The exploitation of ungulates in the Magdalenian in the Entre-Deux-Mers (Gironde, France)

Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e24

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The exploitation of ungulates in the Magdalenian in the Entre-DeuxMers (Gironde, France)
a Feyfant c, Flore Martin b Delphine Kuntz a, *, Sandrine Costamagno b, Le ArScAn, UMR 7041, CNRS Maison de l'Arch
eologie et de l'Ethnologie, 21 all
ee de l'Universit
e, 92 023 Nanterre Cedex, France TRACES, UMR 5608, CNRS, Maison de la Recherche, Universit
e Toulouse Jean-Jaur es, 5 all
ees A. Machado, 31058 Toulouse cedex 9, France c PACEA, UMR5199, CNRS, Universit
e de Bordeaux, All
ee Geoffroy St-Hilaire, CS 50 023, 33615 Pessac Cedex, France a

b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online xxx

This paper presents an overview of unpublished or recent data obtained from taphonomic and zooarchaeological studies carried out on several Magdalenian osseous assemblages in the Gironde, most of which were performed or updated as part of the Magdatis project. These assemblages have been re lower complex), attributed to techno-complexes from the Lower Magdalenian (Saint-Germain-la-Rivie re upper complex Middle Magdalenian (Roc de Marcamps 2, Moulin-Neuf layer 2, Saint-Germain-la-Rivie and Fongaban) and Upper Magdalenian (Morin and row 24 of Faustin). They document, from a diachronic and synchronic standpoint, the relationships between Magdalenian hunter gatherers and their prey, principally ungulates. Our study focuses on the butchery of carcasses, from their transport to their disposal, through an investigation of the transportation methods, resources obtained, intensity of butchery, and techniques used, as well as any recurrences in the chaînes op
eratoires. We also discuss the variations in the modes of consumption in relation to the size of the prey, the seasons of procurement, and the function of the sites. Irrespective of the size of the hunted games, the carcasses are incomplete. The post-cranial axial skeletons have been abandoned at the kill site. The limb and mandible bones are common, but differences are observed between the species exploited, reflecting either logistical constraints or nutritional contingencies. The resources used are diverse at the residential sites (skin, meat, marrow, tendons and hoofs). The marrow has been particularly intensely exploited regardless of the season; this advanced use does not however extend to the extraction of the fat. The results of this study indicate that, despite palaeoenvironmental and cultural changes, there were no real differences during the whole Magdalenian period in Gironde and that human groups remained faithful to the same traditions regarding the acquisition and processing of carcasses. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Zooarchaeology Butchery Ungulates Magdalenian Gironde

1. Introduction The procurement of game by hunter-gatherers involved a range of procedures from the initial transport of the carcasses to their butchery and final disposal. The ethnographic data highlight the diversity in the methods and practices used due to the many

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (D. Kuntz), [email protected] (S. Costamagno), [email protected] (L. Feyfant), martinfl[email protected] (F. Martin).

different material and cultural parameters, such as the number of hunters available to carry the game, the immediate and future needs of the group, the availability and conditions of the game (itself influenced by the season), topographical constraints, the distance of the kill site from the settlement, the time of day, taste preferences, rituals and taboos, etc. (Binford, 1978; O'Connell et al., 1988; Bartram, 1993; Gifford-Gonzalez, 1993; Lupo, 2006). Not all these parameters can be established from the archaeological record as oral traditions are not accessible and only solid materials (bone remains, cervid antlers, and teeth) are available to zooarchaeologists. Thus, while modes of transport may be varied (transport of complete carcasses, in the form of quarters, etc.) and consumable resources numerous (eyes, blood, offal,

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Please cite this article in press as: Kuntz, D., et al., The exploitation of ungulates in the Magdalenian in the Entre-Deux-Mers (Gironde, France), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.12.079

