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The Environmental Planning and Management Process and the Conflict over Outputs in Dar-Es-Salaam
HABI¹A¹ IN¹¸. Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 339}350, 1999 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain 0197}3975/99 $ - see front matter
PII: S0197-3975(98)00055-1
The Environmental Planning and Management Process and the Con#ict over Outputs in Dar-Es-Salaam FRANCOS HALLA* and BITURO MAJANI ;niversity College of ¸ands and Architectural Studies (;C¸AS), Dar-es-Salaam, ¹anzania
ABSTRACT The Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) process is a consultative, not technocratic, approach to urban development planning. Urban development stakeholders in Dar-es-Salaam have engaged in the EPM process since 1992. We learn from this case that there are con#icting conceptions on what is the most logical planning output of the process. Land-use planners insist on having the conventional long-term blueprint master plan. Experts in information management feel the work is incomplete without an established geographical information system (GIS). Coordinators of the EPM process are happy with a continuous documentation and frequent publication of best practices and tested strategies for citywide and countrywide replication in addressing the dominant urban environmental issues. This case study reveals that con#ict resolution necessitates continuous and tireless e!orts by the EPM process coordinators to negotiate and acquire participatory and partnership institutional arrangements that include the involved stakeholders and thereby transcend the conventional frontiers of both legislative and technocratic frameworks of urban planning. 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: EPM process; urban development; Dar-es-Salaam; participatory and partnership institutional arrangements
INTRODUCTION The sustainable Dar-es-Salaam Project (SDP) introduced in Tanzania in 1992 aims at strengthening the city's capacity for &&environmental planning and management'' (Halla, 1994). In its seventh year of operation, SDP, through the Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) process, has generated an unresolved con#ict among stakeholders as to what should constitute its planning output for the bene"t and use of city developers (Musingi, 1998; Halla, 1997). The custodians of LandUse Planning expect a map that designates areas for the various land uses for the
*Correspondence to: University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS), P.O. Box 32911; Dar-esSalaam, Tanzania.
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next 20 years (Koenigsberger, 1964). The experts in Information Management desire and insist on a computerized Environmental Management Information System (EMIS) alias Geographical Information Systems (GIS) (Huxhold, 1991; Brail, 1987). However, The SDP working groups and the proponents (and promoters) of Participatory Urban Management want a continuous documentation and periodic publication of best practices and tested strategies for citywide replication (Halla et al., 1998; Healey, 1994). The authors of this paper have closely followed the con#ict through consultancy services to SDP and now present an analysis of these three divergent outputs of the EPM process. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to reveal and analyze the unresolved con#ict involving the stakeholders of SDP, namely the custodians of Land-Use Planning, the experts in Information Management, and the SDP working groups including the proponents and promoters of Participatory Urban Management.
THE CONFLICT OVER OUTPUTS ¹he con-ict The con#ict to be analyzed in this paper concerns the nature of the planning output that emanates from the EPM process as practised by SDP. The con#ict manifests the conceptual confrontation among three approaches to urban development planning, namely Land-Use Planning, Information Management, and Participatory Urban Management. ¹he land-use planning output Land-Use Planning, as practised within the legislative framework of zoning regulations, culminates in a &&blueprint'' land-use map that designates areas for various projected human activities in the next 20 or so years. The map becomes legally binding and enforceable by the local government. Such planning output, as produced in the city's master plans of 1979, 1968 and 1948, tends to be too dogmatic, rigid, static and unrealistic to accommodate the dynamics of urban growth and development (Armstrong, 1987). Whereas urban development control is inevitable, the use of a blueprint land-use map produced through the master-planning process to enforce zoning regulations poses operational problems in urban development planning. As such, lessons of experience from Dar-es-Salaam suggest that urban development control can still be e!ected through the EPM process without having or using a long-term blueprint land-use map. This is so because the utility agencies, which each adopt a long-term sectoral master plan, need only be coordinated in communicating to each other (as an EPM process working group) areas of conformity or agreement and the areas of con#ict for joint resolution through dialogue. ¹he information management output Information Management, in the form of Geographical Information Systems (GIS), is a means of capturing, storing, updating, manipulating, analyzing and displaying any form of geographically referenced data or information for various applications by the local Government and other city stakeholders (Huxhold, 1991: 1}2). Thus, Information Management is an important tool for urban development planning and management. A city or a planning agency (like the SDP working groups) need to create such a mechanism whenever institutional, economic and other conditions
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permit. As such, Information Management is not an end in itself and cannot constitute a planning output. Advocacy of this technocratic approach is based on an untested assumption that urban planning has to be systematic in terms of its databases and rational in decision making under any situation and at any cost. Developers and other stakeholders are seen as unequipped to do urban development planning since they do not blend well with the technocracy inherent in this approach. Since data and information managed in this way tend to be detailed and diverse to suit many stakeholders in urban development, the information management process is a useful tool not only for the EPM process but also for the land-use planning process. ¹he participatory urban management output Participatory Urban Management entails a coordinated mobilization and integration of city stakeholders to get involved in the EPM process by way of constant communication and dialogue through cross-sectoral and multi-institutional working groups (Innes, 1996; Healey et al., 1995; Healey, 1994; Halla, 1994; Fainstein, 1994; UNCHS, 1994; Majani, 1992). Through the EPM process, and organized around working groups, the city stakeholders identify and address developmental issues and environmental problems which cut across the sectors and levels of society. Whereas the issues and problems addressed through the EPM process cannot be resolved by a single institution or at only one level of society, the city stakeholders include those a!ected by the problems, those causing the problems, and those with institutional responsibilities to address the problems. One output of the EPM process, therefore, is the continous documentation and periodic publication of best practices and strategies as initiated, deliberated, agreed and tested through working groups. The best practices, which emanate from the implementation of action plans on a demonstration or pilot level, constitute the basis for citywide and countrywide replication. However, lessons of experience from Dar-es-Salaam show also that the rate of participation in the EPM process depends on each individual stakeholder in relation to the gravity of involvement in a given con#icting issue, and the promptiness of intervention by the EPM