- Email: [email protected]
The empty nest process in mid-life men and women
Maturitas, 1 (1979) 215-222 0 Eisevier/North-Holland Biomedical
21.5 Press
THEEMPTYNESTPROCESSINMID-LIFEMENANDWOMEN'
SHEILA
KRYSTAL
’ and DAVID
3 Human Development CA 94143. USA (Received
21 August
A. CHIRIBOGA
3
and Aging Program, University of California, 745 Parnassus, San Frarxisco,
1978,accepted
21 November
1978)
A combined clinical and field investigation studied the effects of the empty-nest phase of parcnthood on morale and activity level. Data from the clinical study were obtained from two psychotherapy groups conducted for mid-life women, and the field data were obtained from a 5-yr longitudinal study of life stages. Results indicated an increase in morale during the unfolding of the empty nest and suggested that the so-called “crisis” of the empty nest may be more myth than reality. (Key words:
Empty
nest, Parenthood,
Mid-life,
Morale)
INTRODUCTION
A number of social scientists have postulated the existence of a mid-life reorientation or crisis at some point between the ages of 35 and 50. Between those ages, individuals are said to undergo profound changes with respect to their perceptions of themselves and of [l-7]. Jung, for example, whose analytic theory and techniques are their environment found by many to be especially appropriate for people in the second half of life, reports an increase in depressions and neurosis among men and women at mid-life [8,9]. Erikson [2] describes mild-life as a time of choice between stagnation and regression or social expansion and altruism. One of the conditions often associated with a mid-life crisis is the flight of children from the parental home. Onset of the so-called “empty nest” may serve as a focus for the stresses and strains attending the mid-life period. For some it may serve as the first major social loss, and as such be a pointed reminder of approaching old age; for others it may signal entry into a period during which freedom to follow one’s own interests becomes increasingly possible. For all, the empty nest is a time during which change is the rule rather than the exception. Research on the empty-nest period has done little but underscore the complexity of ’ Research supported by the National Institute on Aging, Grant No. AGO0002 (formerly NICHD HD05941 and HD03051); Biomedical Research Support Grant, Langley Porter Institute, University of California, San Francisco; and the National Institute of Mental Health Postdoctoral Public Health Service Research Fellowship. ’ Dr. Krystal maintains a private clinical practice in Berkeley, California, USA. 3 To whom correspondence should be addressed.
216
the situation. The clinical work of Rogers [6] does suggest the existence of a crisis at midlife which is precipitated when the last child leaves the home, while Neugarten and her associates [lO,l l] found little or no evidence of such a crisis. Similarly, Lowenthal and Chiriboga [ 121 found that anticipations of the impending departure of the youngest child were more often cast in terms of relief than of crisis, and that the transition appeared more relevant to the women than to the men. Deutscher [ 13,141 also reported that women are more often affected by the empty nest than men; marriage in mid-life was generally found to be more of a “golden” than a “crisis” period. In contrast, Blood and Wolfe [ 151 reported a steady decline in marital satisfaction, once the preschool stage of childraising was completed; the empty nest may, however, have resulted in a temporary enhancement of marital satisfaction. No differences in marital or personal satisfaction were found in another comparison of parental and postparental men and women [ 161, while Glenn [ 171, using data from six national surveys, found that among women of the same age, those whose children had left home were generally more satisfied. Some of these contradictory results might be explained by differences in the patients studied by clinicians, on the one hand, and the more or less “normal” populations studied by researchers on the other. Another source of differences in conclusions may stem from a lack of overlap in the stages of the empty nest studied, and from a tendency to view the transition more as a discrete event than as a process extending through time. For example, among those with children remaining in the home, differentiation is usually not made between parents who have already experienced the departure of one or more children (i.e., partial nest) and parents with all children remaining in the home (i.e., full nest). The present study focuses on the empty nest as a process. It explores changes in morale and activity level as the nest empties. The research was conducted in two concurrent sequences: a clinical study and an empirical study. In the clinical investigation, one of the authors explored the effects of the empty nest in two therapy groups she conducted for mid-life women. The empirical study considered the results of a 5-yr longitudinal analysis of middle-aged men and women. THE CLINICAL
STUDY
The purpose of the clinical sequence was to provide an overview of responses of midlife women to the empty-nest period. Mid-life clients seeking psychotherapy were invited to join one of two groups (differing only in location) which met once a week for 2 h and were intended to help middle-aged women to explore their problems together and obtain insight into their reactions to mid-life. Reasons presented for seeking therapy varied from psychosomatic complaints, fear and anxiety about the future and lack of self confidence to desires to fulfill personal potential. Most women felt that their concerns about the future were in some way related to the impending departure of their children from the home. Jungian-oriented group work was provided for -8 mth, and was designed for ego building, considering possible future realities, and desensitization to fears. The specific techniques included using symbolic material, myths, dreams, guided imagery, yoga breathing and guided fantasy to facilitate awareness of life stages from childhood through mid-life and old age. In addition, autogenic (i.e., self-hypnosis), meditative, and deep-
