The exploitation of equids in the middle ages on the Clos d'Ugnac archaeological site (Pennautier, Aude, France)

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 15 (2017) 179–193

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The exploitation of equids in the middle ages on the Clos d'Ugnac archaeological site (Pennautier, Aude, France)

MARK

Laëtitia Bertina,b,⁎, Palmira Saladiéc,d,e,f, Yves Lignereuxg, Anne-Marie Moigneh,i, Nicolas Boulbesj,k a

Universitat Rovira I Virgili, Carrer de l'Escorxador, s/n, 43003 Tarragona, Spain Centre Européen De Recherches Préhistoriques, Avenue Léon Jean Grégory, 66720 Tautavel, France c Institut Catala De Paleoecología Humana I Evoluci O Social IPHES, Area De Prehistoria, Tarragona, Spain d Universidat Rovira I Virgili (URV), Tarragona, Spain e Grupo Quaternario E Pre-Historia Do Centro De Geociências (Ui & D 73 E FCT), Portugal, Spain f Unit Associated To Consejo Superior De Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Spain g Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire Et Muséum, 35 Allées Jules Guesdes, 31000 Toulouse, France h Muséum National D'histoire Naturelle, 57 Rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France i Centre Européen De Recherches Préhistoriques, Avenue Léon Jean Grégory, 66720 Tautavel, France j Université de Perpignan Via domitia, HNHP- UMR 7194 CNRS, MNHN, EPCC Centre Européen de, Avenue Léon Jean Grégory, 66720 Tautavel, France k Recherches Préhistoriques de Tautavel, Avenue Léon Jean Grégory, 66720 Tautavel, France b

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Equids Anthropogenic markers Bone lesions Animal exploitation Middle ages

The Clos d'Ugnac archaeological site (Pennautier, Aude, France) revealed an occupation dated from the Neolithic to the Central Middle Ages. The main occupation dated from 9th to 14th century develops on the whole floor space (18,000 m2). It delivered numerous structures including a road system, a built environment, craft structures, agrarian structures (pits and silos) and two graves. These delivered an abundant fauna comprising of domestic and wild species, microfauna, avifauna, ichthyofauna and malacofauna, as well as elements of marquetry. The domestic species include equids. Morphological and osteometric study identified horses, donkeys and hybrids. Some show exostosis, calluses and (sub)luxation, indicating their use as beasts of burden, as well as anthropogenic markers (knife, cleaver, saw, fractures on fresh bone, burn marks and combustion marks) which correspond to consumption and/or to craft use.

1. Introduction 1.1. Equids in the middle ages Equids in the Middle Ages include the horse, the donkey and their hybrids (mules and hinnies). The intensive breeding of horses began in the 11th century, with centres in Anjou, the Perche, Brittany, Poitou and Normandy. From the 12th century, evidence of large royal stud farms appears, as well as evidence of the import of tall robust horses coming from Frieze, Spain, Italy, Germania and Persia (Lepetz, 2012; Bourgain, 2012). Contrary to the “royal” horses which grazed in forests, “common” horses lived in pastures with other animals (Bautier, 1978; Mane, 1992; Migaud, 1993; Bourgain, 2012). Equids played a specific role in the economy of the people of the Middle Ages, as is testified by the texts of the 12th century, in which equids are mentioned according

to the tasks they were assigned: charger (horses for war and tournament), palfrey (ceremonial horse), courier (horses for war and tournament), hackney (mount of the ladies), or Rouncey (horses for war, hunting, journey, ploughing draft and as pack animals) Hunter (horses used for fox hunting) Sumpter horse (draft and pack animals), and also, more rarely, according to their geographic origin, e.g., the genet, a Spanish horse (Migaud, 1993; Bord and Mugg, 2008). Horses were used for war, tournaments, hunting and riding, as well as for draft and ploughing (Mane, 1992). Indeed, according to Jordanus Rufus, “aucun animal n'est plus noble que le cheval, puisque c'est par les chevaux que les princes, les grands et les chevaliers se distinguent du commun peuple” (Contamine, 2008, p.1). From Merovingian times (5th–8th century), military strength depended on the horse and thus on the cavalry. This was a radical change from Roman antiquity, when the success of the army depended, especially, on the infantry. These

⁎ Corresponding author at: Universitat Rovira I Virgili, Carrer De L'Escorxador, S/N, 43003 Tarragona, Spain; Centre Européen De Recherches Préhistoriques, Avenue Léon Jean Grégory, 66720 Tautavel, France. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Bertin), [email protected] (P. Saladié), [email protected] (Y. Lignereux), [email protected] (A.-M. Moigne), [email protected] (N. Boulbes).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.07.026 Received 16 February 2017; Received in revised form 24 July 2017; Accepted 28 July 2017 Available online 03 August 2017 2352-409X/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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pagan and Germanic customs (Bourgain, 2012; Viallon, 2015). Both archaeological findings and contemporary texts contradict this prohibition, as shown by the butchery marks found on the bones of equids. Moreover, the De Villis recommend using old horses for butchery (Migaud, 1993). Horse meat was less valued for several reasons however the horse was the alter ego of the horserider, one of the driving force of the economy, and the archetypal noble animal. Horse butchery was also discouraged for sanitary reasons (Poplin, 1988; Migaud, 1993; Leteux, 2005). Finally, the diverse craft uses of the carcasses of horse are highlighted by both archaeological finds and the book of ParentDuchatelet (1827). According to Parent-Duchatelet “on extrait d'un cheval mort […] les crins, la peau, le sang, les muscles, les tendons, les fers, les issues, la graisse, les sabots et les os” (Parent-Duchatelet, 1827, p.68): the skin and the horsehair are used by saddlers and upholsterers; the blood as a fertilizer and to enrich the food of hens and pigs; the flesh, to feed animals (dogs, pigs, hens); tendons, for the making of bonds and glue; viscera, to make fertilizer; and, the fat, horseshoes and bones, for diverse craft uses (Parent-Duchatelet, 1827). Evidence of donkeys and mules is present in the South of France. They were mainly used for riding and draft work, but they were also used for threshing and for ploughing (Grand and Delatouche, 1950; Mane, 1992; Migaud, 1993; Contamine, 2008). Unlike the donkey, the mule was also exploited for riding (Migaud, 1993). The horse, the donkey and the mule are all essential animals in the economy of the Middle Ages. On the site of Clos d'Ugnac, the bone lesions and the anthropogenic markers testify to the exploitation of these animals for various essential tasks in everyday life. Consequently, this paper will explore the various types of equids present at the site; the observed morphotypes; the place of equids in the economy of Clos d'Ugnac; whether there was a northern or southern influence on how equids were exploited on the site; whether they were consumed; and whether they were a source of raw material.