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brain, tongue, fat, meat, marrow, etc.), our perception of the food practices of Palaeolithic groups is relatively limited. To overcome a clear loss of information in the archaeological context, the data relating to the size and body mass of the ungulates, the number of animals slaughtered, the hunting seasons, the conditions of the game, and the function of the sites must also be taken into account. Using nutritional utility indexes, it is possible to establish the extent to which the criteria of the quality and quantity of meat, bone marrow, and fat dictated the practices adopted by Palaeolithic groups in transporting game. In order to establish the nature of the butchery activities, it is necessary to reconstruct the chaînes op
eratoires (skinning, evisceration, dismemberment, defleshing, disarticulation, removal of tendons, and fracturing, etc.), to identify the products sought (meat, marrow, fat, etc.) and the techniques used (disarticulation with cutting tools, percussion, or flexion; presence or absence of cutting tools for removing the meat; percussion and possible prior heating of the long bones to retrieve the marrow, etc.). Current literature (Binford, 1978; Nilssen, 2000; Abe, 2005; Costamagno and David, 2009) offers useful indications on food practices and the processing of carcasses (see Soulier, 2013; Soulier et al., 2014), and experimental
baut et al., 2010; studies in butchery (Vigne, 2005; Thie Costamagno, 2012) help us to establish the relationships between specific cutmarks and particular butchery activities in greater detail. Identifying these techniques allows us to reconstruct the different (and possibly recurrent) acts of butchery and to establish the modes of consumption of the meat (raw, roasted, boiled, etc.). For example, an abundance of defleshing cutmarks can indicate defleshing prior to cooking (Delpech and Villa, 1993; Costamagno and David, 2009; Soulier et al., 2014), while the presence of light distal burns can indicate the consumption of meat roasted on the bone (Vigne et al., 1981). The Entre-deux-Mers is situated in the department of the Gironde on the Atlantic coast of the Aquitaine basin and contains numerous Magdalenian sites with preserved faunal remains, offering us the opportunity to investigate the exploitation of animal carcasses during this period. Taphonomic and zooarchaeological analyses carried out on eight faunal assemblages using comparable methodological approaches have allowed for the comparison of butchery procedures in relation to the species hunted, the function of the sites, and the chronological phases in question. This corpus of sites is situated in a limited geographical area, allowing the interactions to be established between the Magdalenian groups and their game. This article being part of synthesis, we refer the readers to a range of articles already published for greater precision on the contexts and details of the archaeozoological analyses (Martin et al., in prep.; Mallye et al., in prep.; Costamagno, 1999, 2000, 2001; Feyfant, 2013; Feyfant et al., 2015; Martin, 2013; Soulier et al., 2014; Kuntz et al., 2015; Langlais et al., 2015a, 2015b). The purpose of this paper is to determine whether, through the butchery processing of carcasses, it is possible to identify certain common features which could be revealing of own cultural features specific to the Magdalenian in general or weather differences are perceptible at the scale of the
tillon, proposed technical entities (Langlais et al., this issue; Pe this issue).

inhospitable during these two intermediate millennia, which correspond to the HS1a and HS1b (Langlais et al., this issue;
tillon, this issue). These new datings, linked in the majority of Pe the cases with archaeostratigraphic reassessments and detailed studies of the lithic and osseous remains allow us to successively present the assemblages attributed to the different stages of the Magdalenian (Lower, Middle and Upper). 2.1. Saint-Germain-la-Rivi ere (Saint-Germain-la-Rivi ere) re (SGR) offers a The rockshelter of Saint-Germain-la-Rivie panoramic view of the low valley of the Dordogne. It was excavated over a surface of 9 m2 and a depth of more than 5 m by
colle in the 1960s, using modern methods (objects coordiTre nated in three dimensions, fine sifting of sediments, and stratigraphic observations). Recent archaeostratigraphic analyses have allowed us to distinguish two complexes: a lower complex, attributed to the Lower Magdalenian and dated to around 20,500e19,500 cal BP and an upper complex, attributed to the early Middle Magdalenian and dated around 19,500e18,000 cal BP (Langlais et al., 2015a). The zooarchaeological studies carried out around fifteen years ago (Costamagno, 1999, 2001) have been reassessed in light of these new archaeostratigraphic divisions. The technological studies carried out on lithic and osseous industries demonstrate an on-site production (in situ) of hunting weapons and domestic tools. This tooling indicates intense activities in relation to the hunting (manufacture and repair of weapons) and the butchery of carcasses. The presence of smoothers and needles suggest that dry hides were tanned then transformed within the site. All of these indications suggest the existence of a residential camp. In both complexes, the osseous material is well preserved. Carnivores had only a low impact on the bones: in the lower and upper complexes, only 0.8% of bones have teeth marks, mainly pits (Costamagno in Langlais et al., 2015a). The faunal spectrum is dominated by saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) (Table 1) both in terms of the number of identified species (NISP) and the minimum number of individuals (MNI). If we consider the MNI, saiga antelope is followed by horse (Equus caballus), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), bovines, red deer (Cervus elaphus), and European ass (Equus hydruntinus). Although the minimum numbers of saiga antelope are clearly higher in the upper complex than in the lower complex, for other ungulates the proportions seem to be relatively similar between the two complexes.