217 relaxation techniques were taught to group members with the suggestion that these tools be employed at home once a day. All group members complied, but the freqeuncy of application ranged from once a day (50% of the clients) to three times a week. During those sessions addressed to issues of mid-life, the group leader took the opportunity to ask general questions, for group discussion, about the empty-nest period. The two groups included a total of 23 women between the ages of 39 and 52, from middleclass San Francisco Bay Area communities. Fourteen of these women were experiencing the partial-nest stage, five had no children remaining at home, and four had all of the children at home but were expecting departures shortly. Most of the women were college educated or had attended some college; fifteen of them had full or part-time careers, and four were divorced or separated from their husbands. They averaged two children apiece (the range was one to four). In both groups all the women had heard or read that mid-life, the empty-nest period in particular, was a “crisis” period during which they were supposed to experience depression or anxiety. The majority expressed puzzlement and confusion and even guilt because they were “feeling better than ever”, were “taking care of myself for once”, felt “much freer and in charge of my own time”. Some worried that there was something abnormal about them and about their commitment to parenting: they felt that they shouldn’t be feeling as good as they did. But most exulted in the fact that they had some free time in which to explore themselves, take classes and workshops, and - often for the first time enter the job market. One woman, for example, described herself as a yucca plant, “finally blooming after 50 years”. All of the women expressed a great interest in self-knowledge and self-development as indicated by their participation in the groups, and they stated that they had been hoping to pursue these interests actively for several years but had only recently found time and energy. One women asked where the “brainwashing” about mid-life crisis was coming from. Only two woman reported an increase in depression in mid-life but attributed these feelings to a recent divorce in one case and to failing health and a radical mastectomy in the other. These two women denied that their absent children were the cause of their sad feelings and reported that they felt hopeful about their children’s futures and felt “closer to them and more like friends than mother and daughter”. THEEMPIRICALSTUDY The empirical sequence was conducted to determine if more objective assessments of the impact of the empty nest would yield results similar to those of the clinical sequence. The sample consists of men (N = 22, Eage = 5 1.6) and women (N = 23, &,a, = 48.4) who were studied over a 5.yr period, beginning in 1969. All of the men were working, as were slightly more than one-half of the women; their occupations were primarily in the blueand white-collar levels. The majority were married: 96% of the men and 89% of the women. The average number of children was 2.3 for the men and 2.4 for the women; at baseline all respondents had at least one child, a high school senior, living at home. At the initial contact, the youngest child of all respondents was a high school senior who presumably would leave the home at some point during the longitudinal study. Follow-ups were conducted at 1: yr and again at 5 yr after the first interview. Among the
218
instruments administered at each contact were the Bradburn 18 morale scales and an activities checklist 7. The former includes one question on overall happiness (“In general, how happy are you these days? Very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy?“) and questions concerning how frequently the respondent had experienced eight specific emotions (feeling on top of the world, loneliness, excited, depressed, pleased, bored, proud, and angry). The activities checklist consisted of 33 items tapping participation in athletic, maintenance, solitary and contemplative dimensions; from the checklist scores a summary Activity Level summary variable was derived. For the present analysis, the total sample of 45 men and women was subdivided into six overlapping groups. Subjects were grouped according to stability or change in nest status (e.g., full, partial or empty) between any two adjacent interview points. Three of the groups represented a condition of no change during at least one interval between interviews of the longitudinal investigation. Group 1 (Full) was composed of five men and five women who had full nests (all children were living at home) at both baseline (BL) and follow-up 1 (Fl). For these people, no children left the home during the first 18 mth of the study. Group 2 (Empty) consisted of four men and two women who had completed the empty nest shortly after BL and had no children living at home both at Fl and F2. Group 3 (Partial) consisted of five men and thirteen women who had partial nests (one or more children were still living at home and at least one child had departed) at both BL and Fl or Fl and F2. Three more groups represented a condition of change within the transition process. Group 4 (Full-Empty) consisted of two men and six women who had a full nest at BL and an empty nest at Fl or a full nest at Fl and an empty nest at F2. Group 5 (Partial-Empty) consisted of fifteen men and thirteen women who had a partial nest at BL or Fl and an empty nest at Fl or F2. Group 6 (Full-Partial) consisted of five men and one woman who had a full nest at BL or Fl and a partial nest at Fl or F2. RESULTS