animals were therefore maintained and treated by constables and farriers under the authority of the king. In Carolingian times (8th – 10th century), war was led by the high clergy, who fought upon horses (Migaud, 1993), but it was not until feudal times (10th–12th century) and the establishment of a tripartite society (oratores, bellatores and laboratores) that the horse became the symbol of the noble warrior and, of chivalry, similar to the lance and the sword (Migaud, 1993; Contamine, 2008). The horse constitutes the strength of the knight, particularly after the late 11th century creation of the technique of the “laid down spear”, whose efficiency rests on the ardour and speed of the horse (Viallon, 2015). From the 12th century onward, and especially in the 13th century, with the creation of the knights of the Order of the Templars (1129) and the Teutonic Order (1190), the horse attained its peak. Indeed, horses began to be designated by names in the manner of knights' swords, e.g., Veillantif and Durandal for the knight Roland (Migaud, 1993). The knight, the horse and the sword became one! The horse also establishes one of the auxiliaries of the hunter. A type of horse called “hunter” was only used for fox hunting during 14th et 15th centuries (Bord and Mugg, 2008). But for the everyday life, the horse is and stays especially a means of transport. Indeed, horses were rode by the laic and ecclesiastical aristocracy during journeys (Contamine, 2008). The practice of riding and training is attested in the Middle Ages (Roques, 1947; Viallon, 2015). Women rode with both legs on the same side (side-saddle), unlike men who rode astride (Roques, 1947). As for training, it has been shown that the horses of clerics and ladies were raised to walk the amble, a pace more comfortable than the trot (Bourgain, 2012). Beginning in the 11th century, and especially from the 13th century onward, horses were preferred to oxen for both freight transport and, field labour, because they worked faster and tired less easily (Mane, 1992; Migaud, 1993). Indeed, according to Grand and Delatouche (1950 in Mane, 1992), in the 14th century there was a dichotomy in the use of equids for the draft and as pack animals: horses were used for this purpose in Northern Europe, whereas in Southern Europe, donkeys and mules were preferred. The ox was always used, but to a lesser extent. According to texts and iconography, the horse was used for ploughing and harrowing beginning in the 11th century. Its use as an animal of ploughing is proved by the appearance of the horse collar (10th or 11th century), the introduction of the plough, the increase in demographic pressure and decreased clearing of parklands (Bourgain, 2012; Migaud, 1993). In addition to being used for freight transport, beginning in the 14th century, we see a dichotomy in the use of horses between the North and the South of France. In northern France, horses were preferred to oxen because the soil is characterised by cold ground (clay soils, waterproof, always soaked with water), whereas in southern France, oxen, donkeys and mules were preferred due to the presence of the warm lands (lands that store and retain the heat of the sun). The production of oats and barley, the staple food of horses, is more challenging in warm lands (Grand and Delatouche, 1950; Mane, 1992; Migaud, 1993). It is also attested that the plough and the harrow were used in the North of France, whereas in the South, the swing plough was used (Sigaut, 1982; Paillet, 1996), which was referred to as the horse “herseur” or hercerius. Moreover, a custom exclusive to Southern Europe was threshing with the horse (action to separate the sedds of ears by making stamp the sheaves by animals). Finally, horses were also used to activate the “moulins à sang” and the cider mills (Mane, 1992). The horse constituted an investment important for his owner, both in terms of the purchase of the horse itself (different prices according to the type of horse), and the purchase of equipment and food. That is why, from the 13th century onward, the first treatises of horse medicine appear that mention remedies to treat horses (Prévot, 1992). Ownership of a horse is, therefore, a symbol of having attained a certain social class (Contamine, 2008). Next, to these different directions for use, two other factors testify to the exploitation of the horse: butchery and crafts. In 732, Pope Grégory III forbade the consumption of horse meat, considered as a symbol of

