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The effects of system wide testing: Issues raised by a case study in a developing country
Studies in Educational Evaluation. Vol. 17, pp. 41-49, 1991 Printed in Great Britain, All rights reserved.
0191-491X/91 $0.00 + .50 © 1991 PergamonPress plc
EVALUATION STUDIES
THE EFFECTS OF SYSTEM WIDE TESTING: ISSUES RAISED BY A CASE STUDY IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY Bryan Dockrell School of Education, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K.
Introduction In h i s c l a s s i c p a p e r " B e y o n d t h e Two D i s c i p l i n e s of Scientific Psychology" C r o n b a c h (1975) a s s e r t s t h a t case s t u d i e s "can realistically hope to m a k e two contributions. One reasonable aspiration i s t o a s s e s s local e v e n t s a c c u r a t e l y to improve s h o r t - r u n control. The o t h e r r e a s o n a b l e aspiration is to develop explanatory concepts, concepts t h a t will help people to u s e their h e a d s " (p.126). A s t u d y which was carried out in a developing c o u n t r y "to improve s h o r t - r u n control" raises i s s u e s a b o u t the u s e of tests for e d u c a t i o n a l selection w h i c h are relevant to the e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m s of developing c o u n t r i e s b u t also to the developed c o u n t r i e s of North America, A u s t r a l i a a n d Europe. E d u c a t o r s in m a n y developing c o u n t r i e s are faced with t h e problem of a d m i s s i o n to s e c o n d a r y schools with a limited n u m b e r of p l a c e s or selecting s t u d e n t s for s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s of very different a c a d e m i c s t a n d a r d a n d social prestige. In developed c o u n t r i e s similar i s s u e s are more likely to arise at the end of s e c o n d a r y school where it is colleges w h i c h h a v e limited c a p a c i t y or differ, often very m a r k e d l y , in programme, in academic level a n d in social kudos. This p a p e r s u m m a r i s e s briefly the case s t u d y , r e p o r t s some of the perceived c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e t e s t i n g p r o g r a m m e a n d c o n s i d e r s the implication for other educational systems. 41
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The Method T h e a u t h o r visited a p p r o x i m a t e l y t e n per c e n t of p r i m a r y schools, a " j u d g m e n t s am pl e" d r a w n b y local expert s.
T h e s a m p l e w a s stratified by
social clas s of p a r e n t s , b y u r b a n / r u r a l l o c a t i o n a n d b y "effectiveness" as judged by the school inspectorate. The h e a d t e a c h e r s were interviewed u s i n g a s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d f o r m a t t h a t e n c o u r a g e d di versi t y in r e s p o n s e b u t e n s u r e d t h a t all w e r e i nvi t e d to cover a d e f i n e d s e t of i s s u e s . Less s t r u c t u r e d g r o u p interviews w e r e he l d with a small g r o u p of s t a f f in e a c h school. C las se s were o b s e r v e d in all schools a n d in m ost , b u t n o t all, t he investigator w as able to talk to pupils, looking at t hei r w ork a n d d i s c u s s i n g it with t h e m . T h i r t y p e r c e n t of t h e m u c h s m a l l e r n u m b e r of s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s were visited. This also was a j u d g m e n t sam pl e selected by local experts. An i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in c h o o s i n g t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s to be visited was their previous status. T h e r e are a n u m b e r of s c h o o l s w h i c h were e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e l a s t c e n t u r y or e a r l y in t h i s one, to p r o v i d e p u r e l y a c a d e m i c , college e n t r a n c e p r o g r a m m e s . T h e s e s c h o o l s r e t a i n m u c h of th eir old social a n d a c a d e m i c prestige. T h e o t h e r school s w ere e s t a b l i s h e d m o r e r e c e n t l y , initially as " s e c o n d a r y m o d e r n " s c h o o l s to c o m p l e m e n t t he tr ad itio n al schools b y offering a n o n - a c a d e m i c c u r r i c u l u m , or, in t he case of t h e n e w e s t , as " c o m p r e h e n s i v e " s c h o o l s o f f e r i n g t h e full r a n g e of p r o g r a m m e s a n d c a t e r i n g for all levels of a c a d e m i c a t t a i n m e n t . All schools are n o w n o m i n a l l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e . T h e s a m p l e v i s i t e d i n c l u d e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of b o t h of t h e s e categories, a n d w i t h i n t he categories, as w i t h t h e p r i m a r y school sample, schools with pupils of different socio-economic s t a t u s , schools in u r b a n and r u r a l l o c a t i o n s a n d t h o s e with different levels of a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t as m e a s u r e d b y t he s c h o o l - l e a v i n g e x a m i n a t i o n s . T h e r e is a s c h o o l - l e a v i n g c e r t i f i c a t e w i t h its e x a m i n a t i o n s s e t a n d m a r k e d b y a n e x a m i n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n for s c hool s in a n u m b e r of e d u c a t i o n a l j u r i s d i c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g this one. T h e r e is also a less d e m a n d i n g local examination. In all c a s e s t he h e a d t e a c h e r was interviewed, s o m e t i m e s alone b u t in two c a s e s a n o t h e r s e n i o r m e m b e r of staff w a s p r e s e n t a n d in two o t h e r s t h e r e was a gr oup d i s c u s s i o n with a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r of t e a c h e r s t aki ng p a r t in a d d i t i o n to t he h e a d t e a c h e r .
The same semi-structured approach
w a s u s e d as with t he p r i m a r y schools t h o u g h som e a d d i t i o n a l i s s u e s were raised. In a d d i t i o n , e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , e d u c a t o r s , e m p l o y e r s , the e x e c u t i v e s of t h e t e a c h e r s ' u n i o n s a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e p a r e n t s
a s s o c i a t i o n were interviewed.
System Wide Testing 43 In all c a s e s t he s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d interview was
u s e d covering t he s a m e issues. T h e i n v e s t i g a t o r h a d a c c e s s to r e p o r t s of c o m m i t t e e s of e n q u i r y , to t e c h n i c a l s t u d i e s a n d to t es t d a t a of b o t h t he e n d of p r i m a r y school a n d the s e c o n d a r y school e x a m i n a t i o n s . Analyses were m a d e of t h e s e d a t a t h a t were a p p a r e n t l y new, t h o u g h t h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n of r e s u l t s s e e m e d to be widely known. All th e s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t he e x a m i n a t i o n s , t he schools, t he c u r r i c u l u m a n d th e s y s t e m are derived from t he interviews a n d from t he a n a l y s e s of the available data. Q u o t a t i o n s f r om t h e i n t e r v i e w s are r e p o r t e d b y type of respondent. T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p l a c e d u p o n t h e s t a t e m e n t s a n d t he c o n c l u s i o n s d r a w n from t h e m are, of course, t he responsibility of the a u t h o r .