Some respondents appeared in more than one group. For example, some of the people in the Partial-Empty group were also in the Partial or Full-Partial groups at earlier stages. Data analysis was performed both including and excluding those repeated cases. Because no differences in direction were found when repeated cases were excluded, and because the concern was with establishing trends rather than with group differences, results are reported for groups with overlapping cases in order to allow for more complete statistical treatment. Data analysis addressed the issue of whether or not the morale and activities of the six groups varied significantly between time 1 (either BL or Fl) and time 2 (either Fl or F2). A series of t-tests for correlated means were performed for each of the six groups comparing activity le$el and nine morale variables at the two points within the transition process (tr and ts). Non-status change conditions No significant differences in either morale or activity level were found for the Full
219
group (Table I) *. Significant differences were found for Groups 2 and 3 in activity level. Combined scores for Partial men and women showed a significant increase in activity level at t2 when compared to 1,. When women were analyzed separately, this increase was also significant, and men showed the same trend. The Empty group as a whole and Emply men treated separately tended to increase in activity level. Empty women also demonstrated a significant increase in excitement by t2. Status change conditions No significant changes or trends were found for the Full-Partial group in either activity level or morale (Table 1). For the Full-Empty group, the combined scores for men and women were significantly lower on depression at tz than at c,. and women alone also showed that trend. Although not significant, the direction of change was the same for men. Results similar to those for the Full-Empty group were found for the Partial-Empty group, who experienced a less abrupt transition than did the Full-Empty respondents. Partial-Empty men and women, combined, were significantly less depressed at t, and women alone were significantly less depressed at tz. The direction of change for men was the same although again not significant. A significant increase in happiness at t2 was also found for Partial-Empty women. No change in overall happiness was found for men but they tended to be more excited at t2 than t, and women tended to be prouder at tz than tl. DISCUSSION
In the clinical and empirical pilot researches reported here, the overall impression obtained was one of positive rather than negative reactions to the empty nest. Although the process did appear to create conditions of change for all respondents, by and large they were able to cope successfully with the challenge. In the clinical sample, where it was expected that greater pathology would be evident than in the field study participants, one of the intriguing suggestions imparted was that so-called crisis of the empty nest is more of a collective myth than an experiential reality. That the process of emptying created a demand for readjustment, however, was clear, and in this sense the empty nest may be seen to represent a major stressor [ 191. Results of the more empirical sequence supported the clinical impressions and generally demonstrated the utility of viewing the empty nest as a process. Perhaps the most interesting finding was the increasing impact evident as the respondents progressed through the transition. For example, those groups experiencing the early stages of the transition process, the Full group and Full-Partial, showed no significant changes in either activity level or morale. The Partial, a group slightly further into the process, did show some changes, but the changes do not support a “crisis” position: activity increased and depression decreased. Groups fully into or through the process, the Empty- and PartialEmpty, showed increased activity level and more changes in morale such as increased excitement and increased overall happiness. These results may reflect the fact that * Data and statistics for the excluded-case runs are available from the authors
on request.
1.60 1.60
175.0
176.3
166.2
178.6 176.6
164.3 160.4
169.8 185.3 *
1.80
2.0
1.73 1.73
2.0 1.50
1.75 1.50
171.4 1.80 194.5 ***1.80
151.9 156.9
169.4
189.0 178.4
152.3 154.8
167.0 201.5
177.4 194.0 **
134.0 138.6
f2
169.0 174.9
200.0 177.0
171.3 177.3 *
157.0 195.8 *
169.8 175.2
1.92 1.54 **
1.80 1.80
1.50 1.50
1.92 1.85
1.80 2.00
1.83
1.83
1.82 1.64
1.86 1.71
1.67 1.50
1.89 1.83
1.70 1.80
All Rs
1.40
1.20
1.60 1.60
3.50 2.00
1.25 1.00
1.60 1.40
2.00 2.60
1.69 2.31
1.60 1.60
1.50 2.00
2.00 1.54
1.60 1.40
Women’
1.67 1.33
1.64 1.93
2.14 1.71
1.33 1.33
1.89 1.50
1.80 2.00
AU Rs
Men
Women
Men
AU Rs
Men
Women
On top of the world
Overall happiness
Activity level b
t1
Full-Partial
t2
t1
Partial-Empty
t2
t1
Change conditions Full-Empty
t2
r1
Empty-Empty
t2
r1
Partial-Partial
t2
r1
No change conditions Full-Full
Subjects
Mean scores at two points in time on ten criterion measures; a comparison of six empty nest conditions. a
TABLE I
1.80 1.40
1.13 1.07
1.00 1 .oo
1 .oo 1 .oo
1.00 1.00
1.00 1 .oo
Men
1.46 1.38
1.20 1.00
1.00 1.00
1.62 1.54
1.00 1.20
-Women
Loneliness
1.83 1.33
1.29 1.21
1.14 1.01
1.00 1.00
1.44 1.39
1.00 1.10
All Rs
2.40 1.80
1.67 2.20 *
2.50 3.50
2.25 2.00
1.00 1.80
2.00 2.00
Men
Excited
2.46 2.00
1.60 1.20
1.50 4.00 ***
2.08 2.31
2.00 1.60
Women
2.50 1.83
2.04 2.11
1.86 1.86
2.00 2.67
1.78 2.17
2.00 1.80
AU Rs
1.50
1.20 1.80
1.33 1.27
1.00
1.57 1.01 **
1.33 1.00
1.78 2.11
1.67 1.67
2.15 1.71 1.31 *** 1.29 **
1.60 1.02 *
1.00 1.00
1.92 2.31
1.40 1.60
1.50 1.00
1.80 1.60
1.20 1.40
1.50 1.50
2.40 2.80
2.40 2.67
3.50 3.00
2.50 2.25
2.40 1.80
2.50 3.25
Men
All Rs
Men
Women
Pleased
Depressed
3.08 2.54
2.00 2.00
2.50 3.50
2.23 3.15
2.00 1.80
Women
2.50 3.00
2.71 2.61
2.43 2.29
2.50 2.67
2.28 2.78
2.22 2.44
All Rs
1.00 1.20
1.53 1.80
1.oo 1.oo
1.50 2.00
1.40 1.01
1.40 1.01
Men
Bored
1.31 1.31
1.oo 1.20
1.00 1.00
1.31 1.38
1.40 1.00
Women
1.OO 1.17
1.43 1.57
1.oo 1.14
1.33 1.67
1.33 1.28
1.40 1.00
All Rs
2.80 2.60
1.87 1.93
2.00 2.50
2.31 1.69 *
1.40 1.60
1.00 2.00
2.15 2.23
1.20 1.40 2.25 2.00
1.60 1.40
1.80 2.60
2.83 2.83
2.07 1.82
1.57 1.86
1.83 2.00
1.89 2.00
1.70 2.00
1.20 2.00
1.67 1.47
1.oo 2.00
1.75 1.50
1.40
1.40
1.20 1.40
Men
All Rs
Men
Women
Angry ____
Proud __--
a Thestatisticusedin allcaseswasthe t-testfor correlated means. In instances where n < 3 the means and associated t-tests are not presented. b With the exception of those for overall happiness, a higher mean score indicates more of the attribute under consideration.
