- Email: [email protected]
The European Union
Chapter 14
The European Union: Nordic Countries and Germany Tor Zipkin
Aalborg University, Denmark
Chapter Outline Germany Bottrop A Blueprint for Success Denmark Ærø Samsø Bornholm Sweden
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Va¨xjo¨ Hammarby Sjo¨stad (Hammarby Lake City) Malmo¨ Rotterdam Discussion References
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GERMANY Germany has a variety of goals to reduce the amount of its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the future by transforming its energy system and usage, dubbed the Energiewende. Goals include phasing out of nuclear energy, reducing GHG by 90% from 1990 levels by 2050, and supplying 60% of renewable energy by 2050. The country has utilized a variety of methods large and small, from expanding the electrical grid to installing heat pumps, with creative and innovative solutions continuously developed. Cities such as Freiburg and Bottrop have furthermore proved themselves as examples how to go green through reducing energy demand and utilizing renewables.
Bottrop Bottrop, Germany, is a city of approximately 117,00 people located in the “Ruhr industrial area” or “Ruhr region,” Germany’s largest urban agglomeration comprising multiple cities and a population of over 8 million people in total. Historically Bottrop was defined by a strong coal industry plus other Sustainable Cities and Communities Design Handbook. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813964-6.00014-8 Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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FIGURE 14.1 The Bottrop city pilot area for sustainable redevelopment (InnovationCity Ruhr, 2017).
industrial processes and enterprises. In the year 2010 Initiativkreis Ruhr GmbH, put on a competition throughout the Ruhr region to select a city that would focus on sustainability and serve as an example for all the other cities in the region how to reduce GHG emissions. Innovation City Ruhr is a privateepublic partnership project associated with approximately 70 businesses coming from energy, services, trade, logistics, and consulting, one such member being Siemens. The city of Bottrop was selected because of its broad base of stakeholders that could involve themselves in the project such as those from the local government and businesses. The goal of the city is to reduce its CO2 emissions by 50% of 2010 by 2020 through a variety of sustainable measures. A company was set up, called Innovation City Management GmbH (ICM), to manage the project. The company is made up of urban planning experts, energy professionals as well as communications experts and consists of 30 people. A majority of the company is owned and supported by Initiativkreis Ruhr GmbH, with the city of Bottrop, a local energy company, an industry and public sector consultancy, and real estate company, each being 10% shareholders. The projects are limited to the inner city of Bottrop plus the surrounding districts, comprising a total of 67,000 people and representing the variety of the Ruhr region as a whole (InnovationCity Ruhr, 2017) (Fig. 14.1).
A Blueprint for Success A master plan titled “Climate friendly urban conversion” of approximately 1300 pages was created by collecting a wide range of information from
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citizens and experts regarding almost 350 projects throughout Bottrop, about 200 of such having been completed by that time. The plan was supposed to serve as a blueprint for the future of the city and outlines the major areas of project focus throughout the city. It was presented to the city government, which decided it was to serve as a general guideline for future development and to assist in further development of the projects outlined within the plan. This was significant, for it attached governmental approval of and commitment to the plan. The creation of the plan had heavily involved the citizens of Bottrop and gave multiple opportunities for said citizens to involve themselves in the planning process. For a period of almost 7 months, residents had the ability to contribute their ideas regarding future development online, which generated the collection of 100 ideas. Furthermore, five residents’ workshops were held where a total of 300 ideas and suggestions were collected. These suggestions and ideas were considered in the creation of the master plan. The blueprint categorizes projects into five categories: “Living” projects focusing on retrofitting of residential areas, “Working” projects focusing on retrofitting of companies, “Energy” projects focusing on renewable and regenerative energy, “Mobility” projects focusing on electric and sustainable mobility, and “City” projects focusing on green urban development. The focus of living projects is to make energy conscious refurbishments throughout the Bottrop residential sector. The project area encompasses around 12,500 residential buildings, 10,000 being privately owned. Refurbishments are varied depending on the building, many being focused on reducing heating demand. Significant focus was put into creating three energy plus buildings that generate more energy than they use. This was done for a single-family home, multifamily house, and commercial building and they were meant to serve as technical examples for others to develop and refurbish buildings with sustainability in mind. The single-family home from the 1960s, coined the innogy Future House, was refurbished completely with solar panels, improved insulation, a heat pump heating system, and LED lighting. The building now meets passive house standards and in total the heating and power consumption was reduced by 99%. The multifamily home was conducted by the company Vivawest and refurbished also with a heat pump, and timed control for electrical appliances, heating, and lighting, BluEvolution 92 energy efficient windows, and various increases in wall-based thermal insulation. Furthermore, 90 solar panels were installed with a total of 24.30 kWp providing an annual 1B200 kW h on the building’s roof, and photovoltaic (PV) wall panels were installed, each panel producing around 75 kWh (zukunftshaus, 2017) (Fig. 14.2). The commercial building, Covestro Zukunftshaus, became the world’s first commercial building renovation to achieve an energy plus standard. The building uses 100% renewable energy and produces over 7500 kWh than it
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FIGURE 14.2 The Vivawest multifamily house after its sustainable refurbishment (InnovationCity Ruhr, 2017).
uses a year. This was achieved through a combination of energy efficient technologies, such as LED lighting including presence control and daylight control systems per office, glass fiber lighting technology using sunlight without additional energy supply, ceiling heating system (heating and cooling using activation of concrete ceiling core), district heating pumps and heating control devices, decentralized ventilation with 90% minimum heat recovery, energy efficient lifts with 75% energy recovery (Build up EU, 2016) plus renewable energy installations including a geothermal heat pump, 108 rooftop solar installations, and a 300W wind plant. The working projects focused on the refurbishment of nonresidential buildings, such as the Covestro Zukunftshaus, of which there were about 2000, including buildings used for commerce, industry, services, recreation, and the public. Projects include energy-efficient refurbishments, adding batteries to existing solar systems (redox flow battery storage system), investigation of coupling industrial areas’ energy systems with residential energy systems, for example, coordinating and storage of energy between the two, developing a green gas station powered via solar cells to reduce its energy demand by 50%, and installing solar power to meet the energy demands of industrial processes. The Bottrop company metal processing company Technobox installed 70 kW of solar power, producing 60,000 kWh more than the company’s electricity demand (InnovationCity Ruhr, 2017). Mobility-focused projects reduce the amount of CO2 that is emitted due to transportation. These included expanding the range and number of electric vehicle charging stations, increasing the amount of electrical vehicles available for rental, transportation management studies meant to increase the efficiency of transportation, efficient distribution of goods and city logistics to reduce traffic, and a goal to reduce transport-based CO2 emissions by 30%.
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Energy-based projects deem to optimize energy production and do not focus on energy efficiency. Energy projects are based on low CO2 emissions, high efficiency generation, decentralized power, and intelligent supply demand coordination. Projects include: l
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Simulating load variable tariffs: this project is meant to determine how well people respond to different electricity prices throughout the day. Participants are told of the next day’s electricity prices so they can run appliances accordingly. Twenty-four electricity consumers were involved and utilized special electricity measuring equipment. Expanding the district heating network. In partnership with the consulting company E.ON, a study on dual demand side management, an innovative energy storage method at the city district level utilizing the thermal storage capacity of buildings, was completed on Bottrop. New gas heat pump pilot projects in residential single-family homes and medium- to large-scale buildings. Installation and operation of 100 micro cogeneration power plants in existing buildings meant to represent the normal building stock of Germany to serve as example of how such technology can be utilized. These decentralized power plants are monitored to present their successes and continually be optimized and adjusted based on the building they are located in.