1.2. The Clos d'Ugnac archaeological site The Clos d'Ugnac archaeological site is located in France, in the department of the Aude, near the municipality of Pennautier, on the right bank of the Fresquel (Fig. 1). Situated on the locality “Chemin des Romains”, the site dates from the Tertiary Era of the Eocene time. Numerous archaeological discoveries near Clos d'Ugnac led to archaeological diagnostics and then a preventive excavation. In 1928, Fages discovered sixty two skeletons, an important quantity of black ceramics (Wibaut and Sanchez, 2012) and a white marble sarcophagus from the Visigoth period (Despratx et al., 2007). In the 1930s, Baudreux detected the remains of the chapel of Huniac. In 2009, Rolin and Belbenoit completed work on the locality “Les Tuileries”, dating it to the Final Neolithic Age-Early Bronze Age/Middle Bronze Age with some material from the Second Iron Age (Wibaut and Sanchez, 2012). Historical data complete these discoveries, because the presence of a Roman road known today as the “Chemin des Romains” may be accessed from the archaeological site, attesting to the antiquity of the site's occupation. As for the textual data, they reveal the old names of the Clos d'Ugnac (Sabarthès, 1912). Prior to the construction of a housing estate in the Ugnac locality, the area was the object of study by the Regional Service of Archaeology (SRA), archaeological diagnostics and a preventive excavation, realised by the National Institute of Preventive Archaeological Research (INRAP). A first occupation dated to the Neolithic/Protohistoric period and another of the Early Roman Empire were discovered. The main occupation, representing 90% of the right of way, includes a road system, a built environment, craft structures, agrarian structures (pits and silos) and two graves. According to the types of structures, a protocol of excavation was established to answer the scientific objectives and the methodological principles defined in the prescription decree. These structures delivered a rich fauna including human remains, canids, felids, cervids, microfauna, avifauna, ichthyofauna, malacofauna, bovids, suidae, sheeps, goats and equids 180

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Fig. 1. Localisation of the Clos d'Ugnac archaeological site at scale 1/60000 (www.earth.google.fr).

applied to donkeys and hybrids because of the absence of reference sources. The sexual dimorphism of the different species was highlighted according to the study of the morphology of the pubis bone (Barone, 1999) and the presence/absence of canines. The estimation of horse and donkey body mass was calculated according to the equations of Eisenmann and Sondaar (1998). The height of the withers of both species was measured by combining the methods of May von (1985), Kiesewalter (1888) and Eisenmann (2009b). Formulae defined by each of the authors were applied, but more or less important variations were observed. The average of the three formulae was calculated, to have an indicative height of the withers to compare our data with those of the other archaeological sites. The index of slenderness was calculated on the metapodials in order to estimate the slenderness or the robustness of the horses of the Clos d'Ugnac, according to Brauner's classification (in De Grossi Mazzorin et al., 1998). The determination of the bone lesions was carried out in collaboration with Yves Lignereux, veterinarian at the Veterinary National School of Toulouse and by means of reference books (Baker and Brothwell, 1980; Lignereux et al., 1998; Bonnassie, 2001; Bartosiewicz, 2006; Bartosiewicz, 2013; Lignereux and Bouet, 2015). The whole of the observed pathologies was recorded in the database (quantification) and photographed. The skeletal/bone remains with lesions, allowing inferences the health status of animals, the conditions of breeding and their use. Only arthropathies and traumatic lesions allowing us to highlight the exploitation of equids are presented in this article (Bartosiewicz, 2013). Arthropathies include “ligament damage (ligamentopathy), inflammation of the synovial membrane, inflammation of the fibrous articular capsule and tendon (enthesopathy), wear and/or fragmentation of the articular cartilage and inflammation and degeneration of the entire joint (Osteoarthritis)” (Bartosiewicz, 2013, p. 106). These involve either enthesophytes (at the level of the capsular, ligament and tendon insertions) or the formation of osteophytes (at the periphery of the joints), which are bone productions (exostosis). Concerning traumatic lesions, we observed the presence of calluses which correspond to the formation of a “new bone at the fragmentary ends of a fractured bone that restores its continuity” (Medical Dictionary of the Academy of Medecine) end (Sub) luxation which is the “partial or total loss of normal anatomical relationships between the extremities of a joints (Medical Dictionary of the Academy of Medecine)”. On the Clos d'Ugnac archaeological site, among arthropathies, only ligamentopathies, enthesopathies and osteoarthritis were observed and will be presented. These elements combined allow

(Fig. 2). Elements of marquetry as well as the highlighting of the work of mother of pearl on the archaeological site complete this inventory (Bertin, 2015). Finally, the ceramics and the numismatics materials discovered on the site allow us to establish a site chronology between the 9th and 14th centuries (Wibaut and Sanchez, 2012). 2. Material and methods The medieval structures delivered 669 bones and teeth of equids, for a total mass of 37 kg. These are mainly represented by the axial skeleton (NISP: 432 with 121 dental remains), followed to a lesser extent by the appendicular skeleton (NISP: 237). To determine the different species present at the archaeological site (horses, donkeys or hybrids), a morphological and osteometric study was made on the dental remains, scapulas, humeruses, radius, metacarpals, femurs, tibias, metatarsals, talus and proximal phalanges, according to various criteria and methods listed in the literature (Eisenmann and Dive, 1991; Eisenmann, 1979; Eisenmann, 1980; Eisenmann, 1981a; Eisenmann, 1981b; Eisenmann, 1992; Eisenmann and Giuli, 1974; Eisenmann and Karchoud, 1982; Eisenmann and Beckouche, 1986; Farello, 2006; Johnstone, 2004; Peters, 1998; Prat, 1957). To obtain measurements in agreement with those cited in the publications above, the system of measurements established by Eisenmann (2009a) was used. Measurements were taken with the calliper (150 mm and 300 mm) at 1/10 mm. Of these methods, it appears that the bibliographical work concerning donkeys and especially hybrids is relatively poor. Indeed, the majority of the studies concentrate on the horse and there is no real reference source on donkeys or hybrids. Consequently, the generic name « hybrid » is used to designate the mule and the hinny. A database was created in Microsoft's Excel software to record and quantify the obtained results in a homogeneous way. The Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) was estimated by combining the best represented organ (teeth) and the age of individuals (Poplin, 1976). The percentage of Minimal Animal Unit (MAU) was calculated by dividing the MAU of every skeletal portion by the maximum MAU divided by 100 (Binford, 1984). The estimation of the age of the individuals was made according to the dental stages of eruption and tooth wear (Guadelli, 1998), as well as the average ages of epiphyseal closure as established by Barone (1999). These data were 181