T he E d u c a t i o n a l Setting Th e e d u c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y h a s a policy of open e n r o l m e n t into s e c o n d a r y school. T h a t is, p a r e n t s have an a p p a r e n t l y free choice of s e c o n d a r y school for t h e i r c h i l d r e n . However, each school has an a d m i s s i o n quota, d e t e r m i n e d o s t e n s i b l y b y t h e n u m b e r of p l a c e s w h i c h a r e p h y s i c a l l y available. T h e m o r e prestigious schools are o v e r s u b s c r i b e d a n d few children gain a d m i s s i o n to t he school of first choice. P a r e n t s are r e q u i r e d t herefore to list a n u m b e r of schools in or der of preference. T h e c o m m u n i t y is r e a s o n a b l y p r o s p e r o u s a n d socially cohesive. By c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r c o m m u n i t i e s , t h e r e a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t e t h n i c , religious or linguistic divisions so t h e s e f a c t o r s w h i c h so often i n f l u e n c e choice of school are n o t r el evant here. Choice could be b a s e d on practical c o n s i d e r a t i o n s like accessibility or programme.
In practice, t he s y s t e m is g e o g r a p h i c a l l y c o m p a c t with good
t r a n s p o r t so vi r t ual l y every y o u n g s t e r h a s a c c e s s to all s e c o n d a r y schools. Accessibility is rarely a significant issue. In t h e b o o k l e t w h i c h t h e D e p a r t m e n t of E d u c a t i o n d i s t r i b u t e s to p a r e n t s , all s e c o n d a r y s chool s claim to offer vi rt ual l y t h e s a m e c u r r i c u l u m , viz:- l a n g u a g e s , h u m a n i t i e s , s c i e n c e s , t e c h n i c a l a n d c o m m e r c i a l s t u d i e s . T h e r e a r e n o specified a l t e r n a t i v e p r o g r a m m e s w h i c h w o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h a m o n g t h e s c h o o l s . So p r o g r a m m e does n o t provide a b a s i s for choice either. On w h a t bas i s t h e n can choice be m a d e ? In pract i ce p a r e n t a l choice a n d th e advice given by p r i m a r y s c ho ol s are b a s e d on prestige. A b o u t a quarter
of t h e
places
a v a i l a b l e ar e in t h e
older schools which have
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r e p u t a t i o n s t h a t c o m b i n e a c a d e m i c a n d social p r e s t i g e d a t i n g b a c k to colonial times. T h e s e s c hool s played a n i m p o r t a n t role in providing a c c e s s to p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s for t he r u r a l a n d u r b a n poor for m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y . Most of t h e political l e a d e r s h i p w e n t to one of t h e m . U n d e r s t a n d a b l y , m o s t p a r e n t s w a n t t h e i r c h i l d r e n to a t t e n d one of t h e s e schools.
The Tests T h e s c h o o l s too are faced w i t h a p r o b l e m . T h e r e h a s to be s o m e m e a n s of ch o os i ng a m o n g the appl i cant s t h a t is acceptable, t h a t is s e e n to be fair. T h e c h o s e n c r i t e r i o n is s c or e on a b a t t e r y of t est s. A s y s t e m wide o r d e r of m e r i t is d r a w n u p a n d schools m u s t offer pl aces strictly in a c c o r d with position on this list. T h e t e s t s ar e p r e p a r e d b y a p r o f e s s i o n a l t e s t p r o d u c t i o n a g e n c y o u t s i d e th e c o u n t r y . T h e y are t h o u g h , in t he w o r d s of a n official d o c u m e n t , "directly r e l a t e d to t he s y l l a b u s e s t h a t are in effect ... in t h e schools." T he b a t t e r y v a r i e s f r o m t i m e to t i m e b u t al w ays i n c l u d e s objective t e s t s of m a t h e m a t i c s a nd language usage and an essay. T h e t e s t s are a d m i n i s t e r e d to t h e total age group. T h e p u r p o s e for w h i c h t h e y are u s e d r e qui r es t h e m to d i s c r i m i n a t e at all p o i n t s of t h e scale. T h e y m u s t d i s t i n g u i s h pupi l 100 from pupi l 101. At t he o t h e r end of t he scale t h e y m u s t d i s c r i m i n a t e t he pupil w h o is 101 from t h e b o t t o m of t he d i s t r i b u t i o n from t h e pupi l who is only 100 from t h e b o t t o m . T h e y m u s t m a k e similar fine d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s a t all poi nt s of t h e scale for it is axiomatic t h a t j u s t as a d m i s s i o n to school n u m b e r one r a t h e r t h a n school n u m b e r two is cr u cial for a child's f u t u r e , so is a d m i s s i o n to school n u m b e r t e n r a t h e r t h a n school n u m b e r eleven and so on t h r o u g h o u t t he scale. Th e s e c o n d a r y s c hool s do have m a r k e d l y different levels of s u c c e s s in th e s e c o n d a r y school-leaving certificate. T h e y t e n d to b u n c h into groups. In the m o s t s u c c e s s f u l schools virtually all pupi l s r e a c h t he official criterion of s u c c e s s , in the least s u c c e s s f u l schools n o n e do. Schools n e x t to e a c h o t h e r in t h e r a n k o r d e r differ b y as m u c h as t e n or fifteen p e r c e n t in t he p r o p o r t i o n of t h e i r p u p i l s r e a c h i n g t he criterion.
T h e r e are two big gaps.
One is b e t w e e n two g r o u p s of t h e p r e s t i g i o u s schools. T h e r e is a group of t h e m w h i c h is m a r k e d l y less s u c c e s s f u l t h a n t he ot hers. T h e r e is a n o t h e r s u b s t a n t i a l gap: t h a t b e t w e e n the p o o r e s t of t he older p r e s t i g i o u s schools a n d th e b e s t of the n e w e r ones. Given t he small difference in score on t he a d m i s s i o n t e s t b e t w e e n a d j a c e n t schools a n d t he c o n s i s t e n c y of t he r e s u l t s in t h e leaving certificate, it is unl i kel y t h a t s u c h big differences do not, at
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l e a s t to s o m e e x t e n t , reflect d i f f e r e n c e s in w h a t h a p p e n s in t h e s c h o o l s themselves. While t h e whole principle of selection is c h a l l e n g e d from time to time a n d v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s pr opos ed, public a n d official c o n c e r n c e n t r e s on the t e s t s t h e m s e l v e s . T h e r e is f r e q u e n t d e b a t e in t h e legislature, in t h e p r e s s a n d o n radio a n d television a b o u t t he details of t h e s y s t e m , t he n u m b e r of s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s to be i n c l u d e d in t h e p u p i l s list, t h e r e l i a n c e on t he m u ltip le ch o ic e format, t h e role of t h e e s s a y in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t he r a n k order, t h e i n c l u s i o n of t e s t s of s c i e n c e a n d social s t u d i e s , w h e t h e r or n o t m a r k s s h o u l d be s c a l e d before t h e y are c o m b i n e d , a n d so on. T h e r e is no r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of m a k i n g t h e n u m b e r of fine d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s r e q u i r e d b y t he s y s t e m no m a t t e r w h a t p r o c e d u r e is used.