process coordinators to address such an issue. Depicted also is the diversity of participating stakeholders in terms of power relations, political inclination, socioeconomic status, vested interests, and levels and sectors of society having stakes in the city. Nevertheless, where the EPM process has been engaged through structured dialogue to address an environmental issue, an apparent con#ict has been resolved despite the inherent stakeholder inequalities in terms of both &&the power of resourcefulness'' and &&the power of communicative eloquency''. BACKGROUND TO THE EPM PROCESS IN DAR-ES-SALAAM Introduction of the EPM process in Dar-es-Salaam, through the establishment in 1991 of the SDP, underscores the need to achieve sustainable development through lasting environmental resources and lasting safety from environmental hazards which threaten development achievements. The EPM process has been operational in the city since 1992 as a response of The United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) to the request of the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania to "nance the review of the 1979 Dar-es-Salaam Master Plan. Although the request was lodged by the Government through its Ministry responsible for Lands, the SDP Agreement Document was "nally signed in 1991 between the Government, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and UNCHS with Dar-es-Salaam City Council (DCC) by as the bene"ciary institution. The
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DCC, led by an elected mayor from among the elected councillors, has since June 1996 been replaced by a central government appointed Dar-es-Salaam City Commission (DCC). The EPM process started with the preparation of the Environmental Pro"le for Dar-es-Salaam City which led to the "rst major City Consultation on Environmental Issues of August 1992 involving more than 200 participants representing a cross section of institutions in the public, private and community sectors. The participants were exposed to an analysis of two critical city environmental issues, namely solid waste management and unplanned and unserviced settlements, together with the institutional arrangements available for these issues in terms of information, policies, coordination and implementation instruments. The institutional framework analysis revealed numerous weaknesses in the management of these two environmental issues which the EPM process seeks to address. Inspired by the gravity of the problems in these two issues and the need to seek immediate solutions to address these problems, the city consultation mandated seven more environmental issues to be addressed in similar manner and thereby endorsed the Dar-es-Salaam Declaration of managing the growth and development of this city through the EPM process. The additional issues were liquid waste management; managing city transportation and air quality; managing open spaces, hazard lands and urban agriculture; managing coastal resources; integrating petty trading into the city economy; managing urban renewal; and servicing urban expansion. A series of city mini-consultations have so far been held and working groups established for each environmental issue, under the overall supervision of the SDP issue-speci"c coordinators. Thus, the planning output of SDP is the product of combined e!orts and contributions of the stakeholders involved in the activities of the working groups within the overall context of the ongoing EPM process. The SDP working groups consist of people drawn from across sectors and institutions in order to o!er expertise in the respective "elds and at the same time exercise institutional mandates in order to resolve con#icts arising from institutional interests. The working groups structure is supported through an institutional framework aimed at linking all the stakeholders, i.e. a Coordinating Working Group bringing together all SDP coordinators and consultants; a Technical Coordinating Committee consisting of the coordinating working group, all departmental heads in DCC and desk o$cers in other public, private and community organizations; and a Steering Committee bringing together the principal secretaries of relevant government ministries and heads of other key stakeholder organizations from the public, private and community sectors. These institutional arrangements for the EPM process continue under the new department of Planning and Coordination formed in July 1997 through the restructuring process of the DCC. This new department takes over the functions hitherto performed under the SDP and DCC departments of Town Planning and Economic Planning. Figures 1 and 2 show the organization of this new department in the context of the restructured DCC. However, for replication of the EPM process to other urban centers in the country, the Urban Authorities Support Unit (UASU) has been formed in the country's Prime Minister's O$ce (PMO) since May 1998. The focus of the EPM process is the identi"cation of cross-sectoral environmental issues which can be resolved through the participatory and partnership arrangements of the city stakeholders. In doing so the EPM process seeks to facilitate information management and use, the promotion of coordination arrangements in formulation and execution of issue-speci"c strategies, and the encouragement of the use of existing implementation and legislative instruments among and across institutional levels and sectors. Thus, the EPM process is an approach to managing city growth and development through stakeholder participation and partnership. As such, it seeks to enhance the capacity of city
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Fig. 1. Organisation of the sustainable Dar-es-Salaam project after its incorporation into Dar-es-Salaam city council.
authorities and their partners in the public, private and community sectors to better manage the interactions between city development activities and environment. The underlying concept of the EPM process has been developed and adopted through the mechanisms of Urban Management Programme (UMP), a joint interagency facility between Habitat, UNDP and the World Bank. The UMP is a global programme which emphasizes research, information management and dissemination, and capacity building, working through a network of regional expertise and focused on, inter alia, urban environmental management. Linked to the UMP, as its operational arm in the urban environmental management "eld, is the Sustainable Cities Programme (SCP), a joint e!ort between UNCHS and The United Nations Environment Programme (UNCHS, 1994). The activities of UMP and SCP are being complemented by, and also linked to, other programmes in the application of the EPM concept, such as the Healthy Cities Programme of the World Health Organization, the Metropolitan Environment Improvement Programme of the World Bank, the Urban Environmental Management Programme, and the Environmental Management Programme for the Mediterranean. CONFLICT OVER OUTPUTS IN DAR-ES-SALAAM ¹he con-ict The planning output con#ict surrounding the Sustainable Dar-es-Salaam Project (SDP) is professional in nature (Halla, 1997). It involves three parties in urban
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Fig. 2. City setting of the planning and coordination department.
development planning, namely the SDP working groups and the associated proponents and promoters of Participatory Urban Management, the Information Management experts associated with SDP, and the custodians of Land-Use Planning responsible for the city development control (Musingi, 1998). According to Musingi (1998: 16), the EPM process output has been conceptualized di!erently: To some it has been [expected] to, totally and exclusively, replace the Master Plan. To others it has been seen to replace the short term (annual), medium term ("ve years) and long term (beyond "ve years) socioeconomic development plans. Yet to others it has been the animal they have never seen [and] which they impatiently waited to see and which, they hoped, would be a better animal than the animals they are used to seeing.
