphosphate treatment. Over-all flavor ratings were decreased markedly with increased polyphosphate treatment at 0 and 1 month of frozen storage, but after 3 and 6 months of storage the decrease with increased polyphosphate treatment was not as pronounced. The polyphosphate treated quarters were consistently more tender and juicy. POULTRY SCIENCE 51: 641-646, 1972
C
ERTAIN cooked meats which receive high palatability rating? immediately after cooking deteriorate in flavor rapidly after a few hours of refrigerated storage (Tims and Watts, 1958). Various terms such as "stale,"
"rancid," "left over," and "warmed over" have been used to describe this characteristic change in flavor. The reduction of oxidative deterioration and the enhancement of certain textural and juiciness qualities following
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at East Tennessee State University on June 22, 2015
a wide numerical difference in percent condemnation between turkeys with normal toes and toe-clipped turkeys in plant A,
641
642
D. R. LANDES
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Fresh iced broilers were obtained from a commercial poultry processing plant and transported to the laboratory. The birds were quartered with each quarter being tagged and weighed. Twelve quartered birds were placed in each of three solutions containing 0, 6 or 12% Kena1 and were allowed to marinate in these solutions for 12 hr. at 35°F. Upon removal from the solutions, the quarters were allowed to drain. Each quarter was weighed, wrapped in aluminum foil, and baked for 1 hr. at 325°F. in a circulating air oven. After cooling, the cooked quarters were removed from the foil and cooking juices, and the weights of the drained product determined. They were then placed back in the foil containing the cooking juices, rewrapped and frozen at 0°F. After the foil wrapped quarters 1 Kena is the registered trade name for a food grade polyphosphate marketed by Calgon Corporation, Calgon Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15230.
were completely frozen they were placed in large plastic bags and stored for 0 (1 day), 1,3, or 6 mo. atO°F. For sensory evaluation, six quarters at a time were removed from the freezer and heated from the frozen state for 30 min. at 425°F. in a conventional kitchen range oven. After reheating, the quarters were coded for evaluation. Each quarter was judged by five panelists who were asked to evaluate the samples for several specific flavor characteristics (See Fig. 1). The different flavor characteristics were defined as follows: chicken flavor, that distinct flavor which is characteristic of freshly cooked chicken; meaty flavor, the general flavor associated with all fresh meat products; fatty (oily) flavor, the flavor associated with oily mouth feel; rancid flavor, the flavor that is characteristic of oxidized fats; and warmed over flavor, the flavor that develops in meat products that have been cooked and reheated. Following evaluation by the panel, the remaining meat from each of the quarters was separated from the bone, skin, and fat, and passed through a food chopper twice. Total phosphorus content of this material was determined by the official photometric method of the A.O.A.C. (1960). Significance of various treatment effects was evaluated using standard computer procedures for analyses of varaince, Duncan's multiple range tests, and simple correlations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Average yields of the broiler quarters after marinating in the solutions containing different levels of polyphosphate and after baking are shown in Table 1. There was some moisture uptake by all of the quarters. Those marinated in the 0 and 6% polyphosphate solutions had
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at East Tennessee State University on June 22, 2015
the addition of polyphosphates to cooked poultry meat have been established (Tims and Watts, 1958; Thomson, 1964; Schermerhorn et ah, 1963; May et ah, 1963; and Monk et ah, 1964). Along with these advantages of adding polyphosphates to poultry meat there is some indication that flavor may be enhanced (May et ah, 1963). This has also been observed by Marion (1970). The nature of this flavor enhancement has not been described by these research groups or any other group to date. This investigation was initiated primarily to determine the effects of the addition of polyphosphates on several organoleptic characteristics of stored, precooked frozen chicken. Certain physical and chemical evaluations were also performed.
643
POLYPHOSPHATES AND POULTRY MEAT Date.