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Fig. 2. Number of identified specimens (NISP) of fauna remains for the Clos d'Ugnac.

that likely caused each mark. The different anthropogenic markers observed on the equid bones of Clos d'Ugnac were interpreted according to data from Martin (1907–1910), Binford (1981) and Costamagno and David (2009). Indeed, according to these authors, the different operations of butchery (evisceration, skinning, disarticulation, defleshing) are observable according to the localisation of the anthropogenic markers. Other anthropogenic markers were also observed:

the characterisation of every individual and consequently the definition of the equine population of the Clos d'Ugnac. The anthropogenic markers were classified according to the tools used: - Knife: fine incisions (Clavel, 2001), - Cleaver: wide incisions with flattening out of the material: “les marques sont courtes et forment une butée et des paliers provoquant la perte de la matière sous forme d'écailles” (Rodet-Belarbi and Mallet, 2006, p. 9), - Saw: “surface plane et finement striée transversalement au sens de coupure” (Borvon, 2012, p. 68).

- Fractures on fresh bone: bone with a smooth fracture edge (Villa and Mahieu, 1991) - Burn marks: portion of burnt bone (Méniel, 2014) - Combustion marks: completely burnt bone

It is established that the knife and the cleaver are the tools of the butcher, whereas the saw is the tool of the craftsman (Lepetz, 2012). The majority of incisions were examined using a binocular magnifier (LEICA, magnification 0.60 and 0.80) and photographed. Then, they were carried over anatomical drawings (as well as fractures on fresh bone) to locate the position of every incision to determine activity

Fractures on fresh bone suggest either to the recovery of marrow or to the artisanal use of the bone (Martin, 1907–1910; Binford, 1981; Costamagno and David, 2009). Burn marks can provide evidence of pieces of meat being cooked (e.g. Roasting) whereas the combustion marks correspond to bones thrown in a fireplace, with the aim of 182

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Table 1 Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) of donkeys, horses and hybrids. Species

Donkeys Horses Hybrids

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3 (2.5–5 years)

(6 days–10 months)

(10–25 months)

1 1 0

1 0 0

7 2 1

Stage 4

Stage 5

MNI

(5–8 years)

(> 9 years)

2 2 0

4 1 1

15 6 2

Table 2 Evolution of the slenderness of equids over time, according to Brauner's classification (De Grossi Mazzorin et al., 1998). Period

Very slender legged (< 13.5)

Bronze Age Iron Age Roman Period

X

Slender legged (13.6–14.5)

Slightly slender legged (14.6–15.5)

X

X X

Medium slender legged (15.6–16.5)

Slightly massive legged (16.6–17.5)

Massive legged (> 17.5)

X X X

X

Fig. 3. Enthesopathies on the equid bones of the Clos d'Ugnac (L. Bertin).

feeding the fire or eliminating the bones (Méniel, 2014).

3. Results 3.1. The taxonomy and morphology of the equids of Clos d'Ugnac Morphological and osteometric analysis of the equid bones allows this study to highlight the presence of the horse, the donkey and the 183

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Fig. 4. Ligamentopathies on the equid bones of the Clos d'Ugnac (L. Bertin).

approaching the variability of the horses of previous periods. Indeed, the Gallic horses of the Iron Age had a height varying from 1.10 and 1.40 m, with an average of 1.25 m (Méniel, 1996; Boulbes and Gardeisen, 2014), whereas the horses of Roman Empire were between 1.45 and 1.55 m tall. Smaller contemporary horses with reduced withers height were found in non-Romanized regions: between 1.10 and 1.35 m for the horses of Western Europe (average: 1.26–1.27 m) and between 1.21 and 1.49 m for the horses of Eastern Europe (average: 1.36–1.37 m). In the Middle Ages, horses had an average withers height of 1.35 or 1.36 m. Consequently, the horses of the Clos d'Ugnac are in keeping with the size of medieval horses and were growing closer to the horses of Eastern Europe (Audoin-Rouzeau, 1995). The index of slenderness (breadth / length ∗ 100) calculated on two metatarsals of horses indicates that the latter, according to Brauner's classification, were quite very slender legged (average index: 11.84) (in De Grossi Mazzorin et al., 1998). It is admitted that over time, more robust types of horses were favoured to the detriment of the slender types (Table 2). The medieval horses of the Clos d'Ugnac were similar to the native horses (Bökönyi, 1971). In conclusion, the equine population of the Clos d'Ugnac comprised mainly donkeys, followed by horses and hybrids. The donkey population includes small and medium sized individuals, whereas the horse population includes small sized individuals similar to modern ponies and corresponding to medieval horses, although they were very slender legged. The hybrids present cannot be characterised in the absence of diagnostic elements and reference sources.