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According to Halla (1997), it is important to resolve this professional con#ict in urban development planning in order that our client in urban development implementation, i.e. the developer or investor, gets prompt and correct planning guidance. The following is the presentation of our analysis of the con#ict in terms of the planning output of SDP as conceived through the three approaches to urban development planning, namely Participatory Urban Management, Information Management, and Land-Use Planning. Participatory urban management SDP Working Groups (including proponents and promoters of Participatory Urban Management) have argued that the Environmental Management Strategy for Dar-es-Salaam (EMSD) and the Environmental Planning and Management Process for Dar-es-Salaam (EPMD) (Halla et al., 1998), constitute the planning output of the Sustainable Dar-es-Salaam Project (SDP). The EMSD, which is a documentation of the best practices and strategies, has been prepared within the contextual framework of stakeholder interests, demands and commitments, in terms of their roles and responsibilities in planning, coordinating and managing city functions. The EPMD is a documentation of how the working groups have agreed upon such best practices and tested strategies for citywide replication as contained in the EMSD. The EMSD is a strategic framework which spells out opportunities available in the city for development and investment for the various city activity systems. It does not purport to designate speci"c areas for certain rigid developments over a "xed time. It recognizes, however, that any of the city functions can locate anywhere depending on the investors' ability to respond adequately to the development conditions attached for each of the development activities identi"ed, which rely very much on the environmental characteristics for each development area. The EMSD is thus a dynamic instrument which changes in character, composition, scope and context depending on the rate at which investments are injected in the city based upon the preferences of the developers and the support they receive from the key stakeholders in the city. The EMSD concentrates on a strategic focus which centers around environmental issues; and the development areas have been derived from an overlay of the various strategies for the environmental issues so far addressed. The resulting phenomenal overlay exhibits particular features akin to each development area. The projects identi"ed in the EMSD, including their locations, are a result of the consensus and mandate by the city stakeholders and may be altered through the same process in which they were initiated and agreed. The EMSD operates under the coordinative arrangements of existing city institutional legislations, policies, implementation instruments, information and expertise. It is these partnership arrangements, participatory processes, and stakeholder commitments which provide the required societal consensus and institutional mandate for the success of the EMSD. The mission of the EMSD is to stimulate and nurture the city environment so that urban growth and development will be managed through e$cient, e!ective and sustainable arrangements of stakeholder participation and partnership in coordinated formulation and execution of issue-speci"c strategies and projects. The EMSD mission hinges on the following principles: E
E
that the EMSD will function under an environment which acknowledges the rights of the stakeholders to express their opinions, beliefs, customs and traditions; that the EMSD will seek to promote interest and foster con"dence through honest and open interaction in order to secure stakeholder participation and partnership;
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that the EMSD will endeavour to support dedicated e!orts to enhance performance and acknowledge accomplishment through the commitments made by the stakeholders; that each stakeholder participation will be based on the contributions they make to the EMSD in terms of their respective roles and responsibilities; that the EMSD will be operationalized through the full development of existing regulatory mechanisms and implementation instruments; that, in view of the limited resources, the EMSD will commit itself to the optimal resource utilization through cooperation and collaboration of the stakeholders; that the EMSD will be a product of, among other things, dynamic, transparent and open interaction through the free sharing of information amongst stakeholders; and that the EMSD will be owned by the stakeholders who will be empowered over it through involvement in decision making to sustain the development}environment interaction in the city.
Since the city's natural resources are limited relative to competing interests among stakeholders, and environment constitutes a base supply of natural resources on which development activities depend, the Environmental Management Strategy for Dar-es-Salaam (EMSD) seeks to enhance a lasting interaction between development and environment. This interaction has been analyzed in 18 Development Areas (see Fig. 3) through the examination of development activities and development conditions based on environmental characteristics inherent in each development area. These activities and conditions have been discussed and agreed by key city stakeholders. Each development area is described by its composition of administrative wards, environmental characteristics, and development activities/ conditions. The EMSD is organized into "ve sections. Section 1 contains the mission of the EMSD. Section 2 dwells on the development objectives and their rationale. Section 3 o!ers an analysis of critical environmental issues and implementation strategies to address those issues. Section 4 provides an analysis of the interaction between development activities and environmental characteristics for each development area identi"ed in the city. Section 5 consists of ongoing and future development projects identi"ed through stakeholder participation under EPM process. The Environmental Planning and Management Process for Dar-es-Salaam (EPMD) started in 1992 through the mechanisms of the Sustainable Dar-es-Salaam Project (SDP). The EPMD represents the continuation of the process of identifying and addressing key environmental issues using participatory and partnership institutional arrangements involving key stakeholders. The process includes the conducting and organization of the City Consultation; the formation of working groups (including task forces and advisory committees) responsible for generating pragmatic interventions to resolve con#icts; and implementation of agreed action plans in partnership among key stakeholders. The SDP was launched in 1992 with the speci"c aim of providing the city administration and its partners in the public, private and popular sectors with an improved capacity to plan, coordinate and manage development-environment interactions in the city. The introduction of SDP was a deliberate attempt by city stakeholders to embark on a strategic urban development planning process which in this paper is also called the Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) Process. The EPM process concentrates on prioritization of environmental issues, generation of pragmatic interventions, and con#ict resolution among stakeholders through partcipating working groups. The working groups comprise representations of stakeholders that are a!ected by problems, those causing the problems, and those with institutional responsibilities to address the problem, so as to enhance coordinative arrangements for the city's growth/development.
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Fig. 3. Development areas.