City projects relate to urban planning, use of open spaces, and water management. Projects include the planning of an energy and technology park at the site of old coal and oil plants in the Welheimer Mark quarter of the city, research projects on energy efficient urban development in partnership with research universities, the greening of roofs and facades with plants, and the usage of LED street lamps throughout the city. The success of Bottrop can be seen in large part because of the planning and collaboration techniques taken, such as the use of a central planning authority, the ICM, and its involvement and ease of access for local citizens. Every 2 weeks, representatives from ICM, the municipality, and the private sector meet to review projects and proposals, and to discuss new ideas and overall progress. These meetings are furthermore provided with input from collaborators on the state, business, and academic levels, all of whom meet quarterly to help further Bottrop’s goals and provide advice and support for Bottrop’s energy transition. They are as follows: l
An interministerial governmental working group was created with representatives from state-level ministries such as the State Chancellery, the Ministry of Economy and Transport, the Ministry of Environment, and the Ministry of Innovation
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FIGURE 14.3 The different advisory boards and management representatives that has allowed for Bottrop’s success (ICLEI, 2016).
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An industry advisory board (as mentioned earlier) consisting of companies in partnership with ICM with approximately 70 representatives A science advisory board chaired by the Wuppertal Institute for Environment, Energy, and Climate consisting of 25 members from various research centers (Fig. 14.3)
Involvement with local citizens has also contributed to the success of Bottrop. Through ICM residents and businesses are offered energy efficiency consulting services by the Centre of Information and Advice (Zentrum fu¨r Information und Beratung e ZIB) through individual building analysis. This has in turn led to almost 8% of all buildings in the target area being refurbished, compared with the national 1%. District management committees were created for each of Bottrop’s seven districts within the pilot area. These committees are meant to ensure the public continues its part in Bottrop’s transition and are included in the decision-making process. These committees that are made up of those within the communities they serve ensure that the Bottrop projects are not implemented on a purely top-down level and provide input as to how projects will affect their areas on the technical, social, and economic levels (ICLEI, 2014; InnovationCity Ruhr, 2017).
DENMARK Denmark is a country with over 70 inhabited islands ranging in population from below 100 people to over 2 million (Zealand), with the goal to generate 50% of total electricity production via wind power by 2020 and to stop using fossil fuels by 2050. Owing to their close proximity with good wind resources
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and small population size, some islands in Denmark have aggressively reduced their carbon footprint and can serve as blueprints for other islands of similar stature.
Ærø Ærø is located in the Baltic Sea south of the island of Fyn, is approximately 88 km2, has a population of around 6300, and generates 55% of its energy from wind, solar, and biomass. The island has had a history of interest in renewable energy, starting in 1981 with the establishment of the Ærø Energy and Environment Office comprising 200 local residents with the goal of bringing renewable energy to the island. By 1985, 11 55 kW wind turbines were erected on the island, all financed and owned by a cooperative of 128 local shareholders (Aeroe Energy and Environment Office). In the early 2000s, plans to replace the old wind turbines with two wind parks of 3 2 MW (12 MW total) turbines were pursued, continuing the theme of local investment in local electricity production. The wind turbine investment cost was divided into shares, of which people living on the island or owning a house there were guaranteed up to 20 of, the rest being available on a first come first serve basis. For the first wind park, two organizations were created to take advantage of different tax regulations, one comprising six people owning one turbine, the other 550 people owning the other two. The second wind park was financed in a similar way, yet only secured 200 investors, with individual investors owning more shares. Banks provided loans for investment in turbine shares, with the shares many times serving as collateral. Payback time for investment in the shares was around 8 years. The wind turbines are 100% community owned through 650 people, approximately 10% of the island’s population, and cover 130% of the island’s electricity usage (Zipkin et al., 2015). The island also utilizes the sun both for electricity and heat. Although 500 kW of rooftop PV capacity is installed with an annual production of 400 MWh, it is the island’s use of solar heating that is impressive. The island heavily uses solar collectors to supply heat via the island’s three district heating networks. The island’s largest district heating network supplies heat to 1460 people and is Europe’s largest solar district heating plant with 33,000 m2 of solar collectors. When not using solar heat, the district heating systems utilize biomass resources to power combined heat and power (CHP) generators, resulting in 100% renewable district heat systems. District heating supplies 65% of the island’s heating supply (Sunstore 4, 2013) (Figs. 14.4 and 14.5).
Samsø Samsø is an island off the Danish Jutland peninsula 114 km2 and with a 2017 population of around 3700. Starting in 1998, Samsø began planning a 10-year
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FIGURE 14.4 One section of the solar collecting district heating plant on Ærø (Denmark.dk).
FIGURE 14.5 Water storage for the MARSTAL DH plant (Sunstore 4, 2013).
project to become a renewable energy island with all its electricity needs coming from sustainable sources. Between 1990 and 2000, 10 onshore wind turbines with a total capacity of 11 MW were erected, and starting in 2002, construction of 10 offshore wind turbines at 2.3 MW each was begun (these turbines were meant to compensate for the continued usage of fossil fuele burning cars on the island and oil-based heat production and the CO2 emissions from such). Furthermore, 60% of the island’s heat demand was to be supplied via district heating and 40% via individual boilers. Those using individual boilers were encouraged and supplied information regarding biomass boilers, solar collectors, and heat pumps, with the help of local tradesmen, resulting in half of those not connected to the district heating network converting. About 70% of the heat supply on the island comes from sustainable sources. Community meetings, held once a month, were commonplace during the planning process, where information about the energy transition was shared and discussed, such as financial costs of the project and turbine visualizations (Energy Academy, 2011) (Fig. 14.6).
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FIGURE 14.6 Depiction of the renewable energy island Samsø (Energy Institute).
As in Ærø, the ownership structure of the Samsø projects heavily includes the local population and government. The municipality owns 5 of the 10 offshore wind turbines; profits from these wind turbines are to be invested in future energy projects as per Danish regulations. As for the other five, private groups made up mainly of local farmers own three, and the other two are owned by cooperatives. One cooperative is locally managed and it consists of 450 people who own shares, and the other is national (people from throughout Denmark can buy shares), consists of 1100 people who own shares, and is managed by a professional investment foundation (Energy Academy, 2011; Zipkin et al., 2015). Local farmers own nine of the onshore turbines independently and the other two are owned by local cooperatives. The two local cooperatives for onshore turbines consist of 5400 shares that were offered to
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FIGURE 14.7 Ownership structure for the Smasø wind turbines (Zipkin et al., 2015).
the public over the course of 6 months. Residents had the opportunity to purchase shares in packages of 1 share, 10 shares, or 30 shares, again with local banks providing loans with the shares serving as collateral (Fig. 14.7).
Bornholm Bornholm is the easternmost Danish island positioned closer to Sweden than to Denmark. It is 588 km2 and has a population of 39,664, giving it a significantly larger energy demand than the islands mentioned earlier. The island is currently connected to Sweden via a 60-kV 70-MW undersea power cable, with a peak load electricity demand around 55 MW. The island hopes to become reliant on 100% renewable energy, with 36-MW wind turbines already supplying between 30% and 40% of its yearly electricity demand and at many times throughout the year wind power supplying more than the electricity demand (Madsen et al., 2012; EcoGrid EU, 2015) (Fig. 14.8). Bornholm’s singular connection to a larger grid system, desire to further rely on intermittent renewable energy in the future makes, and representation of Denmark on a smaller scale, made it a good choice to study and develop an advanced smart grid, formally named the EcoGrid EU. EcoGrid EU is Europe’s largest smart grid project and is funded by the European Union. As part of the project, 1900 houses and 18 industrial/commercial electricity users
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Bornholm energy system (EcoGrid EU, 2015).
on the island participated in flexible electricity demand response to the realtime electricity price signals using demand response appliances and smart controllers. Participants were divided into four groups, and every 5 min electricity prices were updated and the amount of electricity available was determined. Depending on the group, this information was accessed by one’s own initiative, shared via a notification to one’s cell phone, or based on the electricity price electric heating systems and heat pumps were automatically turned on or off. This is used to study how participants can stabilize the fluctuating nature of wind power to ensure a stable grid system while saving money on their electricity bills (EcoGrid EU, 2015). The objective of the EcoGrid was to develop and demonstrate real-time market solutions that can be used into the future as energy systems continue to fluctuate because of high penetrations of renewable energy as a way to balance grid fluctuations (Fig. 14.9). Currently the technology used on Bornholm applied only to house-heating systems; however, in the future it will include home appliances and electric vehicles. A test house was furthermore created, a normal residential house equipped with the EcoGrid Technology, to teach those participating in the project how the EcoGrid project could affect their energy usage and to demonstrate how the system operates, and over 600 houses took part in group training sessions.