hybrids. The MNI of the mandibles and jaws allows us to observe the number and sexes of equids present according to the dental stages of eruption and tooth wear (Table 1). Through the combination of the MNI with the sexual diagnosis based on the pubis bone, the MNI is estimated as: - 15 donkeys with at least 3 males and 4 females, - 6 horses with at least 1 male and 2 females, and - 2 hybrids of indefinite sex. The estimation of the body mass shows four groups. For donkeys, the first group is between 90 and 168 kg, the second between 183 and 191 kg and the third between 261 and 352 kg. The final group, belonging to Equus caballus, ranges between 271 and 345 kg. The final donkey group has a body mass similar to that of horses. The body masses of the donkeys is similar to the modern variability of current donkeys, which weigh between 70 kg (the toy breeds) and 500 kg (the big breeds, e.g., Poitou). As for the horses, their body mass was found to be lower than of that of modern horses (between 380 and 1000 kg), which is appropriate for their modest size. The body mass of hybrids could not be estimated due to the lack of diagnostic elements (metapodials) and reference sources. The estimation of the height of the withers shows two groups of donkeys, a first group of 1.05 m height on average and a second of 1.18 m height on average. Consequently, group 1 enters the category of small sized donkeys (between 90 cm and 1.10 m), whereas group 2 represents medium sized donkeys (between 1.10 m and 1.30 m). The horses exhibit an average withers height of 1.37 m, which corresponds to medium sized individuals (Vitt, 1952). According to data from the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI), in terms of height, the horses of the Clos d'Ugnac fall in the category of modern ponies (between 1.08 m and 1.40 m). Finally, the horses have a withers height

3.2. Bone lesions Only the arthropathies (enthésophathie, ligamentopathie, osteoarthritis) and traumatic lesions, highlighting the exploitation of equids, are mentioned below.

184

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Fig. 5. Osteoarthritis on the equid bones of the Clos d'Ugnac (L. Bertin).

talometatarsal ligament and of the medial collateral ligament, - the talus SI 3031-23, on the tubercle of insertion of the medial collateral ligament, - the calcaneus SI 1953-4, on the sustentaculum tali, at the medial collateral ligaments, - the posterior proximal phalanx FS 3149-2, at the level of the collateral ligaments of the metatarsophalangeal joints set.

3.2.1. Arthropathies Enthesopathies (Fig. 3) are observable on: - the atlas SI 1547-1, on the cranial incisure of arcus dorsalis, - the rib SI 1286-58, on the tubercle of longissimus muscle, - the pubis bones FS 3149-13, SI 2226-1 and US 1372-1, on the iliac spine which presents the more marked muscle masses (gluteus profundus muscle), - the pubis bone SI 10051-81, on the iliac spine at the level of the gluteus medius muscle, - the pubis bone SI 1953-124, on the pectin pubis at the insertion of pectineus muscle, - the femur SI 1953-2, on the caudal face, in the insertions of the adductor muscles of the thigh, - the femur SI 2598-121, on the caudal face, at the level of the pectineus muscle.

3.2.3. Osteoarthritis Osteoarthritis (Fig. 5) are observable on: - the thoracic vertebrae SI 21271-6 and SI 21271-22, around the superior costal facets, - the lumbar vertebra FY 21044-2, around the inferior articular processes and around the body of vertebra, - the metatarsal SI 21271-1, on the distal articular end. 3.2.4. Calluses We note the presence of calluses of the pubis bone (Fig. 6) among numerous individuals:

3.2.2. Ligamentopathies Ligamentopathies (Fig. 4) are observable on: - the radius SI 21271-3, on the proximal end of palmar carpal ligament, - the metacarpal SI 2691-11, at the level of the metacarpophalangeal ligaments, - the metatarsal SI 3031-28, in medial view, at the level of the

- a right pubis bone of a female ass (SI 20281-1) and a left pubis bone of a male ass (SI 1972–96) at the level of the body, - a left pubis bone of a female ass FS 1541-1, on the iliopubic eminence. 185

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Fig. 6. Calluses and (sub)luxation on the equid bones of the Clos d'Ugnac (L. Bertin).

cleaver incisions on the femur. Finally, the hybrids present knife incisions on of the scapula. Fractures on fresh bone (NISP = 4) were also observed, particularly, on one donkey tibia, one horse metatarsal and two metacarpals of Equus sp. (Figs. 7, 8 and 9). The different anthropogenic markers observed on the equid bones of Clos d'Ugnac were interpreted according to data from Martin (1907–1910), Binford (1981) and Costamagno and David (2009). Indeed, according to these authors, the different operations of butchery are observable according to the localisation of the anthropogenic markers:

Table 3 Percentage of the % MAU of the equids of the Clos d'Ugnac. % MAU Skeletal portions

Equus caballus

Equus asinus

Hybrid

Equus sp.

Skull Axial skeleton Anterior limb Posterior limb Extremities

70,83 1,42 54,17 100 6,25

54,93 13,77 42,25 100 6,34

100

52,38 100 38,10 80,95 2,38

100

- striations at the level of the internal part of the ribs and vertebrae show to evisceration activity, - striations at the level of the metapodials and phalanges, as well as those observed at the level of the skull (base of the bone dowel, orbit, frontal bone) and on the edge of the mandibular symphysis result from the activities of skinning. Indeed, the recovery of the skin is attested in an order of 1424 of the Duke of Brittany, in which it is mentioned “Item comme en nostre païs on n'ayt pas accoustumé à escorcher chevaulx ne chiens, combien que le cuir soit proufitable à faire de bonnes opvres necessaires et convenables au bien commun de nostre païs, comme de ces cuirs de chevaulx on fait boutailes ainsi que ou pays d'Engleterre et aussi pluseurs aultres choses […]” (Planiol, 1896, p. 393). This practice should be seen in relation to luxury crafts (Bourgeois and Diekens, 2012), - anthropogenic markers in the articular surfaces of the bones testify to the activities of disarticulation, - striations at scapula, humerus, vertebrae, coxal bones, femur and tibia are interpreted as the result of the meat removal artivities. Therefore, on the meat-rich bones (Outram and Rowley-Conwy, 1998), - fractures on fresh bone testify to the recovery of the marrow. In fact, the bones containing a medullary cavity and the mandible contain the yellow marrow, rich in proteins and fatty acids, while in the epiphyses of the long bones, in the flat and short bones are the red marrow. These can also testify to the work of the bone.