* PG 0.10. **p Q 0.05. ***p< 0.01.
t2
Full-Partial tl
t2
Partial-Empty II
t2
Change conditions Full-Empty II
tz
t1
Empty-Empty
t2
f1 t2 Partial-Partial tl
No change conditions Full-Full
Subjects
TABLE I (continued)
~._
1.54 1.38
1.00 1.00
1.01 2.50
1.31 1.23
1.40 1 .OO
Women
1.33 2.00
1.60 1.43
1.01 1.28
1.50 1.83
1.33 1.28
1.30 1.20
All Rs
-__
222 people who are well into the transition or those who are fully through it have reorganized their life-style to accommodate an increase in free time. The results also suggest that women react sooner than men to the transition. Partial women showed a significant increase in activity; the men showed no significant difference. Full-Empty and Partial-Empty women show a decrease in depression, while the men showed no significant difference. Men finally begin to show an increase in excitement at the Partial-Empty stage, and their activity level increases by the time they reach the Empty stage. Such results suggest that men are not necessarily as oblivious to the emptynest process as others [ 12,141 have maintained. Rather, it would appear than men simply take longer to react. The delay, however, may be caused by the same reasons posed by Deutscher [14] to explain men’s generally weaker reaction to the transition: a greater commitment to the work, as opposed to the parental, role. In conclusion, the results of the two investigators indicate that there may be different stages in the passage through the empty-nest transition, and that these stages may have distinct implications for morale and activity level. Support is found for the contention of researchers such as Deutscher [14] and Glenn [ 171 that the empty-nest period is not necessarily a crisis period. However, the limited number of respondents prohibits an accurate determination of the affects of the different stages of the transition process. Although the results are suggestive of the potential impact of this transition period, they point out the.need for large-scale studies which view the empty nest as a process which begins before the departure of the first child and continues after the departure of the last. REFERENCES
I I,1 Levinson, D. (1959) Role, personality and social structure. J. Abnorm. Sot. Psychol. 58, 170190.
[II Icrikson, E. (1969) Childhood and society. W.W. Norton, New York. I31 Pearce, J. and Newton, S. (1963) The conditions of human growth. Citadel Press, New York. 141 Lowenthal, M.F. (1971) Intentionality: Toward a framework for adaptation in adulthood. Aging Hum. Dev. 2, 79-95. iSI Brim, Jr., O.G. (1968) Adult socialization. In: Socialization and society, pp. 182-226. Editor: J.A. Clausen. Little, Brown and Co., Boston. 161 Rogers, K. (1973) The mid-career crisis. Psychology Today, 37-38. 171 Lowenthal, M.F., Thurnher, M., Chiriboga, D. and Associates (1975) Four stages of life. JosseyBass, San Francisco. I81 Jung, C.G. (1933) Modern man in search of a soul. Kegan, Paul, Trench and Thubner, London. 191 Jung, C.G. (1968) Analytical psychology, its theory and practice. Pantheon, New York. [lOI Neugarten, B.L. (Editor) (1974) Personality in middle and late life. Atherton Press, New York. 1111 Neugarten, B.L. (1968) Middle age and aging. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1121 Lowenthal, M.F. and Chiriboga, D. (1972) Transition to the empty nest. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 26, 8-14. [I31 Deutschcr, I. (1959) Married life in the middle years. Community Studies, Kansas City. I141 Deutscher, I. (1964) The quality of postparental life: Definitions of the situation. Journal of Marriage and the Family 26,52-59. 1151 Blood, R.O., and Wolfe, D.M. (1960) Husbands and wives: The dynamics of married living. The Free Press, New York. 1161 Axelson, L.J. (1960) Personal adjustment in the postparental period. Marriage and Family Living 22,66-70. [I71 Glenn, N.D. (1975) Psychological well-being in the postparental stage: Some evidence from national surveys. Journal of Marriage and the Family 37, 105-l 10. 1181 Bradburn, N.M. (1969) The structure of psychological well-being. Aldine, Chicago. 1191 Holmes,T.H. and Rahe, R.H. (1967) The social readjustment rating scale. J. Psychosom. Res. 11, 213-218.
