The experience of visiting home and familiar places

Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp. 1024–1047, 2012 0160-7383/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain

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doi:10.1016/j.annals.2011.11.018

THE EXPERIENCE OF VISITING HOME AND FAMILIAR PLACES Philip L. Pearce James Cook University, Australia

Abstract: This paper identifies and seeks to explain a relatively novel topic in tourism studies: individuals’ experiences in returning to previous places of significance and familiarity in their lives. The topic is labelled VHFP (Visiting Home and Familiar Places) and is linked to but conceptually independent of VFR studies. It is argued that VHFP can be understood by considering foundation work in neuroscience as well as integrating contributions from human emotions, memory, time perception and the psychology of possibility. Several studies are proposed to develop this topic by employing varied paradigms of inquiry and a range of familiar and innovative methods. Keywords: going home, emotions, time perception, memory, neuroscience. Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION It is the core argument of this paper that there is an understudied category of travel which may be broadly captured by the expression VHFP- Visiting Home and Familiar Places. This category of travel is seen as conceptually independent of VFR-Visiting Friends and Relatives travel- although there are potential links as well as dissimilarities. Our interest in going ‘‘home’’ in this context is defined as visits to the constellation of locations and their associations which individuals experience during their periods of growing up (cf. Coles & Timothy, 2004; Duval, 2004; White & White, 2007). This interest also encompasses a concern with past relationships and reflections on previous activities. Additionally we will also consider locations where individuals have spent considerable time and consequently feel familiar and have extensive previous knowledge of the setting. In the VHFP formulation we are not interested in tourists and visitors returning from their travels to their current home or place of residence (Maoz, 2006). The paper consists of two interrelated sections. In the first section the aim of the discussion is to provide a rich understanding of the experience of returning ‘‘home’’ or to very familiar places. This goal will be pursued by considering a suite of interrelated concepts in the

Philip Pearce holds a D.Phil from Oxford University and is the Foundation Professor of Tourism at James Cook University (Foundation Professor of Tourism, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia. Email ). He has interests in all aspects of tourist behaviour as well as an interest in communities and tourism. 1024

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areas of emotion, human memory, cognition, identity and the perception of time. It will be argued that taken together these concepts provide prompts and directions for tourism researchers to investigate this somewhat understudied form of travel. The second aim of the paper, which is addressed in a separate and subsequent section, is to identify specific studies deriving from these conceptual foundations. These studies include proposals for direct empirical work as well as investigations of tourism sector involvement in this kind of travel. The motivation for exploring this topic is twofold. Tourism researchers, like their wider circle of social science cousins, need to be to alert to phenomena which have been partially neglected since marginal topics can sometimes reveal core points about the major concerns of the study field. For example tourism researchers have been concerned with issues of identity and self perception for some time (Bowen & Clarke, 2009; Clifford, 1997; Cohen, 1984; Pearce, 1982; Ryan, 2002). It can be proposed that the phenomenon of VHFP travel is related to these issues and may offer new insights (Duval, 2004; Lew & Wong, 2005). A second motivating force for the interest in tourists going home lies in the challenges such travels raise in the commercial world. If VHFP travel matters to quite a few people, in what ways can tourism marketers and destination managers shape, stimulate and successfully support this kind of tourist experience? Again it would seem appropriate to not just ask the question but to analyse the topic and begin its assessment and measurement. In contemporary society, particularly in western cultures and among the more affluent members of those societies, the prevailing pattern of where people come from and why they are there in any workplace or community is a jigsaw of identity related stories and accounts (Desforges, 2000; Larsen, Urry, & Axhausen, 2006). A corollary of this diversity is that there are many possible patterns in the VHFP experience. In brief, the phenomenon in which we are interested is messy and multi-faceted but arguably challenging and worthy of careful and considered attention. HOME AND FAMILIAR PLACES It is a truism that everybody comes from somewhere. Blainey (2004) reminds us that historically most people lived, worked and died quite near to the places they were born. For more contemporary times Urry (2000), Coles and Timothy (2004) and Hall (2005) have all observed that mobilities related to employment opportunities have created new issues in people’s connections to places as well as challenges to their identity. The relocation brought about by twenty first century mobility can be conceived as involving several patterns and sequences. For some adults their own childhoods have involved a shifting tapestry of living in diverse places as their family moved from setting to setting. Some of these individuals have repeated the shifting patterns of their past and have a rich assembly of ‘‘homes’’ or familiar places to which they might choose to return. Others, by way of contrast, experienced