3.2.5. Subluxation The left ulna SI 1935-22 presents a diarthrodial surface for the radius abnormally deformed by an exuberant reaction to a chronic subluxation (Fig. 6). In conclusion, different types of lesions were observed. Donkeys present arthropathies, calluses as well as subluxation of the elbow, whereas horses only arthropathies.

3.3. Anthropogenic markers The pourcentage of the Minimal Animal Unit (% MAU) was calculated (without dental remains) to observe the frequency of each skeletal portion (Binford, 1984). It shows that the horse and the donkey have the pelvic limb, the skull and the anterior limb which are predominantly represented, whereas the hybrids are represented by the skull and the anterior limb, due to the rarity of bone remains of these animals (Table 3). Anthropogenic markers left by tools were observed on 56 equid bones. Most prevalent were knife incisions (NISP = 35), cleaver incisions (NISP = 14), knife and cleaver incisions (NISP = 2) and saw incisions (NISP = 1). The donkey presents knife incisions on the frontal bone, the mandible, the radius, the ulna, the femur, the metatarsal and the proximal phalanx; cleaver incisions on the radius, the metatarsal and the tibia; and saw incisions on the tibia. Horses displayed knife incisions on the incisive bone, the nasal bone and the metacarpal; and 186

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Fig. 7. Distribution of the anthropogenic markers, expressed in NISP (Coutureau and Forest, 1996).

extensor tendo (NISP = 2). Another metacarpal has fracture on fresh bone at the palmar surface (NISP = 2). These anthropogenic markers testify to activities of skinning and the probable recovery of the tendons and the marrow, but also the work of the bone. The localisation of the striations on the ribs, is imprecise. Indeed, these are fragmentary, which makes difficult the exact positioning. In spite of this, it is observed that the majority of the knife and cleaver striations are located on the external face, mainly on the cranial and caudal edges (NISP = 27). Two ribs show anthropogenic markers on the inner surface at the caudal edge. The apparent striations on the ribs at the level of the external face probably correspond to the recovery of the serrated muscle, the intercostal muscles and the external oblique muscle and, therefore, the defleshing activities. Indeed, the thoracic part and the lumbar part deliver on average 54.75 kg-body of meat (Outram and Rowley-Conwy, 1998). As for the striations observed on the internal face of the ribs, these may testify to the evisceration of the animals. The femurs show marks of cleaver on the cranial surface, at the vastus intermedius muscle and on the medial side, under the nutrient foramen and under the neck of the femur (NISP = 1). Knife striae are observed on the caudal surface, at the level of the biceps femoris muscle and of the adductor magnus muscle of the thigh (NISP = 1). These striations may reflect defleshing activity since the femur is one of the bones delivering the most meat, i.e. 20.25 kg-body (Outram and Rowley-Conwy, 1998). A tibia shows marks of cleaver under the tibial crest at the level of many muscles, which may correspond to defleshing activities, even if the tibia delivers only 2.25 kg-body of meat (Outram and Rowley-Conwy, 1998). A second tibia shows a fracture on fresh bone that can testify either to the recovery of marrow (the tibia being one of the bones delivering the

In addition, the localisation of butchery marks related to the supply of meat and marrow of each bone. Indeed, according to Outram and Rowley-Conwy (1998), the horse delivers 150 kg-body of meat and 227 g-body of marrow (Table 4). Skulls and mandibles show marks of knife. On the skulls, these are located on the frontal bone near the supraorbital foramen (NISP = 1), on the nasal bone at the level of the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle (NISP = 1) and on the body of the incisive bone (NISP = 1). As for the mandible, the striations are at the level of the mental foramen (NISP = 1). These testify to skinning activities in order to recover the skin. A scapula shows knife striae on the lateral side, at the scapular spine and on the caudal side at the long head of triceps muscle and the teres minor muscle (NISP = 1). Another has knife striae on the medial side, at the edge of the glenoid cavity (NISP = 1). These striations testify to the activity of defleshind and disarticulation of the shoulder. The radius show marks of cleaver on the dorsal surface, in the radial styloid proces (medial and lateral) and in the sulcus of extensor carpi muscle, as well as marks of a knife on the lateral edge of the distal end, at the level of the crista transversa, on the palmar surface, at the medial edge of the distal end, and, on the medial side, at the level of the medial edge of the diaphysis and the distal end (NISP = 1). The palmar face also shows knife striae on the medial side of the ulna (NISP = 1). The anthropogenic markers located at the distal end of the radius attest to the disarticulation of the radius and carpus, and the others testify probably of defleshing activities, even if the radius and the ulna deliver only 1.5 kg-body of meat (Outram and Rowley-Conwy, 1998). Some metacarpals have knife striae on the dorsal and lateral surfaces, at the level of the common digital extensor tendon and the lateral digital 187

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Fig. 8. Localisation of the anthropogenic markers on the cranial : knife; : cleaver; bones and the thoracic limb ( : fracture on fresh bone) (D. Cléré and L. Bertin).