T he C o n s e q u e n c e s T h e effect of t h e e x a m i n a t i o n on t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l s is b y c o m m o n consent disastrous.
In t h e w o r d s of a p r i m a r y h e a d t e a c h e r w ho h a d
r e c e n t l y r e t u r n e d f r o m t e a c h i n g in a n o t h e r c o u n t r y , "It h i n d e r s t r u e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d d e p r i v e s t h e c h i l d r e n of b o t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d en jo y men t" . Or, as a s e c o n d a r y h e a d p u t it, "Five y e a r s of c r a m m i n g stifles t h e e a g e r n e s s to find o u t ... w h e n b o y s c o m e h e r e t h e y are no l o n g e r i n t e r e s t e d in work," F o r t h e l a s t two y e a r s , a n d in s o m e c a s e s even longer, t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l s c o n c e n t r a t e e xc l us i vel y on p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e e x a m i n a t i o n . T h e y n a r r o w th e c u r r i c u l u m to English a n d a r i t h m e t i c . As a n o t h e r p r i m a r y head said, t h e c u r r i c u l u m c o n s i s t s of " ar i t hmet i c and English in t he m o r n i n g and En g lis h a n d a r i t h m e t i c in t he afternoon". M u c h of t he t e a c h i n g is r e d u c e d to drilling i t em s from p r e v i o u s tests. "Until class two or t h r e e we c a n t e a c h e x p r e s s i o n b u t t h e n we have to st ress u n d e r l i n i n g , " c o m p l a i n e d a third p r i m a r y head. In o r d e r to cover t he c u r r i c u l u m t e a c h e r s p r e s s a h e a d w h e t h e r or not t h e c h i l d r e n h a v e a c q u i r e d a skill or u n d e r s t o o d a c o n c e p t . "We have to drive o n even if t he c h i l d r e n h a v e n ' t g r a s p e d w h a t is bei ng t a u g h t " l a m e n t e d a n o t h e r p r i m a r y head. A t t e n t i o n is c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e h i g h a c h i e v e r s .
"The s e l e c t are
p u s h e d a n d t h e r e s t ignored", c o m m e n t e d a s e c o n d a r y head. W h e r e v e r possible t h e r e is rigid s t r e a m i n g . It is t he general pract i ce to as s ig n "the b e s t t e a c h e r s to the A s t r e a m and t h u s i n c r e a s e t he s p r e a d (in pupil a c h i e v e m e n t ) ... t e a c h e r s s h y a way from t he C a n d D s t r e a m s , " said a
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p r i m a r y head. The effects on t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s are no less d e l e t e r i o u s . Selection by p e r f o r m a n c e on the t e s t s e n s u r e s a h i e r a r c h y . The preferred s c h o o l s have only a c a d e m i c a l l y t a l e n t e d pupils, largely from professional middle class h o m e s , a n d the b o t t o m schools b y definition have only t h o s e with very low academic skills, almost all from socially deprived b a c k g r o u n d s . A l t h o u g h the top schools are o u t s t a n d i n g l y s u c c e s s f u l in the schoolleaving e x a m i n a t i o n , t h u s reinforcing the pecking order, less t h a n f o u r t e e n per cent of the total age cohort r e a c h the official criterion of s u c c e s s in the examination. In m o s t schools very few pupils r e a c h this official s t a n d a r d a n d in a n u m b e r of schools none at all do. The staff of the schools at the bottom complain t h a t t h e y are overwhelmed by educational, social a n d behavioural problems. W h y t h e n is the s y s t e m accepted? The relatively large proportion of children a d m i t t e d to the prestigious schools g u a r a n t e e s t h a t virtually all the e d u c a t i o n a l l y c o m p e t e n t c h i l d r e n of a r t i c u l a t e m i d d l e class p a r e n t s are a d m i t t e d to t h e m . The s e v e n t y five per c e n t of c h i l d r e n allocated to the other less s o u g h t after a n d less successful newer schools are overwhelmingly the children of less articulate p a r e n t s who accept the notion of equal access b e c a u s e e a c h y e a r a few poor children do gain a d m i s s i o n to even the m o s t prestigious schools. The s y s t e m e n t r e n c h e s the e d u c a t i o n a l privilege of an elite at public expense.