21.5 Press
THEEMPTYNESTPROCESSINMID-LIFEMENANDWOMEN'
SHEILA
KRYSTAL
’ and DAVID
3 Human Development CA 94143. USA (Received
21 August
A. CHIRIBOGA
3
and Aging Program, University of California, 745 Parnassus, San Frarxisco,
1978,accepted
21 November
1978)
A combined clinical and field investigation studied the effects of the empty-nest phase of parcnthood on morale and activity level. Data from the clinical study were obtained from two psychotherapy groups conducted for mid-life women, and the field data were obtained from a 5-yr longitudinal study of life stages. Results indicated an increase in morale during the unfolding of the empty nest and suggested that the so-called “crisis” of the empty nest may be more myth than reality. (Key words:
Empty
nest, Parenthood,
Mid-life,
Morale)
INTRODUCTION
A number of social scientists have postulated the existence of a mid-life reorientation or crisis at some point between the ages of 35 and 50. Between those ages, individuals are said to undergo profound changes with respect to their perceptions of themselves and of [l-7]. Jung, for example, whose analytic theory and techniques are their environment found by many to be especially appropriate for people in the second half of life, reports an increase in depressions and neurosis among men and women at mid-life [8,9]. Erikson [2] describes mild-life as a time of choice between stagnation and regression or social expansion and altruism. One of the conditions often associated with a mid-life crisis is the flight of children from the parental home. Onset of the so-called “empty nest” may serve as a focus for the stresses and strains attending the mid-life period. For some it may serve as the first major social loss, and as such be a pointed reminder of approaching old age; for others it may signal entry into a period during which freedom to follow one’s own interests becomes increasingly possible. For all, the empty nest is a time during which change is the rule rather than the exception. Research on the empty-nest period has done little but underscore the complexity of ’ Research supported by the National Institute on Aging, Grant No. AGO0002 (formerly NICHD HD05941 and HD03051); Biomedical Research Support Grant, Langley Porter Institute, University of California, San Francisco; and the National Institute of Mental Health Postdoctoral Public Health Service Research Fellowship. ’ Dr. Krystal maintains a private clinical practice in Berkeley, California, USA. 3 To whom correspondence should be addressed.
216
the situation. The clinical work of Rogers [6] does suggest the existence of a crisis at midlife which is precipitated when the last child leaves the home, while Neugarten and her associates [lO,l l] found little or no evidence of such a crisis. Similarly, Lowenthal and Chiriboga [ 121 found that anticipations of the impending departure of the youngest child were more often cast in terms of relief than of crisis, and that the transition appeared more relevant to the women than to the men. Deutscher [ 13,141 also reported that women are more often affected by the empty nest than men; marriage in mid-life was generally found to be more of a “golden” than a “crisis” period. In contrast, Blood and Wolfe [ 151 reported a steady decline in marital satisfaction, once the preschool stage of childraising was completed; the empty nest may, however, have resulted in a temporary enhancement of marital satisfaction. No differences in marital or personal satisfaction were found in another comparison of parental and postparental men and women [ 161, while Glenn [ 171, using data from six national surveys, found that among women of the same age, those whose children had left home were generally more satisfied. Some of these contradictory results might be explained by differences in the patients studied by clinicians, on the one hand, and the more or less “normal” populations studied by researchers on the other. Another source of differences in conclusions may stem from a lack of overlap in the stages of the empty nest studied, and from a tendency to view the transition more as a discrete event than as a process extending through time. For example, among those with children remaining in the home, differentiation is usually not made between parents who have already experienced the departure of one or more children (i.e., partial nest) and parents with all children remaining in the home (i.e., full nest). The present study focuses on the empty nest as a process. It explores changes in morale and activity level as the nest empties. The research was conducted in two concurrent sequences: a clinical study and an empirical study. In the clinical investigation, one of the authors explored the effects of the empty nest in two therapy groups she conducted for mid-life women. The empirical study considered the results of a 5-yr longitudinal analysis of middle-aged men and women. THE CLINICAL
STUDY
The purpose of the clinical sequence was to provide an overview of responses of midlife women to the empty-nest period. Mid-life clients seeking psychotherapy were invited to join one of two groups (differing only in location) which met once a week for 2 h and were intended to help middle-aged women to explore their problems together and obtain insight into their reactions to mid-life. Reasons presented for seeking therapy varied from psychosomatic complaints, fear and anxiety about the future and lack of self confidence to desires to fulfill personal potential. Most women felt that their concerns about the future were in some way related to the impending departure of their children from the home. Jungian-oriented group work was provided for -8 mth, and was designed for ego building, considering possible future realities, and desensitization to fears. The specific techniques included using symbolic material, myths, dreams, guided imagery, yoga breathing and guided fantasy to facilitate awareness of life stages from childhood through mid-life and old age. In addition, autogenic (i.e., self-hypnosis), meditative, and deep-