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long periods of locational stability in their childhoods. For some of these individuals, the childhood stability has been followed by their own relocations in their quest for educational, employment and lifestyle benefits. Yet again, some individuals continue to live and work in the very same community in which they were raised. For these individuals VHFP travel is not a relevant category. The locational movements with which we are concerned tend to be away from one region or city to another, rather than suburban relocation within an urban setting. Cross country relocations and hence potential revisits are also of interest (cf. Coles & Timothy, 2004). Simple physical distance issues provide contrasts in the extent to which individuals who move are still able to maintain contact with previous places of residence. The prevalence of these patterns differ across countries and continents with traditions of regional resettling for such activities as employment and University education varying substantially in different parts of the world (Duval, 2004). The task of formulating an adequate account of the concept of ‘‘home’’ amidst these diverse issues is not a simple one. Some approaches to defining home are administrative, others stress the mix of social and locational factors and yet others emphasise psychological states (Nielsen, 1999). No approach considered in isolation is entirely adequate. Lee (1976) suggested that at the level of neighbourhoods, people hold a socio-spatial schema, an integrated memory unit of their home environment. In effect he found that people drew borders around their neighbourhoods which reflected the interplay of social relations, activities and places. Schrag (1997) too emphasised the concept of lived space and stressed the notion that actions and activities as well as relationships build the concept of a home space. In discussing the meaning of home in tourism related contexts, White and White (2007: 91) suggested that ‘‘home can arguably be understood to be ‘‘located’’ primarily in relationships between self and others, rather than being a geographic site.’’ In the approaches discussed so far, physical settings are seen predominantly as a background stage for the dominant relationships and activities which define people’s lived existence and sense of home. Other researchers have placed the physical setting in the foreground. Research traditions in geography such as that initiated by Tuan (1977) stress the love of places (topohilia). Nielsen (1999) suggests that there is a difference between merely occupying a place in the world versus being connected to it. He argues that the locations where one grows up form a strong part of one’s biographical identity. Close affinities with certain places and emotional attachments to types of landscapes do need to be considered in our present context. It is possible to assemble together these diverse emphases in the discussion of the concept of home. For the reflective and research oriented purposes of this paper the meaning of visiting home and familiar places will be taken as travel to the constellation of valued locations and associations which individuals form during their periods of growing up. Included in the compass of our interests and approach to the concept of VHFP is a concern with relationships and reflections

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on activities. Our research interest thus lies with the past ‘‘homes’’ and familiar places of many tourists and focuses on the places and relationships entangled in their personal and historical biographies. Our interest is not in a concern with where they now live, nor is it limited to the relationships they have at their former locations. There is an allied and blossoming field of research which also directs attention to the experience of going home. On this occasion the tourism interest lies not in tourists’ travel to the locations important in their own life but instead focuses on visiting the places inhabited by their forefathers (McCain & Ray, 2003; Newland & Taylor, 2010; Ray & McCain, 2009; Timothy & Guelke, 2008). These interests which are variously known as genealogical tourism and legacy tourism pay particular attention to groups of tourists returning to the homelands or regions from which their immigrant forefathers departed. Prominent regions which have tried to promote tourism based on their relevant diasporas searching for family histories include Scotland, Ireland, Israel and China (Basu, 2004, 2007; Lew & Wong, 2005; Wright, 2008). The value of this literature for the present interest lies in emphasising the roles the past can play in shaping people’s travel motivation and identity quests. Further, some of the research techniques employed in the genealogical studies can be applied to our more focussed interest in tracking the shorter time span of the individual’s personal as opposed to extended family history (Almeida & Yan, 2010) Return travel An analysis of the existing research effort in the active area of return or repeat travel identifies some consistencies which help locate the present interests in a research context. Most tourism marketing studies in this area have been concerned primarily with repeat travel to dominant tourism destinations (cf. Kotler, 1998; Kozak, Gnoth, & Andreu, 2010; Morrison, 2010). Very few studies appear to exist of tourists returning to little known and personally relevant locations. Many of the existing studies of loyalty and repeat visitors are also conceived at the macro level of analysis (Fakeye & Crompton, 1992; Fallon & Schofield, 2004). Often the researchers seek to understand repeat business to countries or large tourism regions. Again studies at this scale overlook our interest in repeat visits to specific communities or familiar settings. The purpose of much ongoing work in destination studies lies in whether or not visitors with experiences at a destination are more or less likely to return to that location. In a study somewhat typical of this interest area, Alegre and Juaneda (2006) working in the Balearic Islands view destination loyalty as the key concept in their consumer satisfaction study (see also Kozak, 2001; Bowen & Clarke, 2009; Pearce, 2005). In common with other researchers their empirical work demonstrates differences among first time visitors and repeat visitors in expenditure, time spent and places visited. Interestingly, Um, Chon, and Ro (2006) also working in this core consumer satisfaction tradition, report

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that perceived attractiveness rather than satisfaction may be a key to the intention to revisit a location. This finding offers some information for special consideration in terms of our interest in the VHFP topic. Some repeat travel it can be suggested is more about travellers’ personal history with places and possibly their long standing connections and attractions to destinations rather than immediate satisfaction experiences. The studies in repeat or return visitors are plentiful but the cast of the research is at the broad level of major destinations studied holistically. The key dependent variables being studied are satisfaction and revisit intentions with modest levels of interest in issues of identity, memory and perceptions of time. A clear opportunity can be identified to investigate travellers’ experiences when they return to familiar or home locations. The proposed work can thus be seen as a specialised or more intensive version of the broader repeat or return travel research. A more incisive and theoretical set of ideas on repeat travel have also been presented by Seaton (2001, 2002). Reviewing contributions from a number of sociological commentators Seaton argues that tourists repeat the voyages of those who have travelled before them. He identifies two versions of repeat travel in this context; firstly metempsychosis which he uses to refer to tourists knowingly replicating the travels of a single figure and metensomatosis in which tourists implicitly assume the multiple personae of those who have travelled to the tourist’s chosen destination in the past. A particular highlight of this approach is the attention to the experience of the tourists with several observations that it is the small epiphanies of such travel which constitute truly meaningful points of interaction between the present and the past. Seaton observes, following Benjamin (1999) that: ‘‘the past is more than a dead hand on the present. . . acquisitions are not just spent residues of the passing show. They come back as small epiphanies- dialectical images whose ephemeral status is reenergised through contact in the present’’ (2002:143). The present concerns in tourists retracing their own footsteps can be seen as a specialised version of the repeat travel experiences which Seaton, Benjamin and others describe. It can be noted in passing that there are rich literary and historical resources noted in this work on metensomatosis which might usefully provide a basis for modelling the epiphanies of personal repeat travel. Connections to VFR studies Since the earliest academic analyses of VFR there have always been two trajectories needed to understand the concept: on the one hand travellers may visit friends and relatives or they may be the hosts to such visitors (Jackson, 1990). The present interest is in the links to VFR travellers rather than those who host VFR personnel. The academic interest in the VFR phenomenon has largely been about how to classify such travel and boost its commercial ramifications (Moscardo, Pearce,