Implications for Other S y s t e m s In m a n y developing c o u n t r i e s there is a limited s u p p l y of s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l i n g a n d m a n y n a t i o n s are faced w i t h t h e n e e d to r a t i o n it. T r a d i t i o n a l l y the ability or willingness to b u y h a s b e e n t h e m a j o r factor. Some c o u n t r i e s j u s t i f y c h a r g i n g fees on the g r o u n d s t h a t it h e i g h t e n s motivation, at least in those h o u s e h o l d s where the cost is a significant part of the family budget. There is often provision for the m o s t able of the poor children in the form of s c h o l a r s h i p s . As this provision increases, a n d especially if it p u t s p r e s s u r e on t h e available supply, there is d e m a n d for a fair s y s t e m of selection, often with some kind of safety n e t for middle class children. The problem t h e n is to develop an acceptable s y s t e m t h a t is seen to be fair both to the m a s s of the p o p u l a t i o n a n d to the state w h i c h is paying for it. An e n t r a n c e e x a m i n a t i o n for all seems to be the fairest a r r a n g e m e n t , a p p a r e n t l y providing access for those m o s t able to benefit and, so it is argued, the best
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r e t u m for th e c o m m u n i t y on t he public i n v e s t m e n t . Th is s t u d y r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t he u n i n t e n d e d effects on p r i m a r y s c h o o l i n g of t h i s a p p r o a c h . Does p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n in o t h e r developing c o u n t r i e s s u f f e r s i m i l ar u n d e s i r a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s from a p r i m a r y schooll eav in g c e r t i f i c a t e ? S t u d i e s will be n e c e s s a r y in e a c h c o u n t r y b u t t hi s investigation raises q u e s t i o n s t h a t m u s t be asked. In N o r t h A m e r i c a s i m i l a r i s s u e s a r i s e a t college level. T h e y are a n a l o g o u s to t h o s e in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , for t h e r e a r e colleges of c o n s i d e r a b l y different levels of a c a d e m i c s t a t u s a n d social prestige b o t h in t h e p u b lic a n d t h e private s e c t or s . Who s h o u l d be a d m i t t e d to Berkel ey or Pr in ceto n , a n d on w h a t b a s i s ? T h e i s s u e has, to s o m e extent, b e e n h i d d e n in t h e p a s t b y t h e e x t e n t of t he pr ovi si on as v i r t u a l l y e v e r y b o d y c a n gain a d m i s s i o n to a public college of s o m e kind; b y t he size of t h e society w h i c h c o n c e a l s t h e e xa c t s t a t u s of m a n y institutions; and, p e r h a p s m o s t i m port ant , by th e accessibility of private colleges to middle class families at m a n a g e a b l e cost. T h e s t a r k n e s s of t he i s s u e m a y be growing m o r e a p p a r e n t with t he i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e on p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s a r i s i n g in p a r t from t h e g r e a t e r p r e s s u r e o n m i ddl e c l a s s families of f i n a n c i n g h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . A news item in T h e T i m es Higher E d u c a t i o n S u p p l e m e n t (22 J u l y , 1988) r e p o r t e d t h a t fewer t h a n h a l f of t h o s e eligible a t t e n d e d t he University of California five y e a r s ago b u t t h a t n o w t he figure is two-thirds. Position in g r a d u a t i n g class w as a c c e p t a b l e as long as not too m a n y of th e middle class y o u n g s t e r s who applied were excl uded a n d t h o s e who were could a t t e n d a s t a t e college or a private i n s t i t u t i o n at n o t too g r e a t a cost. W h a t will h a p p e n w h e n c h i l d r e n from s u b u r b a n high s c h o o l s low in t h e i r s c h o o l ' s r a n k o r d e r a r e r e f u s e d in o r d e r to m a k e r o o m for o t h e r s w ho are h i g h in t h e i r own i n n e r city s c hool s ' r a n k o r d e r b u t a r e clearly of lower a c h i e v e m e n t ? Will t h e r e be m i d d l e cl ass p r e s s u r e for a "fairer" s y s t e m b a s e d on a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t like New York's R e g e n t s e x a m i n a t i o n ? W h a t will b e t h e b a c k w a s h effects on t h e h i g h s c h o o l s of s u c h a n e x a m i n a t i o n ? How will t h e y r e s e m b l e t h o s e in t he developing c o u n t r y ? In s o m e cas e s t he p r o b l e m is the reverse. Australia, for example, faces t h e i s s u e s r a i s e d b y t he abolition of a n e x a m i n a t i o n a n d t h e r e t e n t i o n of selection.
E a c h s t a t e p r o d u c e s a r a n k o r d e r of high school leavers w hi ch is
u s e d as t h e b a s i s for a d m i s s i o n to college a n d uni versi t y.
T he t r a d i t i o n a l
school-leaving e x a m i n a t i o n h a s b e e n abolished in Q u e e n s l a n d a n d is u n d e r a t t a c k in o t h e r s t a t e s b e c a u s e it c o n s t r i c t s t h e s e c o n d a r y schools. It is difficult to r e c o n c i l e t h e d e m a n d s of t h e s c h o o l s to devel op t h e i r own c u r r i c u l a with a s t a t e - w i de s u b j e c t c o n t e n t b a s e d e x a m i n a t i o n w hi ch is the
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basis for a d m i s s i o n to college. The abolition o f the e x a m i n a t i o n in Q u e e n s l a n d some y e a r s ago still gives rise to c o n t r o v e r s y . T h e r e is c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of s t a n d a r d s a n d t h e m e a n s u s e d to p r o d u c e t h e r a n k order. Schools m a y c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e r e s t r i c t i o n i m p o s e d on t h e m b y t h e e x a m i n a t i o n b u t m a n y have been slow to grasp the o p p o r t u n i t y for change offered by the new system. The s a m e i s s u e s will arise in t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y n o w t h a t a c c e s s to h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n is o p e n a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r s of t h e m e m b e r c o u n t r i e s . There will be p r e s s u r e for the c o u n t r i e s of the c o m m u n i t y to align their very different systems. Some currently have external e x a m i n a t i o n s w h i c h in p r a c t i c e d e t e r m i n e t h e h i g h s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m . O t h e r s define t h e c u r r i c u l u m a n d t h e n rely on t h e h i g h s c h o o l s ' own a s s e s s m e n t s . A c o m m o n procedure will have u n a n t i c i p a t e d a n d u n i n t e n d e d effects on some a n d p e r h a p s all s y s t e m s . As s o m e t h i n g like a E u r o p e a n B a c c a l a u r e a t e b e c o m e s c o m m o n practice, will schools experience p r e s s u r e to revise t h e i r c u r r i c u l a , t h e i r t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s a n d t h e i r s c h o o l o r g a n i s a t i o n to m e e t the r e q u i r e m e n t s of the e x a m i n a t i o n ? Will there be p r e s s u r e s c o m p a r a b l e to t h o s e w h i c h developing c o u n t r i e s experience at t h e e n d of p r i m a r y s c h o o l ? Will t h e c o m m o n e x a m i n a t i o n exercise a discipline over e d u c a t i o n similar to t h a t over econom.ic policy exercised by the B u n d e s b a n k ?
Conclusion A single c a s e s t u d y of one s y s t e m c a n n o t p r o v i d e definitive c o n c l u s i o n s for o t h e r s . It c a n only raise q u e s t i o n s . Some developing countries m a y find t h a t t h e y are e n c o u n t e r i n g similar problems. Some m a y have f o u n d ways of overcoming or circumventing t h e m t h u s offering lessons to the others. The problems in the developed world will be different, if only b e c a u s e t h e y affect a different age group. The s t u d y reported here could alert these countries to some of the problems t h a t t h e y are likely to face. To a d a p t the q u o t a t i o n from C r o n b a c h slightly, a case s t u d y like this one can provoke u s into u s i n g our h e a d s a b o u t our own problems.
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References B a b y b o o m e r flood goes public. (1988, 22 July).
Times Higher Educational
Supplement. C r o n b a c h , L. (1975) B e y o n d the two disciplines of scientific psychology. The American Psychologist, 3 0 , 116-127.
The A u t h o r BRYAN DOCKRELL is c u r r e n t l y a Visiting P r o f e s s o r in t h e School of E d u c a t i o n a t New Castle University. He w a s f o r m e r l y d i r e c t o r of the Scottish Council for Research in Education; before t h a t he was professor at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.