Name. Flavor Characterization* Intensity Slight
Moderate
Very Much
Character 1 2
Sample 3 4 5
1 2
Sample 3 4 5 6
1 2
Sample 3 4 5 6
* If any of the above flavors or any other distinct flavor(s) (add to list) is present check the appropriate intensity level. Juiciness Rating (check one)
Over-all Flavor Rating (check one) 1 2
Sample 3 4 5
1 2
6
Like very much Like moderately Neither like nor dislike Dislike moderately Dislike very much
Sample 3 4 5 6
Very juicy Moderately juicy Neither juicy nor dry Moderately dry Very dry Tenderness Rating (check one) 1 2
Sample 3 4 5
Very tender Moderately tender Neither tender nor tough Moderately tough Very tough FIG. 1. Score sheet for evaluation of baked chicken
significantly greater uptake than quarters marinated in the 12% polyphosphate solution. The cooked yield for the quarters marinated in the 12% polyphosphate solution was significantly greater than for those marinated in the solution with no polyphosphate. Quarters marinated in the 6% polyphosphate solution were intermediate in cooked yield. These results are similar to those of Schermerhorn et al. (1963) and Mountney and Arganosa (1963).
Fig. 2 shows the average levels of phosphorus content, with standard deviations, for the baked quarters marinated in the solutions of different polyphosphate content. As the level of polyphosphate in the marinade increased, the phosphorous content of the tissue increased, with the light meat absorbing more phosphorus than the dark meat. This higher absorption of phosphate by the light meat was not due to increased water absorption, and may indicate that the light meat may
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at East Tennessee State University on June 22, 2015
Chicken flavor Meaty flavor Fatty (oily) flavor Rancid flavor Warmed over (left over) flavor
644
D . R. L A N D E S
TABLE 1.—Average yields of broiler quarters after marinating in solutions containing three levels of polyphosphate and after baking t 30
Marinade (% polyphosphate)
n = Number of Samples
I 20 110
0 % Marinated Yield2 % Cooked Yield2
6
12
1.00
104.0"1 104.1" 101.0 b b b 75.91* 80.77" 82.70
0.90 iinn
1
Values in a row followed by the same superscript are not different at the 5% level of probability. 2 Per cent yields were based on initial weights of the quarters.
0 70 ea° Q 60'
i
0.500 40
require less marinating t h a n the dark meat to reach a desirable phosphate level. D a t a from sensory evaluations are summarized in Table 2. I n all storage periods, the intensities of chicken flavor and meaty flavor were highest in the quarters marinated in the 0 % polyphosphate solution and lowest in the quarters marinated in the 1 2 % polyphosphate solution. Those marinated in the 6 % polyphosphate solution were intermediate. T h e differences between the t r e a t m e n t extremes were statistically significant for all storage periods. F a t t y flavor intensity tended to be higher in the quarters marinated in the 0 % polyphosphate solution than those marinated in the 6 and 12% polyphosphate solu-
0.300 20II 10 0 00
MARINADE |% Polyphosphate)
F I G . 2. Average phosphorus content of baked chicken marinated in solutions containing three levels of polyphosphate before cooking.