(NISP = 1), the mandible (NISP = 3), the coxal bone (NISP = 1) and the femur (NISP = 2), as well as a completely burnt radius (NISP = 1) and ulna (NISP = 1). Horses show burn marks on the humerus (NISP = 1), the patella (NISP = 1), the tibia (NISP = 1) and the metatarsal (NISP = 1), whereas the hybrid presents it on the mandible (NISP = 1). One rib of Equus sp. presents burn marks and five are completely burnt (Figs. 10 and 11). Donkeys present the majority of the anthropogenic markers, followed by horses and hybrids. Donkeys also exhibit the majority of burn and combustion marks, followed by horses and hybrid. Consequently, the donkey was preferentially used in comparison to the horses and the hybrids, according to the Number of Identified Specimens per taxon (NISP), for food and artisanal purposes.

most marrow), or to the work of the bone, as evidenced by another sawn tibia. A metatarsal has knife striae on the lateral surface at the passage of the lateral digital extensor tendon. A second one has marks of cleaver on the periphery of the proximal end and at the level of the diaphysis, which may correspond to marks of knackery. These anthropogenic markers probably attest to the recovery of the skin and the tendons but also the work of the bone. Finally, a third has a fracture on fresh bone, which can correspond either to the recovery of the marrow or to the work of the bones. The anterior and posterior proximal phalanges show only knife striae on the dorsal, medial and lateral surfaces of the tendons, sheaths and ligaments of the phalangeal group (NISP = 7). These striations may correspond to marks of skinning activity, as well as to the probable removal of the tendons. Consequently, despite the scarcity of anthropogenic markers in the Clos d'Ugnac assemblage, we find all the butchery marks defined by Binford (1981). Otherwise, 20 skeletal remains or 3% of the total show burn and combustion marks. Donkeys present burn marks on the skull

4. Discussion The medieval occupation of Clos d'Ugnac delivered skeletal and 188

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Fig. 9. Localisation of the anthropogenic markers on the ribs, : knife; : cleaver; the pelvic limb and the phalanges ( : saw; : fracture on fresh bone) (D. Cléré and L. Bertin).

defined by their modest size (average: 137 cm) and very slender legs. The latter are in accordance with the size of medieval horses (average: 135–136 cm), making these horses closer in size to modern ponies. The well-preserved equids of Clos d'Ugnac, allowed the observation of the bone lesions and anthropogenic markers on fresh bones. The study of the bone lesions allowed us to highlight different types of pathologies present, particularly for the donkey remains. The anthropogenic markers testify to the use of the knife, the cleaver and the saw, as well as burn and combustion marks on the bones of donkeys, horses and hybrids.

Table 4 General utility index for horse (Outram and Rowley-Conwy, 1998). Bones

Meat (kg-body)

Marrow (kg-body)

Skull (brain) Mandible (tongue) Atlas/axis Cervical vertebrae Thoracic vertebrae Lumbar vertebrae Scapula Humerus Radius/Ulna Metacarpal Coxal bone Femur Tibia Metatarsal Phalanges

8 3.25 3.5 20.25 44.75 10.0 6.75 5.75 1.5 0 23.75 20.25 2.25 0 0

0 0.036 0 0 0 0 0 0.041 0.024 0.011 0 0.072 0.033 0.009 0.001

4.1. Beasts of burden Several types of bone lesions were observed: enthesopathies, ligamentopathies, osteoarthritis, calluses of the pelvis bones and (sub) luxation of the elbow. The position and the expansions of these lesions on the different bones of the skeleton allow us to propose two kinds of uses for equids: the draft and the pack sadde (fig. 12). Animal traction is imposed on both the horse and on the donkey: the enthesopathies, the ligamentopathies and the osteoarthritis result from arthropathies that are considered as signs of the exploitation of animals for the draft (Bartosiewicz, 2006). Moreover, the bone lesions are frequent, mainly on the bones of the pelvic limb and the coxal bones.

dental remains of donkeys, horses and hybrids, belonging to all the age groups, although the majority of the individuals were aged 2.5 years or older. It should be noted that 25% of the individuals were > 9 years old. Donkeys are characterised by small and middle sized individuals with a body mass varying between 90 and 352 kg, whereas horses were 189

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Fig. 10. Distribution of the burn and combustion marks, expressed in NISP (Coutureau and Forest, 1996).

horse for the draft alone. These results confirm the statement of Grand and Delatouche (1950), who argued that in the South of France, donkeys and mules were used for freight transport, the threshing and the ploughing of which show the lesions bound to the draft and the pack saddle. At the archaeological site of Clos d'Ugnac, however, it appears that horses were probably used for the threshing (southern practice), freight transport and ploughing (northern practices) as show by the observed lesions. Consequently, the archaeological site of the Clos d'Ugnac presents southern and northern influences in the use of equids. Moreover, the low number of individuals of horses confirms the intensive exploitation of donkeys in the South of France.

Indeed, it has been shown that the lesions bound to the traction are frequent mainly on the bones of pelvic limb and on the coxal bones, which are strongly stressed during traction (Bartosiewicz, 2013). This traction is also suggested by the vertebral lesions, a signal of chronic use to the back (Lignereux et al., 1998; Lignereux and Bouet, 2015). The overexploitation of donkeys for the porterage is obvious due to the presence of calluses of the pubis on some individuals (NMI: 3), fractures arise when animals give under the load and “s'équasillent”. The subluxation of the elbow does not allow to formally attest the draft and the pack saddle this one which, may result from trauma or from arthropathie (Bartosiewicz, 2013). The low abundance of bone lesions testifying of the draft and the pack saddle is related to the fact that the “osteological symptoms of work exploitation increase with the advancement of age, in part as a physiological consequence of aging, but are also exacerbated by the greater absolute exposure to stress resulting from longevity itself” (Bartosiewicz, 2013, p. 130). Indeed, the arthropathies can have a metabolic, inflammatory, genetic origin and/or be caused by repetitive strain injury (Bartosiewicz, 2013). Consequently, young individuals not subjected to prolonged exploitation do not exhibit such pathologies (Dutour, 1986). These are also found in a small proportion in the Clos d'Ugnac cattle. The osteoarticular pathology and the relatively large proportion of individuals > 5 years old combine to confirm the exploitation of the donkey and the horse for freight transport and working the land at our archaeological site, where the realisation of > 1000 silos and numerous buildings indicates the importance of working animals. Indeed, silos, in the variable storage capacity, received the fruit of one or several fields. The built environment implied the freight transport of the place of production at the place of use and thus the necessity of having a working force capable of pulling or of supporting heavy loads over great distance. Consequently, the obtained results testify to the use of the donkey for the draft and the pack saddle, and the exploitation of the