0191-491X/91 $0.00 + .50 © 1991 PergamonPress plc
EVALUATION STUDIES
THE EFFECTS OF SYSTEM WIDE TESTING: ISSUES RAISED BY A CASE STUDY IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY Bryan Dockrell School of Education, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K.
Introduction In h i s c l a s s i c p a p e r " B e y o n d t h e Two D i s c i p l i n e s of Scientific Psychology" C r o n b a c h (1975) a s s e r t s t h a t case s t u d i e s "can realistically hope to m a k e two contributions. One reasonable aspiration i s t o a s s e s s local e v e n t s a c c u r a t e l y to improve s h o r t - r u n control. The o t h e r r e a s o n a b l e aspiration is to develop explanatory concepts, concepts t h a t will help people to u s e their h e a d s " (p.126). A s t u d y which was carried out in a developing c o u n t r y "to improve s h o r t - r u n control" raises i s s u e s a b o u t the u s e of tests for e d u c a t i o n a l selection w h i c h are relevant to the e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m s of developing c o u n t r i e s b u t also to the developed c o u n t r i e s of North America, A u s t r a l i a a n d Europe. E d u c a t o r s in m a n y developing c o u n t r i e s are faced with t h e problem of a d m i s s i o n to s e c o n d a r y schools with a limited n u m b e r of p l a c e s or selecting s t u d e n t s for s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s of very different a c a d e m i c s t a n d a r d a n d social prestige. In developed c o u n t r i e s similar i s s u e s are more likely to arise at the end of s e c o n d a r y school where it is colleges w h i c h h a v e limited c a p a c i t y or differ, often very m a r k e d l y , in programme, in academic level a n d in social kudos. This p a p e r s u m m a r i s e s briefly the case s t u d y , r e p o r t s some of the perceived c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e t e s t i n g p r o g r a m m e a n d c o n s i d e r s the implication for other educational systems. 41
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The Method T h e a u t h o r visited a p p r o x i m a t e l y t e n per c e n t of p r i m a r y schools, a " j u d g m e n t s am pl e" d r a w n b y local expert s.
T h e s a m p l e w a s stratified by
social clas s of p a r e n t s , b y u r b a n / r u r a l l o c a t i o n a n d b y "effectiveness" as judged by the school inspectorate. The h e a d t e a c h e r s were interviewed u s i n g a s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d f o r m a t t h a t e n c o u r a g e d di versi t y in r e s p o n s e b u t e n s u r e d t h a t all w e r e i nvi t e d to cover a d e f i n e d s e t of i s s u e s . Less s t r u c t u r e d g r o u p interviews w e r e he l d with a small g r o u p of s t a f f in e a c h school. C las se s were o b s e r v e d in all schools a n d in m ost , b u t n o t all, t he investigator w as able to talk to pupils, looking at t hei r w ork a n d d i s c u s s i n g it with t h e m . T h i r t y p e r c e n t of t h e m u c h s m a l l e r n u m b e r of s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s were visited. This also was a j u d g m e n t sam pl e selected by local experts. An i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in c h o o s i n g t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s to be visited was their previous status. T h e r e are a n u m b e r of s c h o o l s w h i c h were e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e l a s t c e n t u r y or e a r l y in t h i s one, to p r o v i d e p u r e l y a c a d e m i c , college e n t r a n c e p r o g r a m m e s . T h e s e s c h o o l s r e t a i n m u c h of th eir old social a n d a c a d e m i c prestige. T h e o t h e r school s w ere e s t a b l i s h e d m o r e r e c e n t l y , initially as " s e c o n d a r y m o d e r n " s c h o o l s to c o m p l e m e n t t he tr ad itio n al schools b y offering a n o n - a c a d e m i c c u r r i c u l u m , or, in t he case of t h e n e w e s t , as " c o m p r e h e n s i v e " s c h o o l s o f f e r i n g t h e full r a n g e of p r o g r a m m e s a n d c a t e r i n g for all levels of a c a d e m i c a t t a i n m e n t . All schools are n o w n o m i n a l l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e . T h e s a m p l e v i s i t e d i n c l u d e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of b o t h of t h e s e categories, a n d w i t h i n t he categories, as w i t h t h e p r i m a r y school sample, schools with pupils of different socio-economic s t a t u s , schools in u r b a n and r u r a l l o c a t i o n s a n d t h o s e with different levels of a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t as m e a s u r e d b y t he s c h o o l - l e a v i n g e x a m i n a t i o n s . T h e r e is a s c h o o l - l e a v i n g c e r t i f i c a t e w i t h its e x a m i n a t i o n s s e t a n d m a r k e d b y a n e x a m i n i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n for s c hool s in a n u m b e r of e d u c a t i o n a l j u r i s d i c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g this one. T h e r e is also a less d e m a n d i n g local examination. In all c a s e s t he h e a d t e a c h e r was interviewed, s o m e t i m e s alone b u t in two c a s e s a n o t h e r s e n i o r m e m b e r of staff w a s p r e s e n t a n d in two o t h e r s t h e r e was a gr oup d i s c u s s i o n with a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r of t e a c h e r s t aki ng p a r t in a d d i t i o n to t he h e a d t e a c h e r .
The same semi-structured approach
w a s u s e d as with t he p r i m a r y schools t h o u g h som e a d d i t i o n a l i s s u e s were raised. In a d d i t i o n , e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , e d u c a t o r s , e m p l o y e r s , the e x e c u t i v e s of t h e t e a c h e r s ' u n i o n s a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e p a r e n t s
a s s o c i a t i o n were interviewed.
System Wide Testing 43 In all c a s e s t he s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d interview was
u s e d covering t he s a m e issues. T h e i n v e s t i g a t o r h a d a c c e s s to r e p o r t s of c o m m i t t e e s of e n q u i r y , to t e c h n i c a l s t u d i e s a n d to t es t d a t a of b o t h t he e n d of p r i m a r y school a n d the s e c o n d a r y school e x a m i n a t i o n s . Analyses were m a d e of t h e s e d a t a t h a t were a p p a r e n t l y new, t h o u g h t h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n of r e s u l t s s e e m e d to be widely known. All th e s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t he e x a m i n a t i o n s , t he schools, t he c u r r i c u l u m a n d th e s y s t e m are derived from t he interviews a n d from t he a n a l y s e s of the available data. Q u o t a t i o n s f r om t h e i n t e r v i e w s are r e p o r t e d b y type of respondent. T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p l a c e d u p o n t h e s t a t e m e n t s a n d t he c o n c l u s i o n s d r a w n from t h e m are, of course, t he responsibility of the a u t h o r .