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Morrison, Green, & O’Leary, 2000; Morrison, Woods, Pearce, Moscardo, & Sung, 2000; Seaton & Tagg, 1995; Young, Corsun, & Baloglu, 2007). Less attention has been paid to the meaning of returning to a home or to a very familiar location. In particular, it can be suggested that tourism research concerned with VFR has neglected the specific locational experiences of this ‘‘motive’’ category (Pearce & Moscardo, 2005). There are several ways in which VFR and VHFP tourism can be juxtaposed. Three distinct categories can be identified. First, it is possible to visit one’s friends and relatives in a location which has a shared past and which is the basis for long standing associations and meanings. Second, it is also possible to visit one’s friends and relatives in locations which have no long standing links for the traveller. An example of this situation is that of visiting one’s parents who have moved to a new city in their retirement. Similarly, long standing friends may move about a country or the globe and while the friendship is retained and visits made, the original locations where the friendships were forged are peripheral to the contemporary visit experiences. Third, a traveller can visit a location where the links to family and friends no longer exist but the location through its childhood memories and associations is still familiar and a part of the traveller’s life history. Retuning to a city where one’s relatives have moved away or are now deceased illustrates the latter notion. Similarly, returning to a University in another state or region and remembering earlier student days represents a second example of the VHFP experience without a VFR component. The remembered personal links to other people in these cases may still be implicit and important. The psychological power of these remembered links is illustrated by the work of Fischer, Sauer, Vogrincic, and Weisweiler (2011) who note that simply contemplating one’s personal history and ancestors can enhance personal functioning and control. PIVOTAL CONCEPTS Overview It has been established in the previous sections that the scope of the VHFP topic is diverse. The range and potential complexity of the VHFP experience offers the opportunity to combine insights about experiences from a number of linked research directions. These ideas will be considered in a sequence in order to demonstrate how together they can build a platform for research and analysis of the VHFP topic. First, it will be argued that the process of revisiting home and familiar places is initially a sensory experience which triggers basic emotional responses. Panksepp’s (1992, 1998, 2005) work concerning affective neuroscience will provide some foundation ideas about basic emotions. The affective neuroscience material will be supplemented by Fredrickson’s (2001) key ideas about emotional range and her ‘‘broaden and build’’ theory of emotions. But the going

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home experience is not simply emotional even though it may offer particularly strong cues to a part of the human emotional range. It is also a cognitive process. Environmental cues trigger mindfulness and confront tourists and visitors with images of time and change. The ideas of Lynch (1976) on places, identity and time, Sacks (1995) on memory and Langer (2009) on the psychology of possibility are powerful here. These ideas will be linked to the positive perception of time expressed by Zimbardo and Boyd (2008) where a sense of well being is enhanced if people can enlarge the present while viewing the past positively and the future strategically. The following review of these pivotal concepts and how they operate together constitutes the attempt to fulfil the first aim of this paperto provide a rich understanding of the experience of returning ‘‘home’’. Affective Neuroscience In the recent writing about tourists’ experiences it is often proposed that there are multiple components of experience (Moscardo, 2010; Schmitt, 2003; Uriely, 2005). The level at which the phases of experience or components have been considered has often been at the molar social science scale of pre-trip, on site and post trip consideration (Cutler & Carmichael, 2010). A component which is frequently mentioned is the affective or emotional quality of the experience (Cutler & Carmichael, 2010: 19–20). Few authors have explored this component in detail or suggested pathways of influence amongst this element and other experiential qualities although both Larsen (2002) and Selstad (2007) allude to the links between emotion and perception. The work of Jaak Panksepp and colleagues offers a more fine grained view (Berridge & Robinson, 2003; Panksepp, 1998, 2005; Panksepp & Biven, 2010). The distinguishing feature of the affective neuroscience work is that three precise levels of evidence are used to provide an understanding of emotion and its brain based roots. The evidence comes in the form of observing similar cross species behavioural patterns, data from brain based stimulation studies and information derived from drug induced behavioural effects (Olds, 1997; Volkow, Fowler, & Wang, 2002). Panksepp refers to and labels the core emotional states he has identified in capital letters; a communication ruse he employs to avoid suggesting that his interest in these topics covers all higher order interpretations which human reflection and levels of consciousness can bring to the systems he has unearthed. The states he discusses are SEEKING, FEAR, RAGE, LUST, CARE, PANIC and PLAY. Together with his colleagues, Panksepp approaches the study of these core emotional states with the view that consciousness is a tiered multilevel process (see also Greenfield, 2000: 21–23). The interest here is in primary process consciousness which reflects raw sensory feelings and motivational imperatives.