SWEDEN Sweden is a country heavily dedicated toward sustainability, enacting a variety of measures and practices with the environment in mind, such as the heavy use
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FIGURE 14.9 Electricity regulating by the EcoGrid Real Time Market (EcoGrid EU, 2015).
of waste to energy, and throughout the country seeing the development of both large and small projects devoted to the reduction of GHG emissions.
Va¨xjo¨ Va¨xjo¨ is a Swedish city with a population of around 65,000 that has been committed to sustainability since 1996, when it decided on the goal to eliminate all fossil fuel usage by 2030, because of overwhelming local pollution at that time. In 2011 the city updated its goals for the year 2015: l l l l
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reduce the final energy usage per capita by 15% reduce CO2 emissions by 55% compared with 1993 levels reduce electricity usage 20% per capita compared with 1993 levels reduce the municipality owned locations’ energy use by 17% compared with 2002/2003 levels reduce city transport CO2 emissions by 30% compared with 1999
The city furthermore signed the Covenant of Mayors, an agreement to go beyond the EU 20-20-20 sustainability goals and targets (20% share of renewable energy, 20% reduction of CO2 emissions compared with 1990, 20% greater energy efficiency). Va¨xjo¨ therefore has committed to reduce CO2 emissions by 65% per capita from 1993 levels by 2020 (Kommun, 2015) (Fig. 14.10). In 2010 Va¨xjo¨ had a renewable energy production share of 53%, due in large part to the usage of CHP plants utilizing regional forestry waste as a biomass fuel to supply heat via the city’s district heating network, with electricity from CHP usage accounting for a third of the city’s electricity consumption. The Sandvik CHP Station is a 105-MW CHP plant and the city’s largest provider of energy, with an energy utilization factor of 92%. It runs mainly on a variety of biomass fuels collected as waste products from the
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FIGURE 14.10 Energy supply in Va¨xjo¨, the largest section representing biomass (Kommun, 2015).
regional forest industry such as forest residue, sawdust, woodchips, bark, and peat (Ramboll; Force Technology). The city has a variety of future goals to continue its reduction of CO2 emissions and increase its usage of renewable energies. l
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Upgrading and increasing the capacity of existing hydro power plants within the municipality Expand the district heating network Pursue the investment in large-scale wind turbines Reduce the use of peat as fuel because of its contribution of GHG emissions and phase it out by 2020 Energy efficiency standards for new municipal buildings Increasing the access to renewable fuels for transportation and electric vehicles. (Kommun, 2015)
Hammarby Sjo¨stad (Hammarby Lake City) Hammarby Sjo¨stad began as an old industrial area in Stockholm that beginning in the 1990s and throughout the 2000s was continuously transformed and developed into what is now a model of sustainable urban development that has served as an inspiration worldwide. With the original goal to develop the area in preparation for an (eventually failed) Olympic bid, environmental performance was to be “twice as good” as modern developments at the time and
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energy was to come from renewable and local sources, with the desire to decrease energy flowing into and out of the district as much as possible, i.e., “close the loop.” The Stockholm municipality connected the Stockholm energy, water, and waste infrastructure companies to work together to help develop this sustainable district, instead of working individually in their respective fields, considered the status quo for similar projects in large cities. In 1997 an outline for the future sustainable development was agreed upon by these companies and the Stockholm municipality and is now known as the Hammarby Model; this outlines an “integrated infrastructural system” connecting energy and material flows and usages throughout the local infrastructure in the hopes of “closing the loop” while providing energy, water, and waste and sewage services for residential housing and offices. The model called for the usage of technology already in use in Stockholm, such as CHP and district heating, and newer technologies such as a local wastewater treatment plant the waste of which could be used as fertilizer or converted to biogas and PV cells and solar collectors, stressing interactions between technologies to “close the loop.” (The potential of a closed infrastructural system of Hammarby Sjo¨stad in Stockholm, Sweden.) Although this model was not technically perfect, it proved to be essential for the project success and has been examined and used in other sustainable urban development projects, such as the Caofeidian Ecocity development in China (Iveroth et al., 2013, 2012) (Fig. 14.11).
FIGURE 14.11 The Hammarby model (Hammarby Sjostad).
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As of 2013, 26,000 people live in the district in the 11,000 apartments located there; construction completion is projected for 2017 with the ability to accommodate up to 35,000 residents. The district implemented a variety of transportation measures to reduce GHG emission, including a light rail system that accounts for one-third of all travel within the district (of which every residence is within 300 m of a stop), a free ferry service, a carpooling service utilizing electric vehicles (18% of households having signed up by 2010), and an extensive bike and walking path network. Based on a 2007 survey, the goal for 80% of transportation in the city to be based on public transportation was nearly reached, with 79% of all transportation being nonprivate (Jernberg et al., 2015). Hundred percent of the houses in the district are heated through a district heating network supplied by the nearby waste incinerating Ho¨gdalen CHP plant and heat pumps using treated wastewater at the Hammarby thermal power plant. Most of the heat and electricity used comes from the burning of the waste generated in the district at the CHP plant. Furthermore, the sludge from the district’s wastewater treatment process is converted into enough biogas to supply the district with its gas demand. Although there were no green building goals, the average energy usage for the districts buildings is 118 kWh/m2, lower than Stockholm’s average. One building in particular that garners attention is the GlashusEtt, which serves as an environmental information center displaying sustainable infrastructure and building techniques resulting in an energy consumption 50% less than similar glass buildings. Such features include smart monitoring system, PV cells, hydrogen fuel cell, and heat pumps (Jernberg et al., 2015) (Fig. 14.12). The district has been viewed as a success, yet criticism has been voiced that most of the waste generated comes from outside the district, for example, food waste comes from food throughout the world, counterintuitive to the “close the loop” idea. Also noted is that despite as originally envisioned, PV, solar collectors, and wind turbines on a large scale were never developed, with only a few houses having solar collectors or solar PV cells (Iveroth et al., 2013).
FIGURE 14.12 Glasshuset (Stockholm Stad).
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Malmo¨ Malmo¨ is Sweden’s third largest city with a population over 300,000 and the goal to use 100% renewable energy by 2030. Like Stockholm it has heavily focused on sustainable urbanization and in the year 2016 won the European Union’s Sustainable Urban Mobility Award. The city has multiple sustainable construction projects, having started since 1998, committed to reducing the amount of GHG emitted. l
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Sustainable Hilda is one such area, a housing cooperative targeting 767 apartments and 2400 residents with the goal to become energy independent by 2020. The 2014 goals include achieving a 50% reduction of CO2 emissions, reducing energy and water consumption 40%, generating 10,000 kWh of renewable energy, and the participation of 70% of target residents. Renovations such as fac¸ade insulation retrofitting and low-flow faucets have been utilized to increase efficiency, as well as the installation of solar panels and rain collection systems (Malmo Stad). The Hyllie area is a planned sustainable district to encompass 10,000 homes and have power by 100% renewable or recycled resources by 2020. The city of Malmo¨, water and sewage municipal authority VA SYD, and consulting company E.ON partnered in 2011 to create the most climate friendly district in the region. The area is to integrate electricity, heating, and cooling, and utilize a smart grid system to optimize energy resources, measure and influence energy usage, and use storage capacity when energy supply and demand are not balanced. Five local developers have received grants from the European Union for the BuildSmart project, meant to demonstrate residential and commercial buildings with an energy usage less than 60 kWh/m2, less than half of Sweden’s average building energy usage. Regarding transportation, buses are to be powered by fossil-free fuels, such as waste by-product biogas, and the effects of electric vehicles on the smart grid are to be studied in greater detail by E.ON (Malmo Stad). The Western Harbor (Va¨stra Hamnen) is another brownfield redevelopment project like Hammarby Sjo¨stad in Stockholm. The development of the area began in 2001 with the Bo01 project and has since continued. Developers of the Bo01 were required to follow a green space factor guideline to ensure water permeability and a green point guideline following 35 point options such as reusing gray water in courtyards, having green roofs, and scoring above a certain number. Energy in this original Bo01 development came from 100% renewable sources, such as a 2-MW wind turbine in close by Norra Hamnen, PV cells, and heat pumps, with district heating utilizing geothermal energy and 1200 m2 of solar collectors (in 2016 there were 3000 m2) supplying the rest of the heating and cooling demands. Buildings were given a target energy usage, and although they did not reach this
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FIGURE 14.13 Western Harbor Malmo gov source (Malmo¨ City Planning Office, 2015).