T he E d u c a t i o n a l Setting Th e e d u c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y h a s a policy of open e n r o l m e n t into s e c o n d a r y school. T h a t is, p a r e n t s have an a p p a r e n t l y free choice of s e c o n d a r y school for t h e i r c h i l d r e n . However, each school has an a d m i s s i o n quota, d e t e r m i n e d o s t e n s i b l y b y t h e n u m b e r of p l a c e s w h i c h a r e p h y s i c a l l y available. T h e m o r e prestigious schools are o v e r s u b s c r i b e d a n d few children gain a d m i s s i o n to t he school of first choice. P a r e n t s are r e q u i r e d t herefore to list a n u m b e r of schools in or der of preference. T h e c o m m u n i t y is r e a s o n a b l y p r o s p e r o u s a n d socially cohesive. By c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r c o m m u n i t i e s , t h e r e a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t e t h n i c , religious or linguistic divisions so t h e s e f a c t o r s w h i c h so often i n f l u e n c e choice of school are n o t r el evant here. Choice could be b a s e d on practical c o n s i d e r a t i o n s like accessibility or programme.
In practice, t he s y s t e m is g e o g r a p h i c a l l y c o m p a c t with good
t r a n s p o r t so vi r t ual l y every y o u n g s t e r h a s a c c e s s to all s e c o n d a r y schools. Accessibility is rarely a significant issue. In t h e b o o k l e t w h i c h t h e D e p a r t m e n t of E d u c a t i o n d i s t r i b u t e s to p a r e n t s , all s e c o n d a r y s chool s claim to offer vi rt ual l y t h e s a m e c u r r i c u l u m , viz:- l a n g u a g e s , h u m a n i t i e s , s c i e n c e s , t e c h n i c a l a n d c o m m e r c i a l s t u d i e s . T h e r e a r e n o specified a l t e r n a t i v e p r o g r a m m e s w h i c h w o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h a m o n g t h e s c h o o l s . So p r o g r a m m e does n o t provide a b a s i s for choice either. On w h a t bas i s t h e n can choice be m a d e ? In pract i ce p a r e n t a l choice a n d th e advice given by p r i m a r y s c ho ol s are b a s e d on prestige. A b o u t a quarter
of t h e
places
a v a i l a b l e ar e in t h e
older schools which have
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r e p u t a t i o n s t h a t c o m b i n e a c a d e m i c a n d social p r e s t i g e d a t i n g b a c k to colonial times. T h e s e s c hool s played a n i m p o r t a n t role in providing a c c e s s to p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s for t he r u r a l a n d u r b a n poor for m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y . Most of t h e political l e a d e r s h i p w e n t to one of t h e m . U n d e r s t a n d a b l y , m o s t p a r e n t s w a n t t h e i r c h i l d r e n to a t t e n d one of t h e s e schools.
The Tests T h e s c h o o l s too are faced w i t h a p r o b l e m . T h e r e h a s to be s o m e m e a n s of ch o os i ng a m o n g the appl i cant s t h a t is acceptable, t h a t is s e e n to be fair. T h e c h o s e n c r i t e r i o n is s c or e on a b a t t e r y of t est s. A s y s t e m wide o r d e r of m e r i t is d r a w n u p a n d schools m u s t offer pl aces strictly in a c c o r d with position on this list. T h e t e s t s ar e p r e p a r e d b y a p r o f e s s i o n a l t e s t p r o d u c t i o n a g e n c y o u t s i d e th e c o u n t r y . T h e y are t h o u g h , in t he w o r d s of a n official d o c u m e n t , "directly r e l a t e d to t he s y l l a b u s e s t h a t are in effect ... in t h e schools." T he b a t t e r y v a r i e s f r o m t i m e to t i m e b u t al w ays i n c l u d e s objective t e s t s of m a t h e m a t i c s a nd language usage and an essay. T h e t e s t s are a d m i n i s t e r e d to t h e total age group. T h e p u r p o s e for w h i c h t h e y are u s e d r e qui r es t h e m to d i s c r i m i n a t e at all p o i n t s of t h e scale. T h e y m u s t d i s t i n g u i s h pupi l 100 from pupi l 101. At t he o t h e r end of t he scale t h e y m u s t d i s c r i m i n a t e t he pupil w h o is 101 from t h e b o t t o m of t he d i s t r i b u t i o n from t h e pupi l who is only 100 from t h e b o t t o m . T h e y m u s t m a k e similar fine d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s a t all poi nt s of t h e scale for it is axiomatic t h a t j u s t as a d m i s s i o n to school n u m b e r one r a t h e r t h a n school n u m b e r two is cr u cial for a child's f u t u r e , so is a d m i s s i o n to school n u m b e r t e n r a t h e r t h a n school n u m b e r eleven and so on t h r o u g h o u t t he scale. Th e s e c o n d a r y s c hool s do have m a r k e d l y different levels of s u c c e s s in th e s e c o n d a r y school-leaving certificate. T h e y t e n d to b u n c h into groups. In the m o s t s u c c e s s f u l schools virtually all pupi l s r e a c h t he official criterion of s u c c e s s , in the least s u c c e s s f u l schools n o n e do. Schools n e x t to e a c h o t h e r in t h e r a n k o r d e r differ b y as m u c h as t e n or fifteen p e r c e n t in t he p r o p o r t i o n of t h e i r p u p i l s r e a c h i n g t he criterion.
T h e r e are two big gaps.
One is b e t w e e n two g r o u p s of t h e p r e s t i g i o u s schools. T h e r e is a group of t h e m w h i c h is m a r k e d l y less s u c c e s s f u l t h a n t he ot hers. T h e r e is a n o t h e r s u b s t a n t i a l gap: t h a t b e t w e e n the p o o r e s t of t he older p r e s t i g i o u s schools a n d th e b e s t of the n e w e r ones. Given t he small difference in score on t he a d m i s s i o n t e s t b e t w e e n a d j a c e n t schools a n d t he c o n s i s t e n c y of t he r e s u l t s in t h e leaving certificate, it is unl i kel y t h a t s u c h big differences do not, at
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l e a s t to s o m e e x t e n t , reflect d i f f e r e n c e s in w h a t h a p p e n s in t h e s c h o o l s themselves. While t h e whole principle of selection is c h a l l e n g e d from time to time a n d v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s pr opos ed, public a n d official c o n c e r n c e n t r e s on the t e s t s t h e m s e l v e s . T h e r e is f r e q u e n t d e b a t e in t h e legislature, in t h e p r e s s a n d o n radio a n d television a b o u t t he details of t h e s y s t e m , t he n u m b e r of s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s to be i n c l u d e d in t h e p u p i l s list, t h e r e l i a n c e on t he m u ltip le ch o ic e format, t h e role of t h e e s s a y in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t he r a n k order, t h e i n c l u s i o n of t e s t s of s c i e n c e a n d social s t u d i e s , w h e t h e r or n o t m a r k s s h o u l d be s c a l e d before t h e y are c o m b i n e d , a n d so on. T h e r e is no r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of m a k i n g t h e n u m b e r of fine d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s r e q u i r e d b y t he s y s t e m no m a t t e r w h a t p r o c e d u r e is used.