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The strategies and action plans to address the various environmental issues have been traced in relation to the contributions made by participating stakeholders in terms of their roles and responsibilities for each environmental issue as documented by the respective coordinators in SDP. Thus, EPMD culminates in an Environmental Management Strategy for Dar-es-Salaam (EMSD). The documentation of EPMD is subject to continuous updating by additional information obtained from working groups depending on the level/scope of implementing the strategies developed for each environmental issue. Presented in EPMD is a documentation of the EPM process involved in addressing the city's critical environmental issues, namely solid waste management; liquid waste management; managing city transportation and air quality; managing open spaces, hazard lands and urban agriculture; managing coastal resources; upgrading unserviced and unplanned settlements; incorporating petty trading into the city economy; and managing city expansion and urban renewal. As the issues had been mandated to be addressed through the EPM process by the 1992 City Consultation, mini-consultations were held and working groups had been formed between 1992 and 1994 to address these issues; and their outputs constitute the basis, principles, and contents of the EPMD. Information management The experts in Information Management, who were consulted by the DCC to advise on the SDP output, have argued that the EMSD and the EPMD as produced and presented to them in November 1997, did not constitute the planning output of SDP (Musingi, 1998). They further argued that the EMSD was methodologically de"cient because it was produced prior to preparing a composite map using a GIS software like ARC/INFO. The map would be obtained by overlaying basemaps and source maps to generate thematic maps for the di!erent environmental issues. Then an overlay of these thematic maps, which is essentially the composite map, depicts &&hot spots'' (i.e. areas for immediate action), priority areas for city growth and development, and an accompanying short text describing the preferred strategies and required institutional arrangements. The experts in Information Management also argued that although EPMD was strong in textual presentation of the SDP working groups activities, the approach adopted in engaging the EMIS (i.e. environmental management information systems) did not allow easy retrieval of information by various stakeholders. According to these experts, the engagement of EMIS based on a GIS software, is a prerequisite to any EPM process output. ¸and-use planning The custodians of Land-Use Planning, as practised within the legislative framework of the 1956 Town and Country Planning Ordinance, have argued that the EMSD and the EPMD, as produced and presented to them in November 1997, did not constitute the planning output of the SDP (Musingi, 1998). They further argued that even if this output had been obtained after incorporating the requirements of the Information Management experts, it would still miss their required long-term (10}20 year) land-use plan, dubbed the Strategic Urban Development Plan (SUDP), and that is not dissimilar to the earlier city master plans. These practitoners, comprising the law enforcers in town and country planning from both the central and local governments, have regarded the EPM process, as engaged by the SDP working groups, to be wasteful in terms of both time and other resources and thereby an interference with their routines and bureaucratic processes of the day-to-day city administration. For instance, the ongoing unilateral action of DCC to demolish kiosks used by the informal sector operators in the
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name of law enforcement has frustrated the opportunities and initiatives for employment creation and income generation among the unemployed in the city. The action also threatens the commitment of other city stakeholders in resource mobilization and investment for city growth and development. As such, the position of this group of practitioners is anti-EPM since it discourages partnership and participatory arrangements among the city stakeholders. It appears that the land-use planners oppose the EPM process practitioners because the institutional arrangements for the former are based on the conventionally legislative or zoning framework, whereas those for the latter only require societal mandates as negotiated and acquired outside the conventionally sectoral and rigid legal frameworks by the EPM process practitioners themselves. So, in Dar-es-Salaam, land-use planners apply (at any cost) various law-enforcement instruments to "ght such humble developers like the numerous operators of informal-sector income-generating and housing activities. As all this happens, the EPM process coordinators are busy also looking for opportunities to intervene in order to resolve the chronic operational con#ict between developers and practitioners in land-use planning. CONCLUSION The proponents and promoters of the EPM process in Dar-es-Salaam and other cities need to have a structured framework of the process output for replication elsewhere when necessary. Since Dar-es-Salaam, through SDP, was among the "rst cities in the world to engage the EPM process, agreement on its ouput is crucial for the intended replication. The divergency of views on the EPM process output, as depicted in Dar-es-Salaam city, reinforces the necessity for the proponents and promoters of this process to assume the initiative of resolving such professional con#icts through collaborative links among all the parties involved in urban development planning and implementation. A resolution of the professional con#ict among the experts and practioners in urban development planning will lead to minimization of the resulting operational con#ict between the developers/investors and the urban development planners. In reaching a consensus regarding the professional con#ict, it is pertinent to learn from the following conclusions drawn from Dar-es-Salaam. First, the EPM process is a viable urban management tool that needs to be promoted through continuous dialogue between the di!erent factions of urban development planners and between developers/investors and the urban development planners. Secondly, the EPM process output has to emanate from the initiatives, deliberations, agreements, and strategies and action plans of the working groups on the various urban environmental issues/problems. Essentially, such output constitutes a package of environmental management strategies as generated by the working groups. However, depending on various conditions speci"c to the EPM process, institutional, economic and technological, the strategies can be produced by di!erent approaches. For instance, in their day-to-day activities, the SDP working groups used data-bases and information from various sources scattered among the city stakeholders to generate such strategies in the form of EMSD and EPMD. Thirdly, arising from the two conclusions above, it is evident that the EPM process output should ultimately bene"t the developers/investors in terms of their contributions and commitments in the working groups activities. For instance, in Dar-es-Salaam developers/investors have increasingly approached SDP for pertinent information regarding suitable or alternative project locations. However, these developers/investors have still to consult with the o$cials responsible for zoning and building regulations in order to ful"ll the legal requirements for project execution. As such, the developers/investors have had to consult separately the
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three parties involved in urban development planning, a practice which is selfdefeating for the EPM process in terms of its institutional requirements. Hence, a better practice would therefore be to bring together the developer or investor, the practitioners in land-use planning (i.e. the zoning law/regulations enforcers), the practitoners in participatory urban management (i.e. the EPM process working groups), and of course the information managers. In this regard, from 1995 to 1996 the SDP experimented in operationalizing this set of institutional arrangements for the EPM process by bringing together the utility agencies (as developers/investors) and the DCC and the central government ministry responsible for town urban development control (as land development administrators). Similarly, SDP experimented with other categories of developers and investors including "nancial institutions, state-owned enterprises, the private sector, and the community sector. This participatory approach to urban development planning was promising and fruitful from the viewpoint of developers and investors. However, the dissolution of the Dar-es-Salaam City Council (DCC) and replacing it with the Dar-es-Salaam City Commission (DCC) has frustrated such a worthwhile endeavour.