Table 1 re. Lower complex: Lower Magdalenian, Faunal spectrum of Saint-Germain-la Rivie upper complex: Middle Magdalenian. NISP: Number of Identified Specimens; MNI: Minimum Number of Individuals. Lower complex

Bos/Bison (Bovines) Saiga tatarica (saiga antelope) Equus caballus (horse) Equus hydruntinus (european ass) Rangifer tarandus (reindeer) Cervus elaphus (red deer) Total

Upper complex

NISP

% NISP

MNI

NISP

% NISP

MNI

117 1438 183 1 498 2 2239

5.2 64.2 8.2 0.04 22.2 0.1 100

3 18 6 1 5 1 34

66 2067 141 16 367 1 2658

2.5 77.8 5.8 0.6 13.8 0.04 100

2 43 5 1 5 1 57

2. Regional setting Eight Magdalenian assemblages have been selected from six sites in the Gironde (Fig. 1). The new datings (Barshay-Szmidt et al., this issue; Costamagno et al., this issue) place the occupations between 21,000 and 13,000 cal BP with a hiatus between 17,500 and 15,500 cal BP (Fig. 2). The region was probably relatively

In the lower complex, saiga antelope dental remains indicate the procurement of adults in the prime of age but above all, old individuals. In terms of the osseous remains however, the mortality profile shows a predominance of young individuals, which could

Please cite this article in press as: Kuntz, D., et al., The exploitation of ungulates in the Magdalenian in the Entre-Deux-Mers (Gironde, France), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.12.079

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re, 3: Fongaban, 4: Moulin-Neuf, 5: Faustin, 6: Le Morin. Fig. 1. Map of the sites mentioned in the text. 1: Roc de Marcamps, 2: Saint-Germain-la-Rivie

indicate the absence of selection of prey in relation to age. The abundance of old individuals (males rarely exceeding five years of age: Bannikov, 1967) and the absence of horn cores implies the hunting of females. In the upper complex, the mortality profile also falls into the “Juveniles-Prime-Old” (JPO) zone (see Discamps and Costamagno, 2015) but younger individuals are better represented than older ones. The presence of horn cores indicates that males were hunted alongside females and the young. For the other species, it is mainly adults that were slaughtered. The seasonal data indicate the procurement of saiga antelope during the warm season in both complexes (Langlais et al., 2015a). In the upper complex, the presence of an antler frontlet from a male reindeer also indicates the warm season.

2.2. Roc de Marcamps 2 (Prignac-et-Marcamps) Roc de Marcamps is situated on a vast bank at the foot of a cliff near a stream. The most recent excavations led by Lenoir in the 1980s focused on two sectors (1 and 2) containing occupations attributed to the Middle Magdalenian (Lenoir, 1993a,b,c and 2000). All the remains found in sector 2, which were excavated over a surface of 11 m2 and a depth of 1 m, have been the subject of new studies (Kuntz et al., 2015). The revision of the stratigraphic sequence, together with new radiocarbon datings (cf. Fig. 2) and an analysis of the lithic and osseous industries, has allowed the whole of Roc de Marcamps 2 to be attributed to the very beginning of the Middle Magdalenian, around 18,500 cal BP. The results of the typo-technological studies of the lithic (presence of production wastes, domestic tools and the frequent resharpening of burins in particular) and osseous industries (presence of waste of cutting and finished objects) as well as the ornaments (on-the-spot manufacturing of objects from shells) suggest a residential function for RM2. The site would have been occupied a big part of the year, but with no conclusive evidence

as to the continuous or repeated character of the installations (Kuntz et al., 2015). The bone remains found at Roc de Marcamps 2 (RM2) are in good surface condition. Carnivores marks seem moderate on the bones and were identified on only 3% of the total number of remains (Kuntz et al., 2015). The minimum number of identified individuals is close to that of the lower complex of SGR. At RM2, bovines dominate the assemblage, followed by saiga antelope, horse, and reindeer (Table 2). For bison, the stages of eruption and wear of teeth indicate that hunting mainly involved adults. The presence of two young bison and a foetus bone also imply the hunting of family units. For other ungulates, the mortality profiles show a prevalence of young individuals (JPO zone). For saiga antelope, the discovery of two skull fragments with the adjoining left horn cores allow us to infer the presence of two males, while for horse, the presence of the bones of two foetuses indicates the hunting of two mares. The seasonal data tend to indicate a seasonal complementarity between bison (cold season) and reindeer (beginning of the warm season). For saiga antelope, hunting appears to have taken place during both the cold and the warm seasons.

Table 2 Faunal spectrum of Roc de Marcamps sector 2. NISP: Number of Identified Specimens; MNI: Minimum Number of Individuals.

Bos/Bison (Bovines) Saiga tatarica (saiga antelope) Equus caballus (horse) Rangifer tarandus (reindeer) Cervus elaphus (red deer) Capreolus Capreolus (roe deer) Coelodonta antiquitatis (woolly rhinoceros) Total

NISP

% NISP

MNI

379 576 234 223 4 1 1 1418

26.7 40.6 16.5 15.7 0.3 0.1 0.1 100

12 8 6 6 1 1 1 35

Please cite this article in press as: Kuntz, D., et al., The exploitation of ungulates in the Magdalenian in the Entre-Deux-Mers (Gironde, France), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.12.079

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Fig. 2. New radiocarbon datings obtained under the ANR Magdatis project (excluding human remains).

2.3. Moulin-Neuf (Saint-