T he C o n s e q u e n c e s T h e effect of t h e e x a m i n a t i o n on t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l s is b y c o m m o n consent disastrous.
In t h e w o r d s of a p r i m a r y h e a d t e a c h e r w ho h a d
r e c e n t l y r e t u r n e d f r o m t e a c h i n g in a n o t h e r c o u n t r y , "It h i n d e r s t r u e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d d e p r i v e s t h e c h i l d r e n of b o t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d en jo y men t" . Or, as a s e c o n d a r y h e a d p u t it, "Five y e a r s of c r a m m i n g stifles t h e e a g e r n e s s to find o u t ... w h e n b o y s c o m e h e r e t h e y are no l o n g e r i n t e r e s t e d in work," F o r t h e l a s t two y e a r s , a n d in s o m e c a s e s even longer, t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l s c o n c e n t r a t e e xc l us i vel y on p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e e x a m i n a t i o n . T h e y n a r r o w th e c u r r i c u l u m to English a n d a r i t h m e t i c . As a n o t h e r p r i m a r y head said, t h e c u r r i c u l u m c o n s i s t s of " ar i t hmet i c and English in t he m o r n i n g and En g lis h a n d a r i t h m e t i c in t he afternoon". M u c h of t he t e a c h i n g is r e d u c e d to drilling i t em s from p r e v i o u s tests. "Until class two or t h r e e we c a n t e a c h e x p r e s s i o n b u t t h e n we have to st ress u n d e r l i n i n g , " c o m p l a i n e d a third p r i m a r y head. In o r d e r to cover t he c u r r i c u l u m t e a c h e r s p r e s s a h e a d w h e t h e r or not t h e c h i l d r e n h a v e a c q u i r e d a skill or u n d e r s t o o d a c o n c e p t . "We have to drive o n even if t he c h i l d r e n h a v e n ' t g r a s p e d w h a t is bei ng t a u g h t " l a m e n t e d a n o t h e r p r i m a r y head. A t t e n t i o n is c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e h i g h a c h i e v e r s .
"The s e l e c t are
p u s h e d a n d t h e r e s t ignored", c o m m e n t e d a s e c o n d a r y head. W h e r e v e r possible t h e r e is rigid s t r e a m i n g . It is t he general pract i ce to as s ig n "the b e s t t e a c h e r s to the A s t r e a m and t h u s i n c r e a s e t he s p r e a d (in pupil a c h i e v e m e n t ) ... t e a c h e r s s h y a way from t he C a n d D s t r e a m s , " said a
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p r i m a r y head. The effects on t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s are no less d e l e t e r i o u s . Selection by p e r f o r m a n c e on the t e s t s e n s u r e s a h i e r a r c h y . The preferred s c h o o l s have only a c a d e m i c a l l y t a l e n t e d pupils, largely from professional middle class h o m e s , a n d the b o t t o m schools b y definition have only t h o s e with very low academic skills, almost all from socially deprived b a c k g r o u n d s . A l t h o u g h the top schools are o u t s t a n d i n g l y s u c c e s s f u l in the schoolleaving e x a m i n a t i o n , t h u s reinforcing the pecking order, less t h a n f o u r t e e n per cent of the total age cohort r e a c h the official criterion of s u c c e s s in the examination. In m o s t schools very few pupils r e a c h this official s t a n d a r d a n d in a n u m b e r of schools none at all do. The staff of the schools at the bottom complain t h a t t h e y are overwhelmed by educational, social a n d behavioural problems. W h y t h e n is the s y s t e m accepted? The relatively large proportion of children a d m i t t e d to the prestigious schools g u a r a n t e e s t h a t virtually all the e d u c a t i o n a l l y c o m p e t e n t c h i l d r e n of a r t i c u l a t e m i d d l e class p a r e n t s are a d m i t t e d to t h e m . The s e v e n t y five per c e n t of c h i l d r e n allocated to the other less s o u g h t after a n d less successful newer schools are overwhelmingly the children of less articulate p a r e n t s who accept the notion of equal access b e c a u s e e a c h y e a r a few poor children do gain a d m i s s i o n to even the m o s t prestigious schools. The s y s t e m e n t r e n c h e s the e d u c a t i o n a l privilege of an elite at public expense.