REFERENCES Brail, R. (1987) Microcomputers in ;rban Planning and Management. Rutgers University Center for Urban Policy Research, New Brunswick, NJ. Fainstein, S. (1994) ¹he City Builders. Blackwell, Cambridge, MA. Halla, F. (1994) A coordinating and participatory approach to managing cities: the case of the sustainable Dar-es-Salaam project in Tanzania. Habitat International 18 (3), 19}31. Halla, F. (1997) Institutional Arrangements for ;rban Management: ¹he Sustainable Dar-es-salaam Project. Doctoral Dissertation, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA. Halla, F. and Majani, B. (1998) ¹he Environmental Management Strategy and Environmental Planning and Management Process for Dar-es-Salaam City. Dar-es-Salaam City Commission, Dar-es-Salaam. Healey, P. (1994) Planning through debate: the communicative turn in planning theory. ¹own Planning Review 63 (2), 143}162. Healey, P., Cameron, S., Davoudi, S., Graham, S. and Madani-Pour, A. eds. (1995) Managing Cities. Wiley, New York. Innes, J. (1996) Planning through consensus building: a new view of the comprehensive planning ideal. Journal of the American Planning Association 62 (4), 460}472. Koenigsberger, O. (1964) Action planning. Architectural Association Journal 79 (882), 306}312. Majani, B., Halla, F., Chaggu, E., Kyessi, A., Baruti, P., Rugumamu, W. and Lusugga Kironde, J. (1992) Managing the Sustainable Growth and Development of Dar-es-Salaam: ¹he Environmental Pro,le of the Metropolitan Area. Dar-es-Salaam City Council, Dar-es-Salaam. Mandelbaum, S., Mazza, L. and Burchell, R. eds. (1996) Explorations in Planning ¹heory. Rutgers University Center for Urban Policy Research, New Brunswick, NJ. Musingi, R. (1998) Promoting Environmentally Sustainable ;rban Development in ¹anzania (SDP III): ¹he Need and How to Sustain the Programme. Dar-es-Salaam City Commission, Dar-es-Salaam. UNCHS (United Nations Centre for Human Settlements) (1994) Sustaniable Cities: Concepts and Applications of a ;nited Nations Programme. UNCHS, Nairobi.
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The Environmental Planning and Management Process and the Con#ict over Outputs in Dar-Es-Salaam FRANCOS HALLA* and BITURO MAJANI ;niversity College of ¸ands and Architectural Studies (;C¸AS), Dar-es-Salaam, ¹anzania
ABSTRACT The Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) process is a consultative, not technocratic, approach to urban development planning. Urban development stakeholders in Dar-es-Salaam have engaged in the EPM process since 1992. We learn from this case that there are con#icting conceptions on what is the most logical planning output of the process. Land-use planners insist on having the conventional long-term blueprint master plan. Experts in information management feel the work is incomplete without an established geographical information system (GIS). Coordinators of the EPM process are happy with a continuous documentation and frequent publication of best practices and tested strategies for citywide and countrywide replication in addressing the dominant urban environmental issues. This case study reveals that con#ict resolution necessitates continuous and tireless e!orts by the EPM process coordinators to negotiate and acquire participatory and partnership institutional arrangements that include the involved stakeholders and thereby transcend the conventional frontiers of both legislative and technocratic frameworks of urban planning. 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: EPM process; urban development; Dar-es-Salaam; participatory and partnership institutional arrangements
INTRODUCTION The sustainable Dar-es-Salaam Project (SDP) introduced in Tanzania in 1992 aims at strengthening the city's capacity for &&environmental planning and management'' (Halla, 1994). In its seventh year of operation, SDP, through the Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) process, has generated an unresolved con#ict among stakeholders as to what should constitute its planning output for the bene"t and use of city developers (Musingi, 1998; Halla, 1997). The custodians of LandUse Planning expect a map that designates areas for the various land uses for the
*Correspondence to: University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS), P.O. Box 32911; Dar-esSalaam, Tanzania.
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next 20 years (Koenigsberger, 1964). The experts in Information Management desire and insist on a computerized Environmental Management Information System (EMIS) alias Geographical Information Systems (GIS) (Huxhold, 1991; Brail, 1987). However, The SDP working groups and the proponents (and promoters) of Participatory Urban Management want a continuous documentation and periodic publication of best practices and tested strategies for citywide replication (Halla et al., 1998; Healey, 1994). The authors of this paper have closely followed the con#ict through consultancy services to SDP and now present an analysis of these three divergent outputs of the EPM process. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to reveal and analyze the unresolved con#ict involving the stakeholders of SDP, namely the custodians of Land-Use Planning, the experts in Information Management, and the SDP working groups including the proponents and promoters of Participatory Urban Management.
THE CONFLICT OVER OUTPUTS ¹he con-ict The con#ict to be analyzed in this paper concerns the nature of the planning output that emanates from the EPM process as practised by SDP. The con#ict manifests the conceptual confrontation among three approaches to urban development planning, namely Land-Use Planning, Information Management, and Participatory Urban Management. ¹he land-use planning output Land-Use Planning, as practised within the legislative framework of zoning regulations, culminates in a &&blueprint'' land-use map that designates areas for various projected human activities in the next 20 or so years. The map becomes legally binding and enforceable by the local government. Such planning output, as produced in the city's master plans of 1979, 1968 and 1948, tends to be too dogmatic, rigid, static and unrealistic to accommodate the dynamics of urban growth and development (Armstrong, 1987). Whereas urban development control is inevitable, the use of a blueprint land-use map produced through the master-planning process to enforce zoning regulations poses operational problems in urban development planning. As such, lessons of experience from Dar-es-Salaam suggest that urban development control can still be e!ected through the EPM process without having or using a long-term blueprint land-use map. This is so because the utility agencies, which each adopt a long-term sectoral master plan, need only be coordinated in communicating to each other (as an EPM process working group) areas of conformity or agreement and the areas of con#ict for joint resolution through dialogue. ¹he information management output Information Management, in the form of Geographical Information Systems (GIS), is a means of capturing, storing, updating, manipulating, analyzing and displaying any form of geographically referenced data or information for various applications by the local Government and other city stakeholders (Huxhold, 1991: 1}2). Thus, Information Management is an important tool for urban development planning and management. A city or a planning agency (like the SDP working groups) need to create such a mechanism whenever institutional, economic and other conditions
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permit. As such, Information Management is not an end in itself and cannot constitute a planning output. Advocacy of this technocratic approach is based on an untested assumption that urban planning has to be systematic in terms of its databases and rational in decision making under any situation and at any cost. Developers and other stakeholders are seen as unequipped to do urban development planning since they do not blend well with the technocracy inherent in this approach. Since data and information managed in this way tend to be detailed and diverse to suit many stakeholders in urban development, the information management process is a useful tool not only for the EPM process but also for the land-use planning process. ¹he participatory urban management output Participatory Urban Management entails a coordinated mobilization and integration of city stakeholders to get involved in the EPM process by way of constant communication and dialogue through cross-sectoral and multi-institutional working groups (Innes, 1996; Healey et al., 1995; Healey, 1994; Halla, 1994; Fainstein, 1994; UNCHS, 1994; Majani, 1992). Through the EPM process, and organized around working groups, the city stakeholders identify and address developmental issues and environmental problems which cut across the sectors and levels of society. Whereas the issues and problems addressed through the EPM process cannot be