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The term SEEKING, which involves actively searching the immediate locale for cues, threats and information when the system is activated, aptly describes one such cross species behaviour of particular interest to our present concerns (Panksepp, 1992). In reviewing a large amount of evidence for a set of basic emotional systems, Panksepp (2005) argues that in human beings, SEEKING is a fundamental emotional system activated when environments are not quite as we expect them to be. In the physiological studies individuals who receive specific stimulation to key parts of their sub–cortical emotional circuits report feelings of being engaged with the environment, a sense of excitement and being alive and even euphoric when the relevant circuits are stimulated. The same patterns are observed when key drugs are employed and the commonality of this alert, environment checking behaviour is remarkably uniform across individuals. The observed behaviours are also congruent with similar responses in other animal species. The specific part of the brain involved in this emotional circuitry is the limbic system notably the hypothalamus and the amygdala. It is also notable that the nerve cell clusters in this system are more responsive to the anticipation of rewards rather than the receipt of reward. Supporting evidence for this view comes in the form of high rates of firing to novel stimuli and attenuated firing to repeated stimuli or predictable triggers. This information provides an important point of connection with the cognitive explanations of responses to novel stimuli such as proposed in the mindfulness model (Langer, 1989, 2009). In brief the SEEKING system is a primary emotional response to novel or only partially familiar settings. How might the work of the neuroscientists be applied to tourists and the coming home experience? Or expressed differently, how might we use multi-level analysis as Hofstede (1995) suggests and build a rich and compatible set of explanations and descriptions of human responses to their world. The contribution of the affective neuroscience work can be depicted as follows. On returning to a familiar place there are multiple sensory cues which trigger the core affective states. Visual, olfactory, and auditory inputs initially dominate the sensory inputs activating the operation of limbic system nodes, especially SEEKING and CARE. The later expression is most directly summarised as the need for social contact. Cognitive and higher order cortical inputs are involved here too as individuals struggle to collate familiar patterns of stimulation - often these sensory triggers will be sight lines, smells, tastes, and sound. The totality of the effect is to produce a kind of brain systems echo of earlier neural stimulation; perhaps best captured by a sense of an enlarged de´ja` vu and de´ja` entendu recall. These processes operate at a level of which individuals are barely conscious or more accurately at a level which they are not quite able to express. Being with individuals returning to home locations or introspecting on one’s own experience can illustrate this psychological turmoil. Individuals can sometimes be seen shaking their heads and trying to find words to explain their immediate reactions when returning to once familiar but now changed locations.

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The stimulation provided by the sensory input effectively switches on the base emotional states and then these states further activate the individual’s response to the visited location by engaging search and meaning seeking responses. Importantly, the immediate sensory input is not identical to that which has been received in previous times and the changes in the external world need to be interpreted cognitively. The base emotional systems which are activated by being in a familiar location or the ‘‘home’’ of earlier years are modulated by the memories and language codes of our sophisticated species. This is what Panksepp meant by the tiered level of consciousness. The neuroscientists describe their work as defining base forces in the emotion equation rather than its sum. We need to turn to a mix of cognitive and affective overviews of experience to develop an understanding of the connected but higher consciousness levels of the VHFP experience. Consumption emotions In terms of the base emotions identified by Panksepp and colleagues, states such as RAGE, FEAR, and PANIC are arguably infrequent in tourism and travel linked settings. SEEKING, CARE, PLAY and LUST have a greater relevance to the VHFP situations with which we are concerned. Certainly it has been argued for some time that consumption settings, and by implication tourism related settings, do not elicit all of the emotions which humans can experience (Richins, 1997; Russell, Weiss, & Mendelsohn, 1989; Zins, 2002). For example, Richins (1997) argues that consumption emotions differ in character and intensity from emotions that are experienced in other contexts. She has generated a list of affective states intended to capture the full range of consumption emotions. This list was based upon respondents’ openended descriptions of emotional responses to consumption events combined with emotions identified in earlier studies. It was then reduced by eliminating those words that most respondents were unlikely to use to describe their consumption emotions. The remaining items arguably offer a comprehensive coverage of a two-dimensional model of affect. In this structure the first dimension represents positivity or negativity of the emotion while the second is concerned with the level of activity. The emotion space relevant to consumption revealed a flattened model with a greater differentiation of emotions on the first dimension of positivity than on the second of activity level (cf. Coghlan & Pearce, 2010). In general terms we are dealing in consumption areas with milder levels of positivity and less active behavioural patterns than in the base emotional states. The conversion of the base emotional states into a wider range of emotions arguably proceeds by the learned labelling of jointly stimulated core emotional systems. It has already been suggested that novel stimuli, changed circumstances and surprising elements of the sensory world are involved in activating the SEEKING system. Further, mild positivity has been postulated as a prevailing emotional state in consumption and therefore tourism related experiences. It can be sug-

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gested that the VHFP experience requires reflective accounts of the contradictory information which travellers experience on returning home. At times the VHFP experience produces puzzles – confusing information between existing and well embedded maps and memories of settings and their immediate appearance. Emotional states which can be suggested for this challenge include moods and affective reactions such as surprise, annoyance, melancholy, wistfulness, appreciation, contentment and enthusiasm. This set of suggested emotional possibilities is consistent with some of the work reviewed in the psychiatric studies of individuals and the returning home experience (Sacks, 1995). The broaden and build theory Some emotional reactions to the VHFP experience have already been proposed and while their frequency and the contexts in which they occur await detailed empirical work, it is possible to move beyond a consideration of the precise emotional states to their functions. Fredrickson (2001) has proposed a specific theoretical model to understand the special effects of positive emotions. The approach can be seen as particularly relevant to thinking about the benefits of tourism experiences and is labelled ‘‘the Broaden and Build’’ theory of positive emotions. Frederickson’s work suggests that certain sets of positive emotions such as contentment, joy, pride and interest, while being separate and distinct, share a common potential to grow human capacity. More specifically Fredrickson argues: ‘‘all share the ability to broaden people’s momentary thought action repertoires and build their personal resources, ranging from physical and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources’’ (2001: 219) In this view being appreciative and contented are not only hedonistic states valued in themselves but also they are enriching conditions which predispose people to seek more information, reach out to others, better understand the world and assist resilience to difficult times. At a colloquial level this research is at odds with bland assertions that difficult times build one’s character; the evidence is that they do not as they narrow attention and restrict external information and opportunities. Results from a number of experimental studies where people in different emotional states behaved in these broadening, resilience building ways support Fredrickson’s model (Folkman, 1997; Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000; Fredrickson & Levenson, 1998). The interesting notion deriving from this theoretical treatment of positive emotions and germane to our interest in VHFP travel is that if travellers can use the experience to engender a greater portion of positive rather than negative memories then it can be proposed that powerful consequences for one’s identity, contentment and personal well being may follow. In particular the balance of positive to negative emotions is seen as particularly important with some experimental research indicating that a ratio of more than three positive emotions for every one negative