217 relaxation techniques were taught to group members with the suggestion that these tools be employed at home once a day. All group members complied, but the freqeuncy of application ranged from once a day (50% of the clients) to three times a week. During those sessions addressed to issues of mid-life, the group leader took the opportunity to ask general questions, for group discussion, about the empty-nest period. The two groups included a total of 23 women between the ages of 39 and 52, from middleclass San Francisco Bay Area communities. Fourteen of these women were experiencing the partial-nest stage, five had no children remaining at home, and four had all of the children at home but were expecting departures shortly. Most of the women were college educated or had attended some college; fifteen of them had full or part-time careers, and four were divorced or separated from their husbands. They averaged two children apiece (the range was one to four). In both groups all the women had heard or read that mid-life, the empty-nest period in particular, was a “crisis” period during which they were supposed to experience depression or anxiety. The majority expressed puzzlement and confusion and even guilt because they were “feeling better than ever”, were “taking care of myself for once”, felt “much freer and in charge of my own time”. Some worried that there was something abnormal about them and about their commitment to parenting: they felt that they shouldn’t be feeling as good as they did. But most exulted in the fact that they had some free time in which to explore themselves, take classes and workshops, and - often for the first time enter the job market. One woman, for example, described herself as a yucca plant, “finally blooming after 50 years”. All of the women expressed a great interest in self-knowledge and self-development as indicated by their participation in the groups, and they stated that they had been hoping to pursue these interests actively for several years but had only recently found time and energy. One women asked where the “brainwashing” about mid-life crisis was coming from. Only two woman reported an increase in depression in mid-life but attributed these feelings to a recent divorce in one case and to failing health and a radical mastectomy in the other. These two women denied that their absent children were the cause of their sad feelings and reported that they felt hopeful about their children’s futures and felt “closer to them and more like friends than mother and daughter”. THEEMPIRICALSTUDY The empirical sequence was conducted to determine if more objective assessments of the impact of the empty nest would yield results similar to those of the clinical sequence. The sample consists of men (N = 22, Eage = 5 1.6) and women (N = 23, &,a, = 48.4) who were studied over a 5.yr period, beginning in 1969. All of the men were working, as were slightly more than one-half of the women; their occupations were primarily in the blueand white-collar levels. The majority were married: 96% of the men and 89% of the women. The average number of children was 2.3 for the men and 2.4 for the women; at baseline all respondents had at least one child, a high school senior, living at home. At the initial contact, the youngest child of all respondents was a high school senior who presumably would leave the home at some point during the longitudinal study. Follow-ups were conducted at 1: yr and again at 5 yr after the first interview. Among the
218
instruments administered at each contact were the Bradburn 18 morale scales and an activities checklist 7. The former includes one question on overall happiness (“In general, how happy are you these days? Very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy?“) and questions concerning how frequently the respondent had experienced eight specific emotions (feeling on top of the world, loneliness, excited, depressed, pleased, bored, proud, and angry). The activities checklist consisted of 33 items tapping participation in athletic, maintenance, solitary and contemplative dimensions; from the checklist scores a summary Activity Level summary variable was derived. For the present analysis, the total sample of 45 men and women was subdivided into six overlapping groups. Subjects were grouped according to stability or change in nest status (e.g., full, partial or empty) between any two adjacent interview points. Three of the groups represented a condition of no change during at least one interval between interviews of the longitudinal investigation. Group 1 (Full) was composed of five men and five women who had full nests (all children were living at home) at both baseline (BL) and follow-up 1 (Fl). For these people, no children left the home during the first 18 mth of the study. Group 2 (Empty) consisted of four men and two women who had completed the empty nest shortly after BL and had no children living at home both at Fl and F2. Group 3 (Partial) consisted of five men and thirteen women who had partial nests (one or more children were still living at home and at least one child had departed) at both BL and Fl or Fl and F2. Three more groups represented a condition of change within the transition process. Group 4 (Full-Empty) consisted of two men and six women who had a full nest at BL and an empty nest at Fl or a full nest at Fl and an empty nest at F2. Group 5 (Partial-Empty) consisted of fifteen men and thirteen women who had a partial nest at BL or Fl and an empty nest at Fl or F2. Group 6 (Full-Partial) consisted of five men and one woman who had a full nest at BL or Fl and a partial nest at Fl or F2. RESULTS
Some respondents appeared in more than one group. For example, some of the people in the Partial-Empty group were also in the Partial or Full-Partial groups at earlier stages. Data analysis was performed both including and excluding those repeated cases. Because no differences in direction were found when repeated cases were excluded, and because the concern was with establishing trends rather than with group differences, results are reported for groups with overlapping cases in order to allow for more complete statistical treatment. Data analysis addressed the issue of whether or not the morale and activities of the six groups varied significantly between time 1 (either BL or Fl) and time 2 (either Fl or F2). A series of t-tests for correlated means were performed for each of the six groups comparing activity le$el and nine morale variables at the two points within the transition process (tr and ts). Non-status change conditions No significant differences in either morale or activity level were found for the Full