resolved by a single institution or at only one level of society, the city stakeholders include those a!ected by the problems, those causing the problems, and those with institutional responsibilities to address the problems. One output of the EPM process, therefore, is the continous documentation and periodic publication of best practices and strategies as initiated, deliberated, agreed and tested through working groups. The best practices, which emanate from the implementation of action plans on a demonstration or pilot level, constitute the basis for citywide and countrywide replication. However, lessons of experience from Dar-es-Salaam show also that the rate of participation in the EPM process depends on each individual stakeholder in relation to the gravity of involvement in a given con#icting issue, and the promptiness of intervention by the EPM process coordinators to address such an issue. Depicted also is the diversity of participating stakeholders in terms of power relations, political inclination, socioeconomic status, vested interests, and levels and sectors of society having stakes in the city. Nevertheless, where the EPM process has been engaged through structured dialogue to address an environmental issue, an apparent con#ict has been resolved despite the inherent stakeholder inequalities in terms of both &&the power of resourcefulness'' and &&the power of communicative eloquency''. BACKGROUND TO THE EPM PROCESS IN DAR-ES-SALAAM Introduction of the EPM process in Dar-es-Salaam, through the establishment in 1991 of the SDP, underscores the need to achieve sustainable development through lasting environmental resources and lasting safety from environmental hazards which threaten development achievements. The EPM process has been operational in the city since 1992 as a response of The United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) to the request of the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania to "nance the review of the 1979 Dar-es-Salaam Master Plan. Although the request was lodged by the Government through its Ministry responsible for Lands, the SDP Agreement Document was "nally signed in 1991 between the Government, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and UNCHS with Dar-es-Salaam City Council (DCC) by as the bene"ciary institution. The
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DCC, led by an elected mayor from among the elected councillors, has since June 1996 been replaced by a central government appointed Dar-es-Salaam City Commission (DCC). The EPM process started with the preparation of the Environmental Pro"le for Dar-es-Salaam City which led to the "rst major City Consultation on Environmental Issues of August 1992 involving more than 200 participants representing a cross section of institutions in the public, private and community sectors. The participants were exposed to an analysis of two critical city environmental issues, namely solid waste management and unplanned and unserviced settlements, together with the institutional arrangements available for these issues in terms of information, policies, coordination and implementation instruments. The institutional framework analysis revealed numerous weaknesses in the management of these two environmental issues which the EPM process seeks to address. Inspired by the gravity of the problems in these two issues and the need to seek immediate solutions to address these problems, the city consultation mandated seven more environmental issues to be addressed in similar manner and thereby endorsed the Dar-es-Salaam Declaration of managing the growth and development of this city through the EPM process. The additional issues were liquid waste management; managing city transportation and air quality; managing open spaces, hazard lands and urban agriculture; managing coastal resources; integrating petty trading into the city economy; managing urban renewal; and servicing urban expansion. A series of city mini-consultations have so far been held and working groups established for each environmental issue, under the overall supervision of the SDP issue-speci"c coordinators. Thus, the planning output of SDP is the product of combined e!orts and contributions of the stakeholders involved in the activities of the working groups within the overall context of the ongoing EPM process. The SDP working groups consist of people drawn from across sectors and institutions in order to o!er expertise in the respective "elds and at the same time exercise institutional mandates in order to resolve con#icts arising from institutional interests. The working groups structure is supported through an institutional framework aimed at linking all the stakeholders, i.e. a Coordinating Working Group bringing together all SDP coordinators and consultants; a Technical Coordinating Committee consisting of the coordinating working group, all departmental heads in DCC and desk o$cers in other public, private and community organizations; and a Steering Committee bringing together the principal secretaries of relevant government ministries and heads of other key stakeholder organizations from the public, private and community sectors. These institutional arrangements for the EPM process continue under the new department of Planning and Coordination formed in July 1997 through the restructuring process of the DCC. This new department takes over the functions hitherto performed under the SDP and DCC departments of Town Planning and Economic Planning. Figures 1 and 2 show the organization of this new department in the context of the restructured DCC. However, for replication of the EPM process to other urban centers in the country, the Urban Authorities Support Unit (UASU) has been formed in the country's Prime Minister's O$ce (PMO) since May 1998. The focus of the EPM process is the identi"cation of cross-sectoral environmental issues which can be resolved through the participatory and partnership arrangements of the city stakeholders. In doing so the EPM process seeks to facilitate information management and use, the promotion of coordination arrangements in formulation and execution of issue-speci"c strategies, and the encouragement of the use of existing implementation and legislative instruments among and across institutional levels and sectors. Thus, the EPM process is an approach to managing city growth and development through stakeholder participation and partnership. As such, it seeks to enhance the capacity of city
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Fig. 1. Organisation of the sustainable Dar-es-Salaam project after its incorporation into Dar-es-Salaam city council.
authorities and their partners in the public, private and community sectors to better manage the interactions between city development activities and environment. The underlying concept of the EPM process has been developed and adopted through the mechanisms of Urban Management Programme (UMP), a joint interagency facility between Habitat, UNDP and the World Bank. The UMP is a global programme which emphasizes research, information management and dissemination, and capacity building, working through a network of regional expertise and focused on, inter alia, urban environmental management. Linked to the UMP, as its operational arm in the urban environmental management "eld, is the Sustainable Cities Programme (SCP), a joint e!ort between UNCHS and The United Nations Environment Programme (UNCHS, 1994). The activities of UMP and SCP are being complemented by, and also linked to, other programmes in the application of the EPM concept, such as the Healthy Cities Programme of the World Health Organization, the Metropolitan Environment Improvement Programme of the World Bank, the Urban Environmental Management Programme, and the Environmental Management Programme for the Mediterranean. CONFLICT OVER OUTPUTS IN DAR-ES-SALAAM ¹he con-ict The planning output con#ict surrounding the Sustainable Dar-es-Salaam Project (SDP) is professional in nature (Halla, 1997). It involves three parties in urban
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Fig. 2. City setting of the planning and coordination department.
development planning, namely the SDP working groups and the associated proponents and promoters of Participatory Urban Management, the Information Management experts associated with SDP, and the custodians of Land-Use Planning responsible for the city development control (Musingi, 1998). According to Musingi (1998: 16), the EPM process output has been conceptualized di!erently: To some it has been [expected] to, totally and exclusively, replace the Master Plan. To others it has been seen to replace the short term (annual), medium term ("ve years) and long term (beyond "ve years) socioeconomic development plans. Yet to others it has been the animal they have never seen [and] which they impatiently waited to see and which, they hoped, would be a better animal than the animals they are used to seeing.