tions, b u t the difference was not statistically significant. With the exception of the initial storage period, the intensity of the rancid flavor was greatest for the quarters marinated in the 0 % polyphosphate solution. T h e difference was significant statistically at the 6 mo. storage period. At this period the intensity of the
TABLE 2.—Average scores for several flavor and textural characteristics of baked chicken after frozen storage and reheating Storage Time (mo Flavor Characteristic
0 Polypi- osphate level
Chicken Flavor 2 Meaty Flavor 2 F a t t y Flavor 2 Rancid Flavor 2 Warmed Over Flavor 2 Chemical Flavor 2 Over-all Flavor 3 Juiciness" Tenderness- 1
1.83»" 1.70" b 1.02" 0.83" 0.48" 0.38" 0.20h 0.22b 0.87" 0 . 5 3 b 0.07 c n . 9 2 b 3.63" 3 . 1 8 b 3 . 0 8 b 3.87" 2 . 7 2 b 4.10"
(%)
1)
6
12 1.45 b 0.65b 0.43" 0.35" 0.60 1 ' 1.50» 2.68'' 3.83» 4.20"
1 Polyphosphat 5 level
(%)
)
3 Polyphosphate level
(%)
6 Polyphosphate level
0
6
12
0
6
12
0
6
12
1.75 s 1.30" 0.60" 0.40" 1.03" 0.07" 3.53" 3.03b 3.07b
1.10 b 1.07" 0.38h 0.28" 0.68b 1.18 b 2.82b 3.58" 3.82"
I.17b 0.77b 0.38b 0.28" 0.63b 1.80" 2.38r 3.60" 3.90"
1.90" 1.22" 0.28" 0.45" 0.82" 0.08" 3.45" 2.93b 2.95b
1.37 b 0.98" 0.28" 0.23" 0.52" 0.62b 3.48" 3.97" 4.15"
I.15b 0.83" 0.42" 0.33" 0.67" 1.47" 3.08b 4.17" 4.28"
1 .72" 0.70" 0.47" 0.87" 1.12" 0.10° 3.13" 3.05b 3.00b
1 .45" 0.58" 0.40"b 0.47 0.70b 1.17 b 3.08" 4.10" 4.13"
0.92b 0.48b 0.27" 0.43b 0.58>> 1.80" 2.45b 4.13" 4.33"
1 Values in a row within a given storage time period followed by the same superscript are^not different at the 5% level of prob ability. 2 T h e range for scoring the samples for intensity of the flavor characteristic was 0 = a b s e n t , 1 = slight, 2 ^ m o d e r a t e , and 3 = v e r y much. 3 A scoring range of 1-5 was used with 1 and 5 being opposite extremes, with 1 being dislike very much, very dry, or very tough.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at East Tennessee State University on June 22, 2015
"•
POLYPHOSPHATES AND POULTRY M E A T
645
TABLE 3.—Correlation of fatty flavor and rancid flavor with warmed over flavor in baked chicken after frozen storage and reheating Storage Time (mo.) 0
Fatty Flavor: Warmed Over Flavor Rancid Flavor: Warmed Over Flavor
1
3
6
r
r
r
0.617**1 0.748**
0.619** 0.537**
0.161* 0.551**
r 0.240" 0.826s
1 Values for r followed by ** are significant at the 1% level of probability and those followed by * are significant at the 5% level of probability.
The chemical flavor was described by the panel as a flavor similar to that of baking soda, and this flavor increased in intensity as the level of polyphosphate treatment increased. The increases at
each level were statistically significant. This flavor was highly offensive to the panel, as indicated by the significant decreases in the over-all flavor ratings with increases in the level of polyphosphate treatment at 0 and 1 mo. of storage. However, after 3 and 6 mo. of storage, the over-all flavor ratings for the quarters marinated in the 6% polyphosphate solution were not different from those marinated in the 0% polyphosphate solution, indicating that the buildup of rancid and warmed over flavors in the quarters marinated in the 0% polyphosphate solution were beginning to be reflected in the over-all flavor rating by the panel. It is apparent from the taste panel results that the levels of treatment with polyphosphate used in this study adversely affected the over-all flavor ratings. However, the quarters had no seasoning or breading material to help mask the soda-like taste that was objectionable to the panel. It is highly probable that the over-all flavor ratings for all treatments would have been higher if the quarters had received some type of poultry seasoning. The ratings for juiciness and tenderness of the quarters marinated in the 6 and 12% polyphosphate solutions were consistently higher than for the quarters marinated in the 0% polyphosphate solution. This was expected and confirms work reported previously (May et
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rancid flavor of the quarters marinated in the 12% polyphosphate solution was significantly greater than that of the other two groups. The reason was not evident. Warmed over flavor intensity was greater in the quarters marinated in the 0% polyphosphate solution than in the other two treatments at all storage times. The differences were statistically significant for all periods except 3 mo. One might expect fatty flavor and rancid flavor to be closely related to warmed over flavor. To obtain an indication of the relationship between these flavor characteristics, correlation coefficients were determined (Table 3). In these analyses it was assumed that the relationship of these flavor characteristics with each other was not dependent upon the level of polyphosphate in the quarters. Although all of the correlation coefficients were statistically significant, the squares of the r values indicate that a relatively low percentage of variation in warmed over flavor was associated with variation in fatty flavor or rancid flavor. This indicates that much of the variation in warmed over flavor could not be explained by oxidative deterioration of the lipid present in the tissue.