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emotion is required for individuals to feel and be seen as doing well and flourishing for that time period (Fredrickson and Losada, 2005). Links to time perception One of the major studies linking emotional experiences, cognitive factors and the positive possibilities inherent in approaching one’s past lies in the work of Ellen Langer (1989, 2009). She reports in detail an elaborate study conducted to simulate an earlier period of time in the lives of older men (Langer, 2009). Prior to participating in the study the retired or close to retired older participants were evaluated on a range of physical measures including muscular strength tests and physiological indices of blood pressure and immune functioning. Raters assessed the men’s appearance and were asked to judge their age. Participants were asked a range of questions about their capacities and health. Langer’s study involved having the men live out a ‘‘holiday’’ period in a specially reconstructed monastery which replicated a period of time twenty years earlier. Everything in the setting including television programs, baseball scores, food and furnishings were elaborately contrived to reproduce the earlier time period. The experimental instructions were for the men to talk about and live their holiday period as if the constructed past they inhabited was their only reality. The detailed findings of this extended effort in considering how people react to the past were striking. Physically the men participated in activities which belied their age. Independent raters assessed them after the study period as younger than was the case prior to engaging in the study. Physical parameters and health indicators all improved in positive directions. Initially Langer considered the study to be a demonstration of the power of learned helplessness where senior citizens were fulfilling the expectations of growing older. Later and more recently Langer has used the work to discuss the psychology of possibility. The latter concept is used to suggest that if we can see the world in fresh ways we can maximise the way we behave to make the most of the abilities we do have. The study provides important clues as to how revisiting the past and engaging with our images of time in positive ways may benefit those who participate in VHFP travel. This distinctive study and its recent re- interpretation in terms of the psychology of possibility are congruent with the ideas of Kevin Lynch (Bannerjee and Southworth, 1990; Pearce & Fagence, 1996). The particular work of Lynch of most interest in this context is his 1972 volume What Time is this Place? Lynch asserts that our identity and well being are linked to our image of time. He observes that visiting old places and previously familiar sites produces a: ‘‘pleasurable melancholy (which) may be coupled with the observer’s satisfaction at having survived or (even) be tinged with righteous triumph . . .but at base the emotional pleasure is a heightened sense of the flow of time.’’ (1972: 44) Lynch suggests, in phrases which anticipate more recent writing in psychology, that the individual’s challenge is to celebrate the past while

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making connections with the present and the future. From his planning perspective Lynch argues that places act as a jumbled historical index of people’s lives including their socially shared experiences. He advocates education to prepare both those who use environments and those who alter them to respect time dimensions in settings. In practical terms this means keeping records and presenting images of places for public consumption. He also advocates developing information resources so that people can understand the forces at work in changing the settings they have known. Lynch argues that people can be empowered by this information because they can understand change and their communities. These acts of physical and psychological time management are purported to prevent individuals being alienated from change processes and may assist in building positive identities. In a somewhat parallel set of comments but developed from a different tradition of research, Zimbardo and Boyd (2008) also argue that time based well-being is a complex matter of integrating the way we treat the past, live in the present and anticipate the future. Zimbardo and colleagues devised a set of time related questions -the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (the ZTPI) - which enables researchers to assess the emphases people place on different time periods (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Illustrative questions from the ZTPI include: I get nostalgic about my childhood; It’s hard for me to forget unpleasant memories of my youth; Familiar childhood sights, sounds, and smells often bring back a flood of wonderful memories; I often think of what I should have done differently in my life; It upsets me to be late for appointments; There will always be time to catch up with my work, and Fate determines much in my life. (See Zimbardo & Boyd, 2008: 53–60 for all 66 questions). Five time perspective scores are calculated; past negative, past positive, present hedonistic, present fatalistic and future. The separate components describe scores for being negative about the past (e.g. showing regret, remembering painful events, wishing mistakes could be corrected); positive about what has happened before (e.g. enjoying wonderful memories, relishing stories about the good old times, enjoyment of rituals and traditions, being nostalgic about childhood); maximising present enjoyment (e.g. being impulsive, living for now, taking immediate risks, preferring spontaneity); being fatalistic about day to day life (e.g. beliefs in the importance of luck and the influence of other forces, reporting a sense of powerlessness to influence the course of events); and being more oriented to the future than the present (e.g. an emphasis on goal setting, delaying immediate gratification, working before playing). In developments of the work a transcendental future time perspective has been added and this orientation records people’s belief in an after life, divine laws, and beliefs in an enduring human soul. A total of 66 questions are used to cover these multiple time perspectives. The questions require agreement on a yes or no basis but to score highly on any sub-scale respondents have to provide a mix of agree and disagree responses as the way in which the questions are phrased includes some reversals of meaning (Zimbardo & Boyd, 2008, pp.