target energy, many buildings achieved very low energy usage (http://www. collegepublishing.us/jgb/samples/JGB_V8N3_a02_Austin.pdf). Development in the Western Harbor has continued with a focus on sustainability, including the construction of 200 passive grade houses in 2012. By 2030 it is planned to inhabit 20,000 people, with a population of almost 7000 in 2013 (Malmo¨ City Planning Office, 2015) (Fig. 14.13).
Rotterdam Rotterdam is the second largest city in the Netherlands with a population of 633,471. As it is located on the coast of the Netherlands, Rotterdam is vulnerable to rising sea levels; however, it is the location of a large port, which in turn results in the region emitting 16% of the country’s GHG emissions while contributing to only 8.5% of the country’s GDP. About 88% of the city’s GHG emissions come from the industry and energy-generating facilities in the port area. In 2007 the city established the Rotterdam Climate Initiative (RCI), bringing together the government, business, and public to achieve a more sustainable city with the three goals of reducing GHG emission to half of 1990 levels, designing a city that can mitigate the effects of future climate change, and achieving sustainable economic development all by 2025. Goals include: l
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Provide 20% of energy by 2020 that comes from renewable sources, and by 2025 use 3 million tons of sustainably produced biomass and have 350 MW of wind turbines installed to supply energy. Increase the use of public transport by 40% and bicycle use by 30% by 2025. Encourage planting of trees, creation of green roofs, and practice of urban farming. Development of carbon capture storage beginning with the Rotterdam Capture and Storage Demonstration Project (ROAD) storing carbon into the North Sea (City of Rotterdam, 2017).
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FIGURE 14.14 Wind power at the Rotterdam Port (Port of Rotterdam, 2016).
As the Port of Rotterdam is the most polluting aspect of the city, focus has been given to reducing its overall energy usage and GHG emissions. The port area was in 2016 the location of almost 200 MW of installed wind turbine capacity. Infrastructure investments are furthermore continuously made to utilize the waste heat generated by the port area industrial process for district heating and other industrial processes. A new port, Maasvlakte 2, was also created as a demonstration port, with strict sustainability requirements for companies that wish to operate there, with fully electric container terminals running on wind power (Port of Rotterdam) (Fig. 14.14). The RCI adopted the Rotterdam Energy Approach and Planning (REAP) approach to help achieve its sustainability goals in 2009. REAP is a three-step energy initiative emphasizing energy efficiency, waste energy flows, and the use of renewable energy. Eight interactive workshops and 20 meetings were held at the beginning of its adoption by the city for politicians, civil servants, economists, the regional European Parliament, and local energy companies to explain and discuss the development plan. Examples of REAP in practice include the Hart van Zuid retrofitting project, Stadshaven redevelopment project, and also increasing of the district heating network with plans to increase connection to 155,000 homes by 2035 (Lenhart et al., 2015).
DISCUSSION When looking at the European energy transition at a community level, a couple of methods are constantly seen, perhaps the most constant being the use of district heating. The centralized production of heat, many times via CHP power plants, centralizes the combustion fuel allowing for greater emission control versus the use of individual boilers, and allows for a greater variety of fuels to be used that have lesser carbon footprints than coal or oil. This is seen in Sweden, where biomass waste from the regional forestry industry is used, or
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waste is burned rather than landfilled. District heating networks also have been proved to help mitigate the fluctuating electricity supply that is associated with energy systems with large amounts of renewable energy, especially in countries such as Denmark, where district heating combined with heat storage supplies heat to a majority of Danes. Another important theme in successful European energy transitions is the inclusion of local populations. Including the local citizens of an area in planning processes, information campaigns, and especially investments, as seen in Bottrop and throughout the Danish islands, can increase support and even be a driving force in the redevelopment of communities. Yet perhaps just as essential is the centralized actor, normally in the form of government, that sets goals and brings the multiple actors together that are needed to create and implement the blueprints for the future. In most of the cases mentioned, an overseeing organization set ambitious goals, brought stakeholders together, and managed the multiple projects all of which were needed to reduce the emissions of GHGs. In conclusion, what should be taken away is that a successful transition toward a renewable and efficient future is both a topdown and bottom-up process, one that needs support from both sides for maximum success. Europe is considered to lead the way in the transition toward a sustainable future; the cases given here are at the forefront and serve as an inspiration throughout the world. Lessening energy demand through energy efficiency in buildings and industry like in Germany and the Netherlands, utilizing local resources for power like in Sweden and Denmark, and including local populations in the planning and execution of projects have all been proved as best practices and should be remembered and looked toward as examples when government, business, and citizens are creating a better tomorrow.
REFERENCES Build up EU, June 30, 2016. Covestro Zukunftshaus Bottrop. Retrieved from Build Up The European Portal For Energy Efficiency In Buildings. http://www.buildup.eu/en/practices/ cases/covestro-zukunftshaus-bottrop-2. City of Rotterdam, 2017. Investing in Sustainable Growth Rotterdam Programme on Sustainability and Climate Change, pp. 2010e2014 (City of Rotterdam). Denmark.dk., n.d. Retrieved from http://denmark.dk/en/w/media/Denmark/Images/Green% 20living/Sustainable%20projects/Sunmark1MarstalDistrictHeatingPlant580.jpg? w¼580&h¼360&as¼1. EcoGrid EU, 2015. The Bornholm Test Site. Retrieved from EcoGrid EU. http://www.eu-ecogrid. net/ecogrid-eu/the-bornholm-test-site. Energy Academy, 2011. RE-ISLAND. Retrieved from energiakademiet. https://energiakademiet. dk/en/vedvarende-energi-o/. Environment Office., n.d.. Ærø e a Renewable Energy Island. Retrieved from Aeroe Energy and Environment Office: http://aeroe-emk.dk/eng/aeroe_energy_island.html.
278 Sustainable Cities and Communities Design Handbook Energy Institute., n.d. Retrieved from http://arkiv.energiinstituttet.dk/504/1/Folder%20DK_v12_ FINAL.pdf. ¨ XJO ¨ ENERGI AB, SANDVIK 2, SWEDEN. Retrieved from https:// Force Technology., n.d. VA bio-chp.force.dk/downloads/chp-plants-key-figures/vaxjo-energi-ab-sandvik-2-sweden/. ICLEI, 2014. Bottrop, Germany InnovationCity Ruhr e model City Bottrop: revitalizing an industrial region through low-carbon redevelopment and active public-private partnerships. ICLEI. ICLEI, 2016. Innovative City Business Collaboration. ICLEI. Iveroth, S.P., Johansson, S., Brandt, N., August 8, 2013. The potential of the infrastructural system of Hammarby Sjo¨stad in Stockholm, Sweden. Energy Policy 59. Iverotha, S.P., Vernayb, A.-L., Mulderb, K.F., Brandt, N., 2012. Implications of systems integration at the urban level: the case of Hammarby Sjo¨stad, Stockholm þ Stockholm municipality from that source. Journal of Cleaner Production. Jernberg, J., Hedenskog, S., Huang, C., 2015. Hammarby Sjo¨stad an Urban Development Case Study of Hammarby Sjo¨stad in Sweden, Stockholm. China Development Bank Capital). Kommun, V., 2015. Energy Plan for the City of Va¨xjo¨ (Va¨xjo¨ Kommun). Lenhart, J., van Vliet, B., Mol, A.P., November 2015. New roles for local authorities in a time of climate change: the Rotterdam Energy Approach and Planning as a case of urban symbiosis. Journal of Cleaner Production 107. Madsen, H., et al., 2012. Evaluation of Energy Storage System to Support Danish Island of Bornholm Power Grid. Technical University of Denmark, Center for Electric Technology. Malmo¨ City Planning Office, 2015. Va¨stra Hamnen Current Urban Development. Retrieved from. http://malmo.se/vastrahamnen: http://malmo.se/download/18.76b7688614bb5ccea09157af/ 1491304414891/CurrentþurbanþdevelopmentþinþWesternþHarbourþ%282015%29.pdf. Malmo Stad., n.d.-a. Climate-smart Hyllie e Testing the Sustainable Solutions of the Future. Retrieved from Malmo Stad: http://malmo.se/download/18.760b3241144f4d60d3b69cd/ 1491305302024/Hyllieþklimatkontrakt_broschyr_EN_2013.pdf. Malmo Stad., n.d.-b. SUSTAINABLE HILDA. Retrieved from Malmo Stad: http://malmo.se/ download/18.72a9d0fc1492d5b743fc837b/1491301239246/SustainableþHilda.pdf. Port of Rotterdam., n.d. Sustainabilty. Retrieved from Port of Rotterdam: https://www. portofrotterdam.com/en/the-port/sustainability. Port of Rotterdam, 2016. Port of Rotterdam Authority Highlights of the 2016 Annual Report (Port of Rotterdam). Ramboll., n.d. Empowering Va¨xjo¨ to become fossil-free. Retrieved from Romboll: http://www. ramboll.com/projects/re/veab-sandvik-power-station-unit-3?alias¼vaxjo. InnovationCity Ruhr, 2017. Retrieved from InnovationCity Ruhr. http://www.icruhr.de/. Sjostad., n.d. The Hammarby Model. Retrieved from http://www.hammarbysjostad.eu/2hammarby-sjostad-the-full-story-the-hammarby-model/. Stockholm Stad., n.d. Retrieved from http://www.stockholm.se/OmStockholm/Stadens-klimatoch-miljoarbete/Manadens-klimatsmart-Stockholm/GlashusEtt–Internationell-kandis-iSjostaden/. Sunstore 4, 2013. Why a R&D Project? Retrieved from SUNSTORE 4 100% renewable district heating. http://sunstore4.eu/understand/why-a-r1d-project/. Zipkin, T., et al., 2015. Appendix 13-a case of community involvement in wind turbine planning. In: The Green Industrial Revolution. Butterworth Heinemann. zukunftshaus, 2017. Retrieved from: http://www.zukunftshaus.org/.
The European Union: Nordic Countries and Germany Tor Zipkin
Aalborg University, Denmark
Chapter Outline Germany Bottrop A Blueprint for Success Denmark Ærø Samsø Bornholm Sweden
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GERMANY Germany has a variety of goals to reduce the amount of its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the future by transforming its energy system and usage, dubbed the Energiewende. Goals include phasing out of nuclear energy, reducing GHG by 90% from 1990 levels by 2050, and supplying 60% of renewable energy by 2050. The country has utilized a variety of methods large and small, from expanding the electrical grid to installing heat pumps, with creative and innovative solutions continuously developed. Cities such as Freiburg and Bottrop have furthermore proved themselves as examples how to go green through reducing energy demand and utilizing renewables.
Bottrop Bottrop, Germany, is a city of approximately 117,00 people located in the “Ruhr industrial area” or “Ruhr region,” Germany’s largest urban agglomeration comprising multiple cities and a population of over 8 million people in total. Historically Bottrop was defined by a strong coal industry plus other Sustainable Cities and Communities Design Handbook. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813964-6.00014-8 Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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FIGURE 14.1 The Bottrop city pilot area for sustainable redevelopment (InnovationCity Ruhr, 2017).
industrial processes and enterprises. In the year 2010 Initiativkreis Ruhr GmbH, put on a competition throughout the Ruhr region to select a city that would focus on sustainability and serve as an example for all the other cities in the region how to reduce GHG emissions. Innovation City Ruhr is a privateepublic partnership project associated with approximately 70 businesses coming from energy, services, trade, logistics, and consulting, one such member being Siemens. The city of Bottrop was selected because of its broad base of stakeholders that could involve themselves in the project such as those from the local government and businesses. The goal of the city is to reduce its CO2 emissions by 50% of 2010 by 2020 through a variety of sustainable measures. A company was set up, called Innovation City Management GmbH (ICM), to manage the project. The company is made up of urban planning experts, energy professionals as well as communications experts and consists of 30 people. A majority of the company is owned and supported by Initiativkreis Ruhr GmbH, with the city of Bottrop, a local energy company, an industry and public sector consultancy, and real estate company, each being 10% shareholders. The projects are limited to the inner city of Bottrop plus the surrounding districts, comprising a total of 67,000 people and representing the variety of the Ruhr region as a whole (InnovationCity Ruhr, 2017) (Fig. 14.1).
A Blueprint for Success A master plan titled “Climate friendly urban conversion” of approximately 1300 pages was created by collecting a wide range of information from
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citizens and experts regarding almost 350 projects throughout Bottrop, about 200 of such having been completed by that time. The plan was supposed to serve as a blueprint for the future of the city and outlines the major areas of project focus throughout the city. It was presented to the city government, which decided it was to serve as a general guideline for future development and to assist in further development of the projects outlined within the plan. This was significant, for it attached governmental approval of and commitment to the plan. The creation of the plan had heavily involved the citizens of Bottrop and gave multiple opportunities for said citizens to involve themselves in the planning process. For a period of almost 7 months, residents had the ability to contribute their ideas regarding future development online, which generated the collection of 100 ideas. Furthermore, five residents’ workshops were held where a total of 300 ideas and suggestions were collected. These suggestions and ideas were considered in the creation of the master plan. The blueprint categorizes projects into five categories: “Living” projects focusing on retrofitting of residential areas, “Working” projects focusing on retrofitting of companies, “Energy” projects focusing on renewable and regenerative energy, “Mobility” projects focusing on electric and sustainable mobility, and “City” projects focusing on green urban development. The focus of living projects is to make energy conscious refurbishments throughout the Bottrop residential sector. The project area encompasses around 12,500 residential buildings, 10,000 being privately owned. Refurbishments are varied depending on the building, many being focused on reducing heating demand. Significant focus was put into creating three energy plus buildings that generate more energy than they use. This was done for a single-family home, multifamily house, and commercial building and they were meant to serve as technical examples for others to develop and refurbish buildings with sustainability in mind. The single-family home from the 1960s, coined the innogy Future House, was refurbished completely with solar panels, improved insulation, a heat pump heating system, and LED lighting. The building now meets passive house standards and in total the heating and power consumption was reduced by 99%. The multifamily home was conducted by the company Vivawest and refurbished also with a heat pump, and timed control for electrical appliances, heating, and lighting, BluEvolution 92 energy efficient windows, and various increases in wall-based thermal insulation. Furthermore, 90 solar panels were installed with a total of 24.30 kWp providing an annual 1B200 kW h on the building’s roof, and photovoltaic (PV) wall panels were installed, each panel producing around 75 kWh (zukunftshaus, 2017) (Fig. 14.2). The commercial building, Covestro Zukunftshaus, became the world’s first commercial building renovation to achieve an energy plus standard. The building uses 100% renewable energy and produces over 7500 kWh than it
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FIGURE 14.2 The Vivawest multifamily house after its sustainable refurbishment (InnovationCity Ruhr, 2017).
uses a year. This was achieved through a combination of energy efficient technologies, such as LED lighting including presence control and daylight control systems per office, glass fiber lighting technology using sunlight without additional energy supply, ceiling heating system (heating and cooling using activation of concrete ceiling core), district heating pumps and heating control devices, decentralized ventilation with 90% minimum heat recovery, energy efficient lifts with 75% energy recovery (Build up EU, 2016) plus renewable energy installations including a geothermal heat pump, 108 rooftop solar installations, and a 300W wind plant. The working projects focused on the refurbishment of nonresidential buildings, such as the Covestro Zukunftshaus, of which there were about 2000, including buildings used for commerce, industry, services, recreation, and the public. Projects include energy-efficient refurbishments, adding batteries to existing solar systems (redox flow battery storage system), investigation of coupling industrial areas’ energy systems with residential energy systems, for example, coordinating and storage of energy between the two, developing a green gas station powered via solar cells to reduce its energy demand by 50%, and installing solar power to meet the energy demands of industrial processes. The Bottrop company metal processing company Technobox installed 70 kW of solar power, producing 60,000 kWh more than the company’s electricity demand (InnovationCity Ruhr, 2017). Mobility-focused projects reduce the amount of CO2 that is emitted due to transportation. These included expanding the range and number of electric vehicle charging stations, increasing the amount of electrical vehicles available for rental, transportation management studies meant to increase the efficiency of transportation, efficient distribution of goods and city logistics to reduce traffic, and a goal to reduce transport-based CO2 emissions by 30%.
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Energy-based projects deem to optimize energy production and do not focus on energy efficiency. Energy projects are based on low CO2 emissions, high efficiency generation, decentralized power, and intelligent supply demand coordination. Projects include: l
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Simulating load variable tariffs: this project is meant to determine how well people respond to different electricity prices throughout the day. Participants are told of the next day’s electricity prices so they can run appliances accordingly. Twenty-four electricity consumers were involved and utilized special electricity measuring equipment. Expanding the district heating network. In partnership with the consulting company E.ON, a study on dual demand side management, an innovative energy storage method at the city district level utilizing the thermal storage capacity of buildings, was completed on Bottrop. New gas heat pump pilot projects in residential single-family homes and medium- to large-scale buildings. Installation and operation of 100 micro cogeneration power plants in existing buildings meant to represent the normal building stock of Germany to serve as example of how such technology can be utilized. These decentralized power plants are monitored to present their successes and continually be optimized and adjusted based on the building they are located in.
City projects relate to urban planning, use of open spaces, and water management. Projects include the planning of an energy and technology park at the site of old coal and oil plants in the Welheimer Mark quarter of the city, research projects on energy efficient urban development in partnership with research universities, the greening of roofs and facades with plants, and the usage of LED street lamps throughout the city. The success of Bottrop can be seen in large part because of the planning and collaboration techniques taken, such as the use of a central planning authority, the ICM, and its involvement and ease of access for local citizens. Every 2 weeks, representatives from ICM, the municipality, and the private sector meet to review projects and proposals, and to discuss new ideas and overall progress. These meetings are furthermore provided with input from collaborators on the state, business, and academic levels, all of whom meet quarterly to help further Bottrop’s goals and provide advice and support for Bottrop’s energy transition. They are as follows: l
An interministerial governmental working group was created with representatives from state-level ministries such as the State Chancellery, the Ministry of Economy and Transport, the Ministry of Environment, and the Ministry of Innovation
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FIGURE 14.3 The different advisory boards and management representatives that has allowed for Bottrop’s success (ICLEI, 2016).
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An industry advisory board (as mentioned earlier) consisting of companies in partnership with ICM with approximately 70 representatives A science advisory board chaired by the Wuppertal Institute for Environment, Energy, and Climate consisting of 25 members from various research centers (Fig. 14.3)
Involvement with local citizens has also contributed to the success of Bottrop. Through ICM residents and businesses are offered energy efficiency consulting services by the Centre of Information and Advice (Zentrum fu¨r Information und Beratung e ZIB) through individual building analysis. This has in turn led to almost 8% of all buildings in the target area being refurbished, compared with the national 1%. District management committees were created for each of Bottrop’s seven districts within the pilot area. These committees are meant to ensure the public continues its part in Bottrop’s transition and are included in the decision-making process. These committees that are made up of those within the communities they serve ensure that the Bottrop projects are not implemented on a purely top-down level and provide input as to how projects will affect their areas on the technical, social, and economic levels (ICLEI, 2014; InnovationCity Ruhr, 2017).
DENMARK Denmark is a country with over 70 inhabited islands ranging in population from below 100 people to over 2 million (Zealand), with the goal to generate 50% of total electricity production via wind power by 2020 and to stop using fossil fuels by 2050. Owing to their close proximity with good wind resources
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and small population size, some islands in Denmark have aggressively reduced their carbon footprint and can serve as blueprints for other islands of similar stature.
Ærø Ærø is located in the Baltic Sea south of the island of Fyn, is approximately 88 km2, has a population of around 6300, and generates 55% of its energy from wind, solar, and biomass. The island has had a history of interest in renewable energy, starting in 1981 with the establishment of the Ærø Energy and Environment Office comprising 200 local residents with the goal of bringing renewable energy to the island. By 1985, 11 55 kW wind turbines were erected on the island, all financed and owned by a cooperative of 128 local shareholders (Aeroe Energy and Environment Office). In the early 2000s, plans to replace the old wind turbines with two wind parks of 3 2 MW (12 MW total) turbines were pursued, continuing the theme of local investment in local electricity production. The wind turbine investment cost was divided into shares, of which people living on the island or owning a house there were guaranteed up to 20 of, the rest being available on a first come first serve basis. For the first wind park, two organizations were created to take advantage of different tax regulations, one comprising six people owning one turbine, the other 550 people owning the other two. The second wind park was financed in a similar way, yet only secured 200 investors, with individual investors owning more shares. Banks provided loans for investment in turbine shares, with the shares many times serving as collateral. Payback time for investment in the shares was around 8 years. The wind turbines are 100% community owned through 650 people, approximately 10% of the island’s population, and cover 130% of the island’s electricity usage (Zipkin et al., 2015). The island also utilizes the sun both for electricity and heat. Although 500 kW of rooftop PV capacity is installed with an annual production of 400 MWh, it is the island’s use of solar heating that is impressive. The island heavily uses solar collectors to supply heat via the island’s three district heating networks. The island’s largest district heating network supplies heat to 1460 people and is Europe’s largest solar district heating plant with 33,000 m2 of solar collectors. When not using solar heat, the district heating systems utilize biomass resources to power combined heat and power (CHP) generators, resulting in 100% renewable district heat systems. District heating supplies 65% of the island’s heating supply (Sunstore 4, 2013) (Figs. 14.4 and 14.5).
Samsø Samsø is an island off the Danish Jutland peninsula 114 km2 and with a 2017 population of around 3700. Starting in 1998, Samsø began planning a 10-year
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FIGURE 14.4 One section of the solar collecting district heating plant on Ærø (Denmark.dk).
FIGURE 14.5 Water storage for the MARSTAL DH plant (Sunstore 4, 2013).
project to become a renewable energy island with all its electricity needs coming from sustainable sources. Between 1990 and 2000, 10 onshore wind turbines with a total capacity of 11 MW were erected, and starting in 2002, construction of 10 offshore wind turbines at 2.3 MW each was begun (these turbines were meant to compensate for the continued usage of fossil fuele burning cars on the island and oil-based heat production and the CO2 emissions from such). Furthermore, 60% of the island’s heat demand was to be supplied via district heating and 40% via individual boilers. Those using individual boilers were encouraged and supplied information regarding biomass boilers, solar collectors, and heat pumps, with the help of local tradesmen, resulting in half of those not connected to the district heating network converting. About 70% of the heat supply on the island comes from sustainable sources. Community meetings, held once a month, were commonplace during the planning process, where information about the energy transition was shared and discussed, such as financial costs of the project and turbine visualizations (Energy Academy, 2011) (Fig. 14.6).
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FIGURE 14.6 Depiction of the renewable energy island Samsø (Energy Institute).
As in Ærø, the ownership structure of the Samsø projects heavily includes the local population and government. The municipality owns 5 of the 10 offshore wind turbines; profits from these wind turbines are to be invested in future energy projects as per Danish regulations. As for the other five, private groups made up mainly of local farmers own three, and the other two are owned by cooperatives. One cooperative is locally managed and it consists of 450 people who own shares, and the other is national (people from throughout Denmark can buy shares), consists of 1100 people who own shares, and is managed by a professional investment foundation (Energy Academy, 2011; Zipkin et al., 2015). Local farmers own nine of the onshore turbines independently and the other two are owned by local cooperatives. The two local cooperatives for onshore turbines consist of 5400 shares that were offered to
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FIGURE 14.7 Ownership structure for the Smasø wind turbines (Zipkin et al., 2015).
the public over the course of 6 months. Residents had the opportunity to purchase shares in packages of 1 share, 10 shares, or 30 shares, again with local banks providing loans with the shares serving as collateral (Fig. 14.7).
Bornholm Bornholm is the easternmost Danish island positioned closer to Sweden than to Denmark. It is 588 km2 and has a population of 39,664, giving it a significantly larger energy demand than the islands mentioned earlier. The island is currently connected to Sweden via a 60-kV 70-MW undersea power cable, with a peak load electricity demand around 55 MW. The island hopes to become reliant on 100% renewable energy, with 36-MW wind turbines already supplying between 30% and 40% of its yearly electricity demand and at many times throughout the year wind power supplying more than the electricity demand (Madsen et al., 2012; EcoGrid EU, 2015) (Fig. 14.8). Bornholm’s singular connection to a larger grid system, desire to further rely on intermittent renewable energy in the future makes, and representation of Denmark on a smaller scale, made it a good choice to study and develop an advanced smart grid, formally named the EcoGrid EU. EcoGrid EU is Europe’s largest smart grid project and is funded by the European Union. As part of the project, 1900 houses and 18 industrial/commercial electricity users
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Bornholm energy system (EcoGrid EU, 2015).
on the island participated in flexible electricity demand response to the realtime electricity price signals using demand response appliances and smart controllers. Participants were divided into four groups, and every 5 min electricity prices were updated and the amount of electricity available was determined. Depending on the group, this information was accessed by one’s own initiative, shared via a notification to one’s cell phone, or based on the electricity price electric heating systems and heat pumps were automatically turned on or off. This is used to study how participants can stabilize the fluctuating nature of wind power to ensure a stable grid system while saving money on their electricity bills (EcoGrid EU, 2015). The objective of the EcoGrid was to develop and demonstrate real-time market solutions that can be used into the future as energy systems continue to fluctuate because of high penetrations of renewable energy as a way to balance grid fluctuations (Fig. 14.9). Currently the technology used on Bornholm applied only to house-heating systems; however, in the future it will include home appliances and electric vehicles. A test house was furthermore created, a normal residential house equipped with the EcoGrid Technology, to teach those participating in the project how the EcoGrid project could affect their energy usage and to demonstrate how the system operates, and over 600 houses took part in group training sessions.
SWEDEN Sweden is a country heavily dedicated toward sustainability, enacting a variety of measures and practices with the environment in mind, such as the heavy use
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FIGURE 14.9 Electricity regulating by the EcoGrid Real Time Market (EcoGrid EU, 2015).
of waste to energy, and throughout the country seeing the development of both large and small projects devoted to the reduction of GHG emissions.
Va¨xjo¨ Va¨xjo¨ is a Swedish city with a population of around 65,000 that has been committed to sustainability since 1996, when it decided on the goal to eliminate all fossil fuel usage by 2030, because of overwhelming local pollution at that time. In 2011 the city updated its goals for the year 2015: l l l l
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reduce the final energy usage per capita by 15% reduce CO2 emissions by 55% compared with 1993 levels reduce electricity usage 20% per capita compared with 1993 levels reduce the municipality owned locations’ energy use by 17% compared with 2002/2003 levels reduce city transport CO2 emissions by 30% compared with 1999
The city furthermore signed the Covenant of Mayors, an agreement to go beyond the EU 20-20-20 sustainability goals and targets (20% share of renewable energy, 20% reduction of CO2 emissions compared with 1990, 20% greater energy efficiency). Va¨xjo¨ therefore has committed to reduce CO2 emissions by 65% per capita from 1993 levels by 2020 (Kommun, 2015) (Fig. 14.10). In 2010 Va¨xjo¨ had a renewable energy production share of 53%, due in large part to the usage of CHP plants utilizing regional forestry waste as a biomass fuel to supply heat via the city’s district heating network, with electricity from CHP usage accounting for a third of the city’s electricity consumption. The Sandvik CHP Station is a 105-MW CHP plant and the city’s largest provider of energy, with an energy utilization factor of 92%. It runs mainly on a variety of biomass fuels collected as waste products from the
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FIGURE 14.10 Energy supply in Va¨xjo¨, the largest section representing biomass (Kommun, 2015).
regional forest industry such as forest residue, sawdust, woodchips, bark, and peat (Ramboll; Force Technology). The city has a variety of future goals to continue its reduction of CO2 emissions and increase its usage of renewable energies. l
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Upgrading and increasing the capacity of existing hydro power plants within the municipality Expand the district heating network Pursue the investment in large-scale wind turbines Reduce the use of peat as fuel because of its contribution of GHG emissions and phase it out by 2020 Energy efficiency standards for new municipal buildings Increasing the access to renewable fuels for transportation and electric vehicles. (Kommun, 2015)
Hammarby Sjo¨stad (Hammarby Lake City) Hammarby Sjo¨stad began as an old industrial area in Stockholm that beginning in the 1990s and throughout the 2000s was continuously transformed and developed into what is now a model of sustainable urban development that has served as an inspiration worldwide. With the original goal to develop the area in preparation for an (eventually failed) Olympic bid, environmental performance was to be “twice as good” as modern developments at the time and
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energy was to come from renewable and local sources, with the desire to decrease energy flowing into and out of the district as much as possible, i.e., “close the loop.” The Stockholm municipality connected the Stockholm energy, water, and waste infrastructure companies to work together to help develop this sustainable district, instead of working individually in their respective fields, considered the status quo for similar projects in large cities. In 1997 an outline for the future sustainable development was agreed upon by these companies and the Stockholm municipality and is now known as the Hammarby Model; this outlines an “integrated infrastructural system” connecting energy and material flows and usages throughout the local infrastructure in the hopes of “closing the loop” while providing energy, water, and waste and sewage services for residential housing and offices. The model called for the usage of technology already in use in Stockholm, such as CHP and district heating, and newer technologies such as a local wastewater treatment plant the waste of which could be used as fertilizer or converted to biogas and PV cells and solar collectors, stressing interactions between technologies to “close the loop.” (The potential of a closed infrastructural system of Hammarby Sjo¨stad in Stockholm, Sweden.) Although this model was not technically perfect, it proved to be essential for the project success and has been examined and used in other sustainable urban development projects, such as the Caofeidian Ecocity development in China (Iveroth et al., 2013, 2012) (Fig. 14.11).
FIGURE 14.11 The Hammarby model (Hammarby Sjostad).
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As of 2013, 26,000 people live in the district in the 11,000 apartments located there; construction completion is projected for 2017 with the ability to accommodate up to 35,000 residents. The district implemented a variety of transportation measures to reduce GHG emission, including a light rail system that accounts for one-third of all travel within the district (of which every residence is within 300 m of a stop), a free ferry service, a carpooling service utilizing electric vehicles (18% of households having signed up by 2010), and an extensive bike and walking path network. Based on a 2007 survey, the goal for 80% of transportation in the city to be based on public transportation was nearly reached, with 79% of all transportation being nonprivate (Jernberg et al., 2015). Hundred percent of the houses in the district are heated through a district heating network supplied by the nearby waste incinerating Ho¨gdalen CHP plant and heat pumps using treated wastewater at the Hammarby thermal power plant. Most of the heat and electricity used comes from the burning of the waste generated in the district at the CHP plant. Furthermore, the sludge from the district’s wastewater treatment process is converted into enough biogas to supply the district with its gas demand. Although there were no green building goals, the average energy usage for the districts buildings is 118 kWh/m2, lower than Stockholm’s average. One building in particular that garners attention is the GlashusEtt, which serves as an environmental information center displaying sustainable infrastructure and building techniques resulting in an energy consumption 50% less than similar glass buildings. Such features include smart monitoring system, PV cells, hydrogen fuel cell, and heat pumps (Jernberg et al., 2015) (Fig. 14.12). The district has been viewed as a success, yet criticism has been voiced that most of the waste generated comes from outside the district, for example, food waste comes from food throughout the world, counterintuitive to the “close the loop” idea. Also noted is that despite as originally envisioned, PV, solar collectors, and wind turbines on a large scale were never developed, with only a few houses having solar collectors or solar PV cells (Iveroth et al., 2013).
FIGURE 14.12 Glasshuset (Stockholm Stad).
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Malmo¨ Malmo¨ is Sweden’s third largest city with a population over 300,000 and the goal to use 100% renewable energy by 2030. Like Stockholm it has heavily focused on sustainable urbanization and in the year 2016 won the European Union’s Sustainable Urban Mobility Award. The city has multiple sustainable construction projects, having started since 1998, committed to reducing the amount of GHG emitted. l
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Sustainable Hilda is one such area, a housing cooperative targeting 767 apartments and 2400 residents with the goal to become energy independent by 2020. The 2014 goals include achieving a 50% reduction of CO2 emissions, reducing energy and water consumption 40%, generating 10,000 kWh of renewable energy, and the participation of 70% of target residents. Renovations such as fac¸ade insulation retrofitting and low-flow faucets have been utilized to increase efficiency, as well as the installation of solar panels and rain collection systems (Malmo Stad). The Hyllie area is a planned sustainable district to encompass 10,000 homes and have power by 100% renewable or recycled resources by 2020. The city of Malmo¨, water and sewage municipal authority VA SYD, and consulting company E.ON partnered in 2011 to create the most climate friendly district in the region. The area is to integrate electricity, heating, and cooling, and utilize a smart grid system to optimize energy resources, measure and influence energy usage, and use storage capacity when energy supply and demand are not balanced. Five local developers have received grants from the European Union for the BuildSmart project, meant to demonstrate residential and commercial buildings with an energy usage less than 60 kWh/m2, less than half of Sweden’s average building energy usage. Regarding transportation, buses are to be powered by fossil-free fuels, such as waste by-product biogas, and the effects of electric vehicles on the smart grid are to be studied in greater detail by E.ON (Malmo Stad). The Western Harbor (Va¨stra Hamnen) is another brownfield redevelopment project like Hammarby Sjo¨stad in Stockholm. The development of the area began in 2001 with the Bo01 project and has since continued. Developers of the Bo01 were required to follow a green space factor guideline to ensure water permeability and a green point guideline following 35 point options such as reusing gray water in courtyards, having green roofs, and scoring above a certain number. Energy in this original Bo01 development came from 100% renewable sources, such as a 2-MW wind turbine in close by Norra Hamnen, PV cells, and heat pumps, with district heating utilizing geothermal energy and 1200 m2 of solar collectors (in 2016 there were 3000 m2) supplying the rest of the heating and cooling demands. Buildings were given a target energy usage, and although they did not reach this
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FIGURE 14.13 Western Harbor Malmo gov source (Malmo¨ City Planning Office, 2015).
target energy, many buildings achieved very low energy usage (http://www. collegepublishing.us/jgb/samples/JGB_V8N3_a02_Austin.pdf). Development in the Western Harbor has continued with a focus on sustainability, including the construction of 200 passive grade houses in 2012. By 2030 it is planned to inhabit 20,000 people, with a population of almost 7000 in 2013 (Malmo¨ City Planning Office, 2015) (Fig. 14.13).
Rotterdam Rotterdam is the second largest city in the Netherlands with a population of 633,471. As it is located on the coast of the Netherlands, Rotterdam is vulnerable to rising sea levels; however, it is the location of a large port, which in turn results in the region emitting 16% of the country’s GHG emissions while contributing to only 8.5% of the country’s GDP. About 88% of the city’s GHG emissions come from the industry and energy-generating facilities in the port area. In 2007 the city established the Rotterdam Climate Initiative (RCI), bringing together the government, business, and public to achieve a more sustainable city with the three goals of reducing GHG emission to half of 1990 levels, designing a city that can mitigate the effects of future climate change, and achieving sustainable economic development all by 2025. Goals include: l
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Provide 20% of energy by 2020 that comes from renewable sources, and by 2025 use 3 million tons of sustainably produced biomass and have 350 MW of wind turbines installed to supply energy. Increase the use of public transport by 40% and bicycle use by 30% by 2025. Encourage planting of trees, creation of green roofs, and practice of urban farming. Development of carbon capture storage beginning with the Rotterdam Capture and Storage Demonstration Project (ROAD) storing carbon into the North Sea (City of Rotterdam, 2017).
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FIGURE 14.14 Wind power at the Rotterdam Port (Port of Rotterdam, 2016).
As the Port of Rotterdam is the most polluting aspect of the city, focus has been given to reducing its overall energy usage and GHG emissions. The port area was in 2016 the location of almost 200 MW of installed wind turbine capacity. Infrastructure investments are furthermore continuously made to utilize the waste heat generated by the port area industrial process for district heating and other industrial processes. A new port, Maasvlakte 2, was also created as a demonstration port, with strict sustainability requirements for companies that wish to operate there, with fully electric container terminals running on wind power (Port of Rotterdam) (Fig. 14.14). The RCI adopted the Rotterdam Energy Approach and Planning (REAP) approach to help achieve its sustainability goals in 2009. REAP is a three-step energy initiative emphasizing energy efficiency, waste energy flows, and the use of renewable energy. Eight interactive workshops and 20 meetings were held at the beginning of its adoption by the city for politicians, civil servants, economists, the regional European Parliament, and local energy companies to explain and discuss the development plan. Examples of REAP in practice include the Hart van Zuid retrofitting project, Stadshaven redevelopment project, and also increasing of the district heating network with plans to increase connection to 155,000 homes by 2035 (Lenhart et al., 2015).
DISCUSSION When looking at the European energy transition at a community level, a couple of methods are constantly seen, perhaps the most constant being the use of district heating. The centralized production of heat, many times via CHP power plants, centralizes the combustion fuel allowing for greater emission control versus the use of individual boilers, and allows for a greater variety of fuels to be used that have lesser carbon footprints than coal or oil. This is seen in Sweden, where biomass waste from the regional forestry industry is used, or
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waste is burned rather than landfilled. District heating networks also have been proved to help mitigate the fluctuating electricity supply that is associated with energy systems with large amounts of renewable energy, especially in countries such as Denmark, where district heating combined with heat storage supplies heat to a majority of Danes. Another important theme in successful European energy transitions is the inclusion of local populations. Including the local citizens of an area in planning processes, information campaigns, and especially investments, as seen in Bottrop and throughout the Danish islands, can increase support and even be a driving force in the redevelopment of communities. Yet perhaps just as essential is the centralized actor, normally in the form of government, that sets goals and brings the multiple actors together that are needed to create and implement the blueprints for the future. In most of the cases mentioned, an overseeing organization set ambitious goals, brought stakeholders together, and managed the multiple projects all of which were needed to reduce the emissions of GHGs. In conclusion, what should be taken away is that a successful transition toward a renewable and efficient future is both a topdown and bottom-up process, one that needs support from both sides for maximum success. Europe is considered to lead the way in the transition toward a sustainable future; the cases given here are at the forefront and serve as an inspiration throughout the world. Lessening energy demand through energy efficiency in buildings and industry like in Germany and the Netherlands, utilizing local resources for power like in Sweden and Denmark, and including local populations in the planning and execution of projects have all been proved as best practices and should be remembered and looked toward as examples when government, business, and citizens are creating a better tomorrow.
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