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According to Halla (1997), it is important to resolve this professional con#ict in urban development planning in order that our client in urban development implementation, i.e. the developer or investor, gets prompt and correct planning guidance. The following is the presentation of our analysis of the con#ict in terms of the planning output of SDP as conceived through the three approaches to urban development planning, namely Participatory Urban Management, Information Management, and Land-Use Planning. Participatory urban management SDP Working Groups (including proponents and promoters of Participatory Urban Management) have argued that the Environmental Management Strategy for Dar-es-Salaam (EMSD) and the Environmental Planning and Management Process for Dar-es-Salaam (EPMD) (Halla et al., 1998), constitute the planning output of the Sustainable Dar-es-Salaam Project (SDP). The EMSD, which is a documentation of the best practices and strategies, has been prepared within the contextual framework of stakeholder interests, demands and commitments, in terms of their roles and responsibilities in planning, coordinating and managing city functions. The EPMD is a documentation of how the working groups have agreed upon such best practices and tested strategies for citywide replication as contained in the EMSD. The EMSD is a strategic framework which spells out opportunities available in the city for development and investment for the various city activity systems. It does not purport to designate speci"c areas for certain rigid developments over a "xed time. It recognizes, however, that any of the city functions can locate anywhere depending on the investors' ability to respond adequately to the development conditions attached for each of the development activities identi"ed, which rely very much on the environmental characteristics for each development area. The EMSD is thus a dynamic instrument which changes in character, composition, scope and context depending on the rate at which investments are injected in the city based upon the preferences of the developers and the support they receive from the key stakeholders in the city. The EMSD concentrates on a strategic focus which centers around environmental issues; and the development areas have been derived from an overlay of the various strategies for the environmental issues so far addressed. The resulting phenomenal overlay exhibits particular features akin to each development area. The projects identi"ed in the EMSD, including their locations, are a result of the consensus and mandate by the city stakeholders and may be altered through the same process in which they were initiated and agreed. The EMSD operates under the coordinative arrangements of existing city institutional legislations, policies, implementation instruments, information and expertise. It is these partnership arrangements, participatory processes, and stakeholder commitments which provide the required societal consensus and institutional mandate for the success of the EMSD. The mission of the EMSD is to stimulate and nurture the city environment so that urban growth and development will be managed through e$cient, e!ective and sustainable arrangements of stakeholder participation and partnership in coordinated formulation and execution of issue-speci"c strategies and projects. The EMSD mission hinges on the following principles: E
E
that the EMSD will function under an environment which acknowledges the rights of the stakeholders to express their opinions, beliefs, customs and traditions; that the EMSD will seek to promote interest and foster con"dence through honest and open interaction in order to secure stakeholder participation and partnership;
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that the EMSD will endeavour to support dedicated e!orts to enhance performance and acknowledge accomplishment through the commitments made by the stakeholders; that each stakeholder participation will be based on the contributions they make to the EMSD in terms of their respective roles and responsibilities; that the EMSD will be operationalized through the full development of existing regulatory mechanisms and implementation instruments; that, in view of the limited resources, the EMSD will commit itself to the optimal resource utilization through cooperation and collaboration of the stakeholders; that the EMSD will be a product of, among other things, dynamic, transparent and open interaction through the free sharing of information amongst stakeholders; and that the EMSD will be owned by the stakeholders who will be empowered over it through involvement in decision making to sustain the development}environment interaction in the city.
Since the city's natural resources are limited relative to competing interests among stakeholders, and environment constitutes a base supply of natural resources on which development activities depend, the Environmental Management Strategy for Dar-es-Salaam (EMSD) seeks to enhance a lasting interaction between development and environment. This interaction has been analyzed in 18 Development Areas (see Fig. 3) through the examination of development activities and development conditions based on environmental characteristics inherent in each development area. These activities and conditions have been discussed and agreed by key city stakeholders. Each development area is described by its composition of administrative wards, environmental characteristics, and development activities/ conditions. The EMSD is organized into "ve sections. Section 1 contains the mission of the EMSD. Section 2 dwells on the development objectives and their rationale. Section 3 o!ers an analysis of critical environmental issues and implementation strategies to address those issues. Section 4 provides an analysis of the interaction between development activities and environmental characteristics for each development area identi"ed in the city. Section 5 consists of ongoing and future development projects identi"ed through stakeholder participation under EPM process. The Environmental Planning and Management Process for Dar-es-Salaam (EPMD) started in 1992 through the mechanisms of the Sustainable Dar-es-Salaam Project (SDP). The EPMD represents the continuation of the process of identifying and addressing key environmental issues using participatory and partnership institutional arrangements involving key stakeholders. The process includes the conducting and organization of the City Consultation; the formation of working groups (including task forces and advisory committees) responsible for generating pragmatic interventions to resolve con#icts; and implementation of agreed action plans in partnership among key stakeholders. The SDP was launched in 1992 with the speci"c aim of providing the city administration and its partners in the public, private and popular sectors with an improved capacity to plan, coordinate and manage development-environment interactions in the city. The introduction of SDP was a deliberate attempt by city stakeholders to embark on a strategic urban development planning process which in this paper is also called the Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) Process. The EPM process concentrates on prioritization of environmental issues, generation of pragmatic interventions, and con#ict resolution among stakeholders through partcipating working groups. The working groups comprise representations of stakeholders that are a!ected by problems, those causing the problems, and those with institutional responsibilities to address the problem, so as to enhance coordinative arrangements for the city's growth/development.
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Fig. 3. Development areas.