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53–61). Several studies using this scale link these time perspectives to individual well-being and happiness (cf. Harber, Boyd, & Zimbardo, 2003; Lyubomirsky, 2008; Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Of particular interest to our VHFP concerns is how individuals treat the past. Zimbardo and Boyd observe: ‘‘it is not the events of the past that most strongly influence our lives. Your attitude towards events in the past matters more than the events themselves. This distinction between your past and your current interpretation of it is critical, because it offers hope for change. You cannot change what happened in the past, but you can change your attitude toward what happened.’’ (2008: 86). From a number of studies the researchers conclude that those who score highly on the past positive scales tend to be less anxious, more creative, less depressed and more outgoing. High past positive scores are also associated with people being happier and having higher self esteem than those with low scores on this scale. Additional studies suggest that a past positive orientation can be cultivated and developed and that people are not trapped by the objective events they have experienced. For example, Emmons and McCullough (2003) conducted studies in which people were asked over a two month period to reflect positively on the events of each week. When compared with comparable groups who were asked to report anything that happened or a group who alternatively were asked to report hassles from the past week, those assigned to the positive past group were healthier, exercised more, showed greater optimism and were happier. Expressing gratitude for what has happened in the past has become an important construct in studies of well-being (Emmons & McCullough, 2004) and can be seen as a good illustration of Frederickson’s notion that positive emotions have a broadening and building effect on human functioning. These results are also in accord with Langer’s psychology of possibility in the sense that people can modify and change their views of themselves and their world. An additional approach to time perception is also included in the work of Zimbardo and Boyd. They introduce the use of a ‘‘Who was I?’’ question format to elicit from respondents dominant ways they would describe themselves in the past. The ‘‘Who was I?’’ question is asked twenty times so respondents can depict themselves in multiple ways. The researchers then suggest that any highly negative images and identifications be reconsidered. In particular people are encouraged in the testing procedure to extract positive messages from key identity determining events and use them as lessons for the future. In common with the Emmons and McCullough approach to developing gratitude, Zimbardo and Boyd propose that controlling and using the past can not only make thinking about it more agreeable but it also avoids seeing previous events as all controlling, deterministic influences over present circumstances and future life. Links to memory These approaches to viewing the past in positive ways depend to some extent on the malleability of human memory. The metaphors

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and conceptions of human memory which were used by classical figures who contemplated how we recalled the world-notable examples include Sigmund Freud and Marcel Proust - tended to see memory as consisting of layers of well preserved immutable little files waiting to be unearthed by the skills of the psychiatrist or the artist. Experimental psychology researchers, starting with Bartlett have unearthed a different conception (Bartlett, 1932; Sacks, 1995, pp. 163–166; Wiseman, 2007, pp. 75–79). Bartlett who never used the term memory, only the term remembering, suggested: ‘‘Remembering is. . . an imaginative reconstruction or construction built out of the relation of our attitude towards a whole mass of organized past reactions or experience and to a little outstanding detail which commonly appears in image or language form. It is thus hardly ever really exact, even in the most rudimentary cases of rote recapitulation and it is not at all important that it should be so.’’ (cited in Sacks, 1995, p. 164) Bartlett’s notion of a ‘‘little outstanding detail’’ will possibly be familiar to those who reflect on the experience of travelling to a once familiar place. The trigger for the memory may be a sound, a sign or a significant scent from the past which activates the recall. Yet, as Lynch points out there is not one past but multiple days which have preceded us, so the VHFP experience is not unearthing a neatly layered archaeological or geological record of time but is built on a jumble of sense impressions and relationships across months and years. Importantly and in summary, it can be argued following much of the positive psychology writing on time perception and positive emotions that the VHFP experience can be an emotionally rich, identity affirming one provided that the encounter is approached with a strong sense of extracting benefits rather than recalling historical difficulties. RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Armed with these linked ideas in human emotions, time perception, and the nature of memory it is possible to propose a set of studies to explore the VHFP topic. The proposed studies cover a range of research styles and approaches and may appeal to researchers with different paradigms and conceptual skills. A clear view can be expressed that these research opportunities include both studies done in positivist and postpositivist traditions as well as work informed by a constructivist and less deterministic framework. In particular the rich resources of travel writing, as well as approaches built on photography and the stimuli of food, and music linked to time perception offer creative opportunities within some of the thematic possibilities described below. This section seeks to fulfil the second aim of this paper which was directed at initiating studies in this area of interest. Autobiographical Analyses Contemporary research tools enable analysts to consider large amounts of text. Using this approach the lexicon of expressions and