219
group (Table I) *. Significant differences were found for Groups 2 and 3 in activity level. Combined scores for Partial men and women showed a significant increase in activity level at t2 when compared to 1,. When women were analyzed separately, this increase was also significant, and men showed the same trend. The Empty group as a whole and Emply men treated separately tended to increase in activity level. Empty women also demonstrated a significant increase in excitement by t2. Status change conditions No significant changes or trends were found for the Full-Partial group in either activity level or morale (Table 1). For the Full-Empty group, the combined scores for men and women were significantly lower on depression at tz than at c,. and women alone also showed that trend. Although not significant, the direction of change was the same for men. Results similar to those for the Full-Empty group were found for the Partial-Empty group, who experienced a less abrupt transition than did the Full-Empty respondents. Partial-Empty men and women, combined, were significantly less depressed at t, and women alone were significantly less depressed at tz. The direction of change for men was the same although again not significant. A significant increase in happiness at t2 was also found for Partial-Empty women. No change in overall happiness was found for men but they tended to be more excited at t2 than t, and women tended to be prouder at tz than tl. DISCUSSION
In the clinical and empirical pilot researches reported here, the overall impression obtained was one of positive rather than negative reactions to the empty nest. Although the process did appear to create conditions of change for all respondents, by and large they were able to cope successfully with the challenge. In the clinical sample, where it was expected that greater pathology would be evident than in the field study participants, one of the intriguing suggestions imparted was that so-called crisis of the empty nest is more of a collective myth than an experiential reality. That the process of emptying created a demand for readjustment, however, was clear, and in this sense the empty nest may be seen to represent a major stressor [ 191. Results of the more empirical sequence supported the clinical impressions and generally demonstrated the utility of viewing the empty nest as a process. Perhaps the most interesting finding was the increasing impact evident as the respondents progressed through the transition. For example, those groups experiencing the early stages of the transition process, the Full group and Full-Partial, showed no significant changes in either activity level or morale. The Partial, a group slightly further into the process, did show some changes, but the changes do not support a “crisis” position: activity increased and depression decreased. Groups fully into or through the process, the Empty- and PartialEmpty, showed increased activity level and more changes in morale such as increased excitement and increased overall happiness. These results may reflect the fact that * Data and statistics for the excluded-case runs are available from the authors
on request.
1.60 1.60
175.0
176.3
166.2
178.6 176.6
164.3 160.4
169.8 185.3 *
1.80
2.0
1.73 1.73
2.0 1.50
1.75 1.50
171.4 1.80 194.5 ***1.80
151.9 156.9
169.4
189.0 178.4
152.3 154.8
167.0 201.5
177.4 194.0 **
134.0 138.6
f2
169.0 174.9
200.0 177.0
171.3 177.3 *
157.0 195.8 *
169.8 175.2
1.92 1.54 **
1.80 1.80
1.50 1.50
1.92 1.85
1.80 2.00
1.83
1.83
1.82 1.64
1.86 1.71
1.67 1.50
1.89 1.83
1.70 1.80
All Rs
1.40
1.20
1.60 1.60
3.50 2.00
1.25 1.00
1.60 1.40
2.00 2.60
1.69 2.31
1.60 1.60
1.50 2.00
2.00 1.54
1.60 1.40
Women’
1.67 1.33
1.64 1.93
2.14 1.71
1.33 1.33
1.89 1.50
1.80 2.00
AU Rs
Men
Women
Men
AU Rs
Men
Women
On top of the world
Overall happiness
Activity level b
t1
Full-Partial
t2
t1
Partial-Empty
t2
t1
Change conditions Full-Empty
t2
r1
Empty-Empty
t2
r1
Partial-Partial
t2
r1
No change conditions Full-Full
Subjects
Mean scores at two points in time on ten criterion measures; a comparison of six empty nest conditions. a
TABLE I
1.80 1.40
1.13 1.07
1.00 1 .oo
1 .oo 1 .oo
1.00 1.00
1.00 1 .oo
Men
1.46 1.38
1.20 1.00
1.00 1.00
1.62 1.54
1.00 1.20
-Women
Loneliness
1.83 1.33
1.29 1.21
1.14 1.01
1.00 1.00
1.44 1.39
1.00 1.10
All Rs
2.40 1.80
1.67 2.20 *
2.50 3.50
2.25 2.00
1.00 1.80
2.00 2.00
Men
Excited
2.46 2.00
1.60 1.20
1.50 4.00 ***
2.08 2.31
2.00 1.60
Women
2.50 1.83
2.04 2.11
1.86 1.86
2.00 2.67
1.78 2.17
2.00 1.80
AU Rs
1.50
1.20 1.80
1.33 1.27
1.00
1.57 1.01 **
1.33 1.00
1.78 2.11
1.67 1.67
2.15 1.71 1.31 *** 1.29 **
1.60 1.02 *
1.00 1.00
1.92 2.31
1.40 1.60
1.50 1.00
1.80 1.60
1.20 1.40
1.50 1.50
2.40 2.80
2.40 2.67
3.50 3.00
2.50 2.25
2.40 1.80
2.50 3.25
Men
All Rs
Men
Women
Pleased
Depressed
3.08 2.54
2.00 2.00
2.50 3.50
2.23 3.15
2.00 1.80
Women
2.50 3.00
2.71 2.61
2.43 2.29
2.50 2.67
2.28 2.78
2.22 2.44
All Rs
1.00 1.20
1.53 1.80
1.oo 1.oo
1.50 2.00
1.40 1.01
1.40 1.01
Men
Bored
1.31 1.31
1.oo 1.20
1.00 1.00
1.31 1.38
1.40 1.00
Women
1.OO 1.17
1.43 1.57
1.oo 1.14
1.33 1.67
1.33 1.28
1.40 1.00
All Rs
2.80 2.60
1.87 1.93
2.00 2.50
2.31 1.69 *
1.40 1.60
1.00 2.00
2.15 2.23
1.20 1.40 2.25 2.00
1.60 1.40
1.80 2.60
2.83 2.83
2.07 1.82
1.57 1.86
1.83 2.00
1.89 2.00
1.70 2.00
1.20 2.00
1.67 1.47
1.oo 2.00
1.75 1.50
1.40
1.40
1.20 1.40
Men
All Rs
Men
Women
Angry ____
Proud __--
a Thestatisticusedin allcaseswasthe t-testfor correlated means. In instances where n < 3 the means and associated t-tests are not presented. b With the exception of those for overall happiness, a higher mean score indicates more of the attribute under consideration.