646
D. R. LANDES
ah, 1963; Klose et ah, 1963; and Spencer and Smith, 1962). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1960. Official Method of Analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 9th Edition. Klose, A. A., A. A. Campbell and H. L. Hanson, 1963. Influence of polyphosphates in chilling water on quality of poultry meat. Poultry Sci. 42: 743-749. Marion, J. E., 1970. Personal Communication. May, K. N., R. L. Helmer and R. L. Saffle, 1963.
A Re-evaluation of the Ovulatory Cycle of the Domestic Hen (Galius domesticus) R O B E R T C. FITZSIMMONS
Embryology Laboratory, Poultry Science Department, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (Received for publication August 16, 1971) ABSTRACT A re-evaluation of the present information relating to the maintenance of the ovulatory cycle in the laying hen has been presented. Based on these data a new working hypothesis is proposed to explain the occurrence of the two LH peaks following each ovulation. The first LH peak is stimulated by the onset of light. The second LH peak occurs 18 hours after the preceding ovulation and is stimulated by the development of the ruptured follicle. The importance of the temporal relationship of these two peaks to the maintenance of the ovulatory cycle is also discussed. POULTEY SCIENCE 51: 646-651, 1972
A
VARIETY of studies have been conducted on the effect that day length (light plus dark cycle) has on the subsequent egg laying pattern in avian species. Short days of less than 24 hours have the
effect of shortening the length of a clutch while longer days (i.e. 25 hours) increase clutch length (Bastian and Zarrow, 1955 and Biellier and Ostmann, 1960). Many proposals have been put forth to
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The author wishes to thank the Calgon Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania for supplying the Kena, and Gold Kist, Inc., Atlanta, Georgia, for supplying the broilers used in this study. The advice and assistance of Miss Josephine Miller, Mr. J. C. Elrod and Dr. J. R. Allison during statistical analysis of the data is greatly appreciated by the author.
Effect of phosphate treatment on carcass weight changes and organoleptic quality of cut-up chicken. Poultry Sci. 42: 24-32. Monk, J. A., G. J. Mountney and I. Prudent, 1964. Effect of phosphate treatment and cooking method on moisture losses of poultry meat. Food Technol. 18: 226-229. Mountney, G. J., and F. C. Arganosa, 1963. The effect of phosphates on moisture absorption, retention and cooking losses of broiler carcasses. Poultry Sci. 42: 384-388. Schermerhorn, E. P., R. L. Adams and W. J. Stadelman, 1963. Effects of polyphosphates on water uptake, moisture retention, and cooking loss in broilers. Poultry Sci. 42: 107-110. Spencer, J. V., and L. E. Smith, 1962. The effect of chilling chicken fryers in a solution of polyphosphates upon moisture uptake, microbial spoilage, tenderness, juiciness and flavor. Poultry Sci. 41: 1685, Abstract. Thomson, J. E., 1964. Effect of polyphosphates on oxidative deterioration of commercially cooked fryer chickens. Food Technol. 18: 147-148. Tims, M. J., and B. M. Watts, 1958. Protection of cooked meats with phosphates. Food Technol. 12: 240-243.