Implications for Other S y s t e m s In m a n y developing c o u n t r i e s there is a limited s u p p l y of s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l i n g a n d m a n y n a t i o n s are faced w i t h t h e n e e d to r a t i o n it. T r a d i t i o n a l l y the ability or willingness to b u y h a s b e e n t h e m a j o r factor. Some c o u n t r i e s j u s t i f y c h a r g i n g fees on the g r o u n d s t h a t it h e i g h t e n s motivation, at least in those h o u s e h o l d s where the cost is a significant part of the family budget. There is often provision for the m o s t able of the poor children in the form of s c h o l a r s h i p s . As this provision increases, a n d especially if it p u t s p r e s s u r e on t h e available supply, there is d e m a n d for a fair s y s t e m of selection, often with some kind of safety n e t for middle class children. The problem t h e n is to develop an acceptable s y s t e m t h a t is seen to be fair both to the m a s s of the p o p u l a t i o n a n d to the state w h i c h is paying for it. An e n t r a n c e e x a m i n a t i o n for all seems to be the fairest a r r a n g e m e n t , a p p a r e n t l y providing access for those m o s t able to benefit and, so it is argued, the best
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r e t u m for th e c o m m u n i t y on t he public i n v e s t m e n t . Th is s t u d y r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t he u n i n t e n d e d effects on p r i m a r y s c h o o l i n g of t h i s a p p r o a c h . Does p r i m a r y e d u c a t i o n in o t h e r developing c o u n t r i e s s u f f e r s i m i l ar u n d e s i r a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s from a p r i m a r y schooll eav in g c e r t i f i c a t e ? S t u d i e s will be n e c e s s a r y in e a c h c o u n t r y b u t t hi s investigation raises q u e s t i o n s t h a t m u s t be asked. In N o r t h A m e r i c a s i m i l a r i s s u e s a r i s e a t college level. T h e y are a n a l o g o u s to t h o s e in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , for t h e r e a r e colleges of c o n s i d e r a b l y different levels of a c a d e m i c s t a t u s a n d social prestige b o t h in t h e p u b lic a n d t h e private s e c t or s . Who s h o u l d be a d m i t t e d to Berkel ey or Pr in ceto n , a n d on w h a t b a s i s ? T h e i s s u e has, to s o m e extent, b e e n h i d d e n in t h e p a s t b y t h e e x t e n t of t he pr ovi si on as v i r t u a l l y e v e r y b o d y c a n gain a d m i s s i o n to a public college of s o m e kind; b y t he size of t h e society w h i c h c o n c e a l s t h e e xa c t s t a t u s of m a n y institutions; and, p e r h a p s m o s t i m port ant , by th e accessibility of private colleges to middle class families at m a n a g e a b l e cost. T h e s t a r k n e s s of t he i s s u e m a y be growing m o r e a p p a r e n t with t he i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e on p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s a r i s i n g in p a r t from t h e g r e a t e r p r e s s u r e o n m i ddl e c l a s s families of f i n a n c i n g h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . A news item in T h e T i m es Higher E d u c a t i o n S u p p l e m e n t (22 J u l y , 1988) r e p o r t e d t h a t fewer t h a n h a l f of t h o s e eligible a t t e n d e d t he University of California five y e a r s ago b u t t h a t n o w t he figure is two-thirds. Position in g r a d u a t i n g class w as a c c e p t a b l e as long as not too m a n y of th e middle class y o u n g s t e r s who applied were excl uded a n d t h o s e who were could a t t e n d a s t a t e college or a private i n s t i t u t i o n at n o t too g r e a t a cost. W h a t will h a p p e n w h e n c h i l d r e n from s u b u r b a n high s c h o o l s low in t h e i r s c h o o l ' s r a n k o r d e r a r e r e f u s e d in o r d e r to m a k e r o o m for o t h e r s w ho are h i g h in t h e i r own i n n e r city s c hool s ' r a n k o r d e r b u t a r e clearly of lower a c h i e v e m e n t ? Will t h e r e be m i d d l e cl ass p r e s s u r e for a "fairer" s y s t e m b a s e d on a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t like New York's R e g e n t s e x a m i n a t i o n ? W h a t will b e t h e b a c k w a s h effects on t h e h i g h s c h o o l s of s u c h a n e x a m i n a t i o n ? How will t h e y r e s e m b l e t h o s e in t he developing c o u n t r y ? In s o m e cas e s t he p r o b l e m is the reverse. Australia, for example, faces t h e i s s u e s r a i s e d b y t he abolition of a n e x a m i n a t i o n a n d t h e r e t e n t i o n of selection.
E a c h s t a t e p r o d u c e s a r a n k o r d e r of high school leavers w hi ch is
u s e d as t h e b a s i s for a d m i s s i o n to college a n d uni versi t y.
T he t r a d i t i o n a l
school-leaving e x a m i n a t i o n h a s b e e n abolished in Q u e e n s l a n d a n d is u n d e r a t t a c k in o t h e r s t a t e s b e c a u s e it c o n s t r i c t s t h e s e c o n d a r y schools. It is difficult to r e c o n c i l e t h e d e m a n d s of t h e s c h o o l s to devel op t h e i r own c u r r i c u l a with a s t a t e - w i de s u b j e c t c o n t e n t b a s e d e x a m i n a t i o n w hi ch is the
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basis for a d m i s s i o n to college. The abolition o f the e x a m i n a t i o n in Q u e e n s l a n d some y e a r s ago still gives rise to c o n t r o v e r s y . T h e r e is c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of s t a n d a r d s a n d t h e m e a n s u s e d to p r o d u c e t h e r a n k order. Schools m a y c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e r e s t r i c t i o n i m p o s e d on t h e m b y t h e e x a m i n a t i o n b u t m a n y have been slow to grasp the o p p o r t u n i t y for change offered by the new system. The s a m e i s s u e s will arise in t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y n o w t h a t a c c e s s to h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n is o p e n a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r s of t h e m e m b e r c o u n t r i e s . There will be p r e s s u r e for the c o u n t r i e s of the c o m m u n i t y to align their very different systems. Some currently have external e x a m i n a t i o n s w h i c h in p r a c t i c e d e t e r m i n e t h e h i g h s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m . O t h e r s define t h e c u r r i c u l u m a n d t h e n rely on t h e h i g h s c h o o l s ' own a s s e s s m e n t s . A c o m m o n procedure will have u n a n t i c i p a t e d a n d u n i n t e n d e d effects on some a n d p e r h a p s all s y s t e m s . As s o m e t h i n g like a E u r o p e a n B a c c a l a u r e a t e b e c o m e s c o m m o n practice, will schools experience p r e s s u r e to revise t h e i r c u r r i c u l a , t h e i r t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s a n d t h e i r s c h o o l o r g a n i s a t i o n to m e e t the r e q u i r e m e n t s of the e x a m i n a t i o n ? Will there be p r e s s u r e s c o m p a r a b l e to t h o s e w h i c h developing c o u n t r i e s experience at t h e e n d of p r i m a r y s c h o o l ? Will t h e c o m m o n e x a m i n a t i o n exercise a discipline over e d u c a t i o n similar to t h a t over econom.ic policy exercised by the B u n d e s b a n k ?
Conclusion A single c a s e s t u d y of one s y s t e m c a n n o t p r o v i d e definitive c o n c l u s i o n s for o t h e r s . It c a n only raise q u e s t i o n s . Some developing countries m a y find t h a t t h e y are e n c o u n t e r i n g similar problems. Some m a y have f o u n d ways of overcoming or circumventing t h e m t h u s offering lessons to the others. The problems in the developed world will be different, if only b e c a u s e t h e y affect a different age group. The s t u d y reported here could alert these countries to some of the problems t h a t t h e y are likely to face. To a d a p t the q u o t a t i o n from C r o n b a c h slightly, a case s t u d y like this one can provoke u s into u s i n g our h e a d s a b o u t our own problems.
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References B a b y b o o m e r flood goes public. (1988, 22 July).
Times Higher Educational
Supplement. C r o n b a c h , L. (1975) B e y o n d the two disciplines of scientific psychology. The American Psychologist, 3 0 , 116-127.
The A u t h o r BRYAN DOCKRELL is c u r r e n t l y a Visiting P r o f e s s o r in t h e School of E d u c a t i o n a t New Castle University. He w a s f o r m e r l y d i r e c t o r of the Scottish Council for Research in Education; before t h a t he was professor at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.