* PG 0.10. **p Q 0.05. ***p< 0.01.
t2
Full-Partial tl
t2
Partial-Empty II
t2
Change conditions Full-Empty II
tz
t1
Empty-Empty
t2
f1 t2 Partial-Partial tl
No change conditions Full-Full
Subjects
TABLE I (continued)
~._
1.54 1.38
1.00 1.00
1.01 2.50
1.31 1.23
1.40 1 .OO
Women
1.33 2.00
1.60 1.43
1.01 1.28
1.50 1.83
1.33 1.28
1.30 1.20
All Rs
-__
222 people who are well into the transition or those who are fully through it have reorganized their life-style to accommodate an increase in free time. The results also suggest that women react sooner than men to the transition. Partial women showed a significant increase in activity; the men showed no significant difference. Full-Empty and Partial-Empty women show a decrease in depression, while the men showed no significant difference. Men finally begin to show an increase in excitement at the Partial-Empty stage, and their activity level increases by the time they reach the Empty stage. Such results suggest that men are not necessarily as oblivious to the emptynest process as others [ 12,141 have maintained. Rather, it would appear than men simply take longer to react. The delay, however, may be caused by the same reasons posed by Deutscher [14] to explain men’s generally weaker reaction to the transition: a greater commitment to the work, as opposed to the parental, role. In conclusion, the results of the two investigators indicate that there may be different stages in the passage through the empty-nest transition, and that these stages may have distinct implications for morale and activity level. Support is found for the contention of researchers such as Deutscher [14] and Glenn [ 171 that the empty-nest period is not necessarily a crisis period. However, the limited number of respondents prohibits an accurate determination of the affects of the different stages of the transition process. Although the results are suggestive of the potential impact of this transition period, they point out the.need for large-scale studies which view the empty nest as a process which begins before the departure of the first child and continues after the departure of the last. REFERENCES
I I,1 Levinson, D. (1959) Role, personality and social structure. J. Abnorm. Sot. Psychol. 58, 170190.
[II Icrikson, E. (1969) Childhood and society. W.W. Norton, New York. I31 Pearce, J. and Newton, S. (1963) The conditions of human growth. Citadel Press, New York. 141 Lowenthal, M.F. (1971) Intentionality: Toward a framework for adaptation in adulthood. Aging Hum. Dev. 2, 79-95. iSI Brim, Jr., O.G. (1968) Adult socialization. In: Socialization and society, pp. 182-226. Editor: J.A. Clausen. Little, Brown and Co., Boston. 161 Rogers, K. (1973) The mid-career crisis. Psychology Today, 37-38. 171 Lowenthal, M.F., Thurnher, M., Chiriboga, D. and Associates (1975) Four stages of life. JosseyBass, San Francisco. I81 Jung, C.G. (1933) Modern man in search of a soul. Kegan, Paul, Trench and Thubner, London. 191 Jung, C.G. (1968) Analytical psychology, its theory and practice. Pantheon, New York. [lOI Neugarten, B.L. (Editor) (1974) Personality in middle and late life. Atherton Press, New York. 1111 Neugarten, B.L. (1968) Middle age and aging. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 1121 Lowenthal, M.F. and Chiriboga, D. (1972) Transition to the empty nest. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 26, 8-14. [I31 Deutschcr, I. (1959) Married life in the middle years. Community Studies, Kansas City. I141 Deutscher, I. (1964) The quality of postparental life: Definitions of the situation. Journal of Marriage and the Family 26,52-59. 1151 Blood, R.O., and Wolfe, D.M. (1960) Husbands and wives: The dynamics of married living. The Free Press, New York. 1161 Axelson, L.J. (1960) Personal adjustment in the postparental period. Marriage and Family Living 22,66-70. [I71 Glenn, N.D. (1975) Psychological well-being in the postparental stage: Some evidence from national surveys. Journal of Marriage and the Family 37, 105-l 10. 1181 Bradburn, N.M. (1969) The structure of psychological well-being. Aldine, Chicago. 1191 Holmes,T.H. and Rahe, R.H. (1967) The social readjustment rating scale. J. Psychosom. Res. 11, 213-218.