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experiences noted in autobiographies and germane to our interest of VHFP travel could be usefully explored. The work could be descriptive in nature or hypothesis driven given that the model of consumption emotions reviewed earlier predicts a set of affective reactions to the experience. Indicative work in this genre includes the study by Pressman and Cohen (2007) who assessed autobiographies with word count programs and established links between personal and social support phrases and the life span of the authors. Travel Blogs The published autobiographical accounts which have been carefully crafted by novelists and well known individuals could be supplemented by the interrogation of traveller blog sites. In recent studies in tourism the extent of this resource is increasingly being appreciated and again could be used in this context to detect patterns and categories of experience (cf. Schaad, 2008; Woodside, Cruickshank, & Dehuang, 2007). Differences in the sources of the visitors and their destinations could be systematically coded and identity concerns and attitudes to change examined. Social Representations The embodiment of attitudes and widely held views about topics can sometimes be found in artistic resources. For example, there is a rich corpus of music dealing with the concepts of returning home and revisiting familiar places (Gibson & Connell, 2005). Often this music has strong emotional appeal and accessing the themes in this kind of material could constitute studies defining the hegemonic social representations which influence VHFP travel. Similarly, the exploration of going home themes in films, television programs and documentaries might be material for helping identify core views of the experiences reported on this topic. More broadly visual research methods in tourism have the potential to offer new windows into the way tourists and communities view the VHFP experience (Rakic & Chambers, 2011). On Site Experiences Attentive observation and recording of the on site experiences of those who return to familiar places and former homes could offer commonalities in the way people approach the experience. The affective neuroscience material combined with the triggers of change identifiable through the mindfulness models together suggest that attention to the sensory inputs might assist an understanding of how individuals become attuned to the changes in the sites they visit. Interpretive phenomenological analysis which offers one pathway to capture the on-site meanings people give to their experiences could be employed in this kind of work (Smith, 2004; Reid, Flowers and Larkin, 2005).

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Serial Time The past, as suggested earlier, is not one uniform slice of people’s lives and, following Lynch’s work, it could be informative to trace the extent to which visited settings provide cues to different previous years or decades. An array of research questions can be constructed to address this topic. Some studies could be directed at seeking to understand how people remember places over time (What was this place like at time X?) while others could be more concerned with people’s self perceptions across time. The use of Zimbardo’s ‘‘Who was I technique?’’ might be usefully incorporated into such research. Locational Variability In the web of experiences noted as constituting the VHFP topic it is possible to suggest differences in people’s experience according to the rate and extent of change in the revisited location. The challenges here could be addressed by initially exploring the variability of experiences in focus groups research. The experiences of returning to the contrasting situations of little changed or drastically altered locations might be a topic which could be explored in the discussion formats of focus group studies. The focus group format could be employed in multiple destinations and offer comparative information and publication opportunities for teams of cooperating tourism researchers (Jennings, 2010). Links to VFR Research Another direction for research effort lies in studies distinguishing VHFP travel from VFR travel. As discussed earlier the linkages between these two categories are intricate and carefully distinguishing them may offer some foundations for tourism marketing. For example, VHFP marketing could be seen as augmenting VFR travel or be cast as a separate entity in its own right. Experimental studies could be developed where scenarios are manipulated such that respondents are asked to indicate their preferences for combinations of the VFR and VHFP factors. The conceptual underpinnings of this effort lies in considering the topophilia concept where people could be attracted back to locations not because of relationship based links but because of sentimental attachments to specific landscapes and settings. Responses to VHFP Marketing Certain kinds of incentive travel businesses already deploy the themes of celebrating reunions and returning to changed settings. Every location has its own diaspora and tourism promotional efforts to encourage revisits to see the contemporary character of locations which individuals may not have seen for many years offer a new form

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of marketing effort. Importantly, for many places this covert market of those who were once associated with a community may not need to be persuaded to come through itemising the location’s tourism appeal but could be attracted more simply by emphasising change and the chance to refresh one’s memory. Direct evaluation of such marketing campaigns could extend core tourism marketing research (cf. Morrison & Hay, 2010). Such studies could be linked to or augment the work being conducted on genealogical and legacy tourism. Virtual VHFP Travel Some elements of the VHFP experience could be simulated by monitoring people’s reactions to contemporary Google map presentations and images of relevant locations. Attention to how people respond in think aloud protocols to virtual travel around remembered settings offers a quick simulation of the visual component of the VHFP encounters. The kinds of expressions individuals deploy to describe seeing sites which have changed or which are in transition could be a pathway to identifying variables relevant to on site studies. Studies by Tussyadiah and Fesenmaier (2009) provide a model for this kind of virtual travel research. Survey Work Constructing detailed surveys built on potential explanatory variables likely to influence the kinds of emotional and identity connected outcomes described earlier could be valuable in ordering the influences on VHFP travel. Some of the variables which can be suggested here include not just the obvious demographic profiling factors of age, length of residence in locations and community size but could embrace the measures described by Zimbardo and Boyd (1999, 2008) to assess reactions to time. A Test case. In response to the request by reviewers to provide some initial data which might help stimulate research on the VHFP topic a modest appraisal of the emotional range which people report about this topic was conducted. The work was presented to the participants as a study on emotions and places. Following the approach of Mehrabian and Russell (1974) for affective environmental assessments a sample of mixed age University students (N=130) were asked think of a specific location they had known such as an earlier home, a favourite past holiday destination or a town where they grew up. They were asked to write down the specific location and then record three feelings they have had to describe how they felt on returning to this destination. Only responses from those participants (N=109) who had a clear memory of this repeat experience were considered further in the data. Next the respondents were asked to select from a prepared list of emotions any clear feelings which they associated with the revisit. The list of emo-