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The strategies and action plans to address the various environmental issues have been traced in relation to the contributions made by participating stakeholders in terms of their roles and responsibilities for each environmental issue as documented by the respective coordinators in SDP. Thus, EPMD culminates in an Environmental Management Strategy for Dar-es-Salaam (EMSD). The documentation of EPMD is subject to continuous updating by additional information obtained from working groups depending on the level/scope of implementing the strategies developed for each environmental issue. Presented in EPMD is a documentation of the EPM process involved in addressing the city's critical environmental issues, namely solid waste management; liquid waste management; managing city transportation and air quality; managing open spaces, hazard lands and urban agriculture; managing coastal resources; upgrading unserviced and unplanned settlements; incorporating petty trading into the city economy; and managing city expansion and urban renewal. As the issues had been mandated to be addressed through the EPM process by the 1992 City Consultation, mini-consultations were held and working groups had been formed between 1992 and 1994 to address these issues; and their outputs constitute the basis, principles, and contents of the EPMD. Information management The experts in Information Management, who were consulted by the DCC to advise on the SDP output, have argued that the EMSD and the EPMD as produced and presented to them in November 1997, did not constitute the planning output of SDP (Musingi, 1998). They further argued that the EMSD was methodologically de"cient because it was produced prior to preparing a composite map using a GIS software like ARC/INFO. The map would be obtained by overlaying basemaps and source maps to generate thematic maps for the di!erent environmental issues. Then an overlay of these thematic maps, which is essentially the composite map, depicts &&hot spots'' (i.e. areas for immediate action), priority areas for city growth and development, and an accompanying short text describing the preferred strategies and required institutional arrangements. The experts in Information Management also argued that although EPMD was strong in textual presentation of the SDP working groups activities, the approach adopted in engaging the EMIS (i.e. environmental management information systems) did not allow easy retrieval of information by various stakeholders. According to these experts, the engagement of EMIS based on a GIS software, is a prerequisite to any EPM process output. ¸and-use planning The custodians of Land-Use Planning, as practised within the legislative framework of the 1956 Town and Country Planning Ordinance, have argued that the EMSD and the EPMD, as produced and presented to them in November 1997, did not constitute the planning output of the SDP (Musingi, 1998). They further argued that even if this output had been obtained after incorporating the requirements of the Information Management experts, it would still miss their required long-term (10}20 year) land-use plan, dubbed the Strategic Urban Development Plan (SUDP), and that is not dissimilar to the earlier city master plans. These practitoners, comprising the law enforcers in town and country planning from both the central and local governments, have regarded the EPM process, as engaged by the SDP working groups, to be wasteful in terms of both time and other resources and thereby an interference with their routines and bureaucratic processes of the day-to-day city administration. For instance, the ongoing unilateral action of DCC to demolish kiosks used by the informal sector operators in the
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name of law enforcement has frustrated the opportunities and initiatives for employment creation and income generation among the unemployed in the city. The action also threatens the commitment of other city stakeholders in resource mobilization and investment for city growth and development. As such, the position of this group of practitioners is anti-EPM since it discourages partnership and participatory arrangements among the city stakeholders. It appears that the land-use planners oppose the EPM process practitioners because the institutional arrangements for the former are based on the conventionally legislative or zoning framework, whereas those for the latter only require societal mandates as negotiated and acquired outside the conventionally sectoral and rigid legal frameworks by the EPM process practitioners themselves. So, in Dar-es-Salaam, land-use planners apply (at any cost) various law-enforcement instruments to "ght such humble developers like the numerous operators of informal-sector income-generating and housing activities. As all this happens, the EPM process coordinators are busy also looking for opportunities to intervene in order to resolve the chronic operational con#ict between developers and practitioners in land-use planning. CONCLUSION The proponents and promoters of the EPM process in Dar-es-Salaam and other cities need to have a structured framework of the process output for replication elsewhere when necessary. Since Dar-es-Salaam, through SDP, was among the "rst cities in the world to engage the EPM process, agreement on its ouput is crucial for the intended replication. The divergency of views on the EPM process output, as depicted in Dar-es-Salaam city, reinforces the necessity for the proponents and promoters of this process to assume the initiative of resolving such professional con#icts through collaborative links among all the parties involved in urban development planning and implementation. A resolution of the professional con#ict among the experts and practioners in urban development planning will lead to minimization of the resulting operational con#ict between the developers/investors and the urban development planners. In reaching a consensus regarding the professional con#ict, it is pertinent to learn from the following conclusions drawn from Dar-es-Salaam. First, the EPM process is a viable urban management tool that needs to be promoted through continuous dialogue between the di!erent factions of urban development planners and between developers/investors and the urban development planners. Secondly, the EPM process output has to emanate from the initiatives, deliberations, agreements, and strategies and action plans of the working groups on the various urban environmental issues/problems. Essentially, such output constitutes a package of environmental management strategies as generated by the working groups. However, depending on various conditions speci"c to the EPM process, institutional, economic and technological, the strategies can be produced by di!erent approaches. For instance, in their day-to-day activities, the SDP working groups used data-bases and information from various sources scattered among the city stakeholders to generate such strategies in the form of EMSD and EPMD. Thirdly, arising from the two conclusions above, it is evident that the EPM process output should ultimately bene"t the developers/investors in terms of their contributions and commitments in the working groups activities. For instance, in Dar-es-Salaam developers/investors have increasingly approached SDP for pertinent information regarding suitable or alternative project locations. However, these developers/investors have still to consult with the o$cials responsible for zoning and building regulations in order to ful"ll the legal requirements for project execution. As such, the developers/investors have had to consult separately the
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three parties involved in urban development planning, a practice which is selfdefeating for the EPM process in terms of its institutional requirements. Hence, a better practice would therefore be to bring together the developer or investor, the practitioners in land-use planning (i.e. the zoning law/regulations enforcers), the practitoners in participatory urban management (i.e. the EPM process working groups), and of course the information managers. In this regard, from 1995 to 1996 the SDP experimented in operationalizing this set of institutional arrangements for the EPM process by bringing together the utility agencies (as developers/investors) and the DCC and the central government ministry responsible for town urban development control (as land development administrators). Similarly, SDP experimented with other categories of developers and investors including "nancial institutions, state-owned enterprises, the private sector, and the community sector. This participatory approach to urban development planning was promising and fruitful from the viewpoint of developers and investors. However, the dissolution of the Dar-es-Salaam City Council (DCC) and replacing it with the Dar-es-Salaam City Commission (DCC) has frustrated such a worthwhile endeavour.
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