4.2. Source of meat and raw material The study of anthropogenic markers, according to the type of tool used and their localisation on the bones, as well as the observation of fractures on fresh bones and the burn and combustion marks to discuss the use of the equids of the Clos d'Ugnac. The presence of scattered bones in the majority of silos seems to demonstrate that these are the consequence of the dismembrement and the recovery operations of the raw material (Lepetz et al., 2013). Donkeys and horses were probably used to recover skin (leather work) and tendons, which is demonstrated by the absence of caudal vertebrae (Lepetz et al., 2013) but also by the presence of thin knife striations, on the skull, metapodials and phalanges. These are intended to not damage the skin unlike the butcher is coaving which requires more energy. The marks of knife and/or cleaver observed in the infraspinous fossa of scapulae, the diaphyses of the radius, femurs and tibias and on the external surface of the ribs can only be attributed to a phase of defleshing. The calculation of the pourcentage of the Minimal Animal Unit (% MAU) shows a choice on bones comprising a large mass of meat. Moreover, the burn marks observed on the humeruses, the coxal bones, 190

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Fig. 11. Localisation of burn and combustion marks on the cranial bones and the long bones of donkeys, horses and hybrids. The ribs not having been able to be attributed to a species does not appear on this plate (D. Cléré and L. Bertin).

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Fig. 12. Distribution of the bone lesions on horses and donkeys bones.

equids of the Clos d'Ugnac allows to present a man-horse relationship different from that proposed by Grand and Delatouche (1950), but comparable for donkeys and hybrids. The study of the marks from knives and cleavers, showing various operations of butchery (evisceration, skinning, disarticulation and defleshing), as well as the burn marks on the humerus, the coxal bone, the femur and the tibia, also shows the use of equids as a meat resource. As noted earlier, horse slaughter was practised in the Middle Ages, in spite of the church ban. Consequently, these animals were exploited by the local population for alimentary purposes, either for personal use or trade, as evidenced by the presence of two Atlantic species at the site: Mytilus edulis and Pecten maximus. Nevertheless, the consumption of the equine meat for dogs seems been also attested on the site. Finally, the anthropogenic markers left mainly by the saw and by the activity of skinning demonstrate the use of equids as source of raw material (skin, bones, tendons, marrow). This craft exploitation of equid carcasses is consolidated by evidence of numerous craft activities at the site, including metalworking, textiles and mother-of-pearl, raw material used for religious and luxury objects. This suggests that the village site would have contained production sites. Thus, the renewals present on the site of Clos d'Ugnac in connection with Saint Jacques d'Ugnac, himself under the authority of the Abbey of Montolieu, suggest that Clos d'Ugnac was a production site of these two institutions. In conclusion, this study supplies both novel results and information in keeping with the literature, particularly concerning the use of equids as farm animals and as a source of meat and raw material.

the femurs and the tibias, which are bones with a non-insignificant mass of meat, may be proofs of the consumption of the meat of equids (e.g. roasting) on the site of Clos d'Ugnac. However, as we noted earlier, beginning in 732, the consumption of horse meat was forbidden by the church (Bourgain, 2012; Viallon, 2015). If we refer to De Villis, the consumption of the old horses is recommended (Migaud, 1993). This is reeping with our results, as older animals with striations were found to be relatively abundant. In other archaeological sites, such as the Villiers le Sec, in France, the practice of hippophagy has been demonstrated (Migaud, 1993). Nevertheless, horse meat was also used to feed dogs (Bourgeois and Diekens, 2012), which seems to attest the few marks of carnivores located at the level of the epiphyses of certain bones. Finally, the work of bone may be deduced from the marks of saws and possibly the fractures on fresh bones. Some burn marks on the bones with a low meat content (skull, mandible patella and metapodial) could be thrown in a fireplace, like the radius and ulna which are completely burned (Daujeard, 2008), with the aim of feeding the fire (Méniel, 2014) or, quite simply, eliminate the bones. On the site, the absence of stones, potsherds and/or concentrations of charcoals allow to refute the hypothesis of a fire.

5. Conclusion The medieval occupation of the Clos d'Ugnac delivered skeletal and dental remains of donkeys, horses and hybrids, a majority of which were than 2.5 years older. The study of the height in the withers highlighted the presence of individuals of modest size compared to modern specimens. The bone lesions testify to the intensive and repeated exploitation of equids. The latter show two types of use: the draft imposed on horses and donkeys, and the pack saddle imposed on donkeys, as indicated by the numerous calluses of pubis bones. This exploitation for the draft and the pack saddle is confirmed by the presence of individuals > 5 years old. This fact may be explicable by the archaeological context of the medieval occupation. Indeed, the site delivered > 1000 silos and numerous buildings requiring an important working force. These results confirm the statement of Grand and Delatouche (1950) according to whom in the South of France, donkeys and mules were used for the freight transport and horses for the threshing and ploughing as shown by the lesions linked the draft and the pack saddle. At Clos d'Ugnac, however, it seems that horses were probably used for the threshing (Southern practice), freight transport and ploughing (Northern practice) as shown by the observed lesions. Consequently, the study of

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