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tions provided was derived from the arc of consumption emotions reported by Richins (1997). The results of this test case revealed three important points. There was a close correspondence between the spontaneously elicited emotions and the responses to the provided emotions from the Richins listing. The dominant emotional responses resided in the themed areas of calm, peaceful, joyful, feeling comforted and sentimental. The responses reported by more than 10% of the respondents are indicated in Figure 1 which also indicates the overlap with the spontaneously reported feelings about returning to these locations. A second point of interest lies in the infrequently reported but consistently reported negative emotions. Both in the Richins listing and in the spontaneously generated common phrases and chosen words there is a small ‘‘tail’’ in the distribution of responses reporting sadness, anger, irritation and depression, worry and guilt. These terms are only used by between 5 to 10 percent respondents but the view that returning to a once familiar place can have a potential dark side is notable. The view can be offered that through social change, personal circumstances, and the passing of family members, the VHFP experience can be a personal thanotourism for a small but consistent number of respondents. The third notable direction from this select illustrative case lies in the links to recent work on the emotional experiences of tourists to hedonic holiday destinations. Hosany and Gilbert (2010) propose that the emotional range for destinations can be captured by three factors which they label joy, love and positive surprise. An

Figure 1. The most frequently chosen emotions (N=109) from a provided set of 47 consumption emotions (source: Richins, 1997). (Emotions or synonyms for these emotions which were also reported in a spontaneously generated format more than 10 times were calm, peaceful, joyful, comfortable, sentimental, pleased/happy and excited. In addition at home/like home, relaxed and sad were also reported more than 10 times.)

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inspection of Figure 1 reinforces their work with these kinds of themes also accounting for most of the affective reactions reported. It is an interesting addition and challenge though to pursue the less common but potentially important negative surprise component of tourists’ responses unearthed in the present reflective work. DISCUSSION Two aims shaped the material presented in this analysis. The first of these aims was directed at providing a detailed understanding of the psychological forces at work when people return to previous homes and familiar places. In meeting this aim a pathway of influences was outlined. It was argued that the process of revisiting home and familiar places is at first a sensory experience which triggers affective responses embedded in core human emotional systems. Nevertheless, the going home experience is not simply emotional even though it may offer particularly strong cues reflecting a part of the human emotional range. It is also a cognitive process. Sensory and environmental cues trigger mindfulness and confront tourists and visitors with identity issues and images of change. Higher levels of consciousness modify the basic emotional response and consistent with ideas about consumption emotions produce a set of mildly positive and not overly active responses including nostalgia, melancholy and gratitude. It was then suggested following a consideration of work on time perception and the psychology of possibility that the VHFP experience if approached with a positive past time orientation could assist in affirming identity and promote wellbeing. This descriptive account and the suggested sequences in the VHFP experience offer the potential for tourism researchers to explore a range of issues in identity, time perceptions and place related meanings. Some of the possible research efforts arising from these possibilities were outlined and briefly reviewed. The statements about research options were provided to meet the second aim of the work -that is to stimulate a research effort by tourism researchers on this newly identified form of travel. There are several broad issues germane to this consideration of VHFP travel. The identification of travel to familiar places and previous home locations is a reminder that the approach we have taken to study experiences in much tourism research is rather one dimensional (Uriely, 2005). More specifically, tourism analysts have tended to access and approach the memories of a short term holiday and its embedded contacts with people and places with a single point of recall. The layered and chaotic memory of time and its discussion in VHFP travel reminds us that returning to people’s experiences on other occasions and seeking further recall of pivotal moments and events may provide supplementary and alternative renditions of experience. We might consider more work in documenting travellers’ experiences at multiple points following their travels.

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Additionally the sequence of psychological processes which have been outlined for VHFP travel may have a wider applicability. In recent documentations of the nature of experiences an array of suggested key points have been outlined (Bowen & Clarke, 2009; Cutler & Carmichael, 2010; Uriely, 2005). The category scheme which most accurately reflects the discussion in this review of VHFP is that of Schmitt (2003) who stressed a sensory, affective, cognitive, relationship and behavioural set of themes in assessing experience. Schmitt’s work did not identify a sequence or psychological processes linking these components but if these core process elements are supplemented with a broad panorama of the outcomes of experience (identity, well-being and health, learning, impacts) then much of the discussion on tourists’ travel is neatly encapsulated. A further and final broad issue worthy of attention lies in using this example of a special kind of tourist experience to reflect on and re-assess the demand that tourism studies be theoretically enhanced. Such a call for better and more theoretical work in tourism is common with a range of scholars continuing to express disappointment that the field of interest has not generated more conceptual substance (cf. Aramberri, 2010; Nash, 2007; Smith, 2010; Smith and Lee, 2010). Perhaps this demand for theoretical insights is a little misguided and we can at times look at the study field of tourism in a different way. The recasting of our view of the field may be that it is very useful to identify distinctive phenomenon and subsets of behaviour and social organisation which challenge the formulations of existing social science approaches. In this view tourism topics and their identification offer special test cases of existing approaches to understanding social life. For example, there are no studies in human memory research which consider in any detail the time dependent qualities of the going home experience nor are there attempts to track how people respond in such naturalistic settings to these memory and time perception challenges. Perhaps to mimic the expression used by Frederickson and allied to the challenges offered by Jafari (2005) to connect to other disciplines, the way to broaden and build tourism study lies in continuing to identify the distinctive features of human behaviour, experience and organisation which tourism introduces to social life. It can then become a joint social science and tourism research effort to test and evaluate the adequacy of the conceptual schemes and theoretical approaches which span the interest areas of human conduct and its management. STATEMENT OF CONTRIBUTION The identification of a new kind of tourist related activity where individuals return to previous homes and familiar places is identified. Importantly an integrated set of powerful conceptual schemes and ideas including studies in neuroscience, time perception, emotions and memory are used to interpret this experience. It is also linked to existing tourism work on repeat visits and VFR travel. A feature of the manuscript is the shaping of research possibilities across several styles of research using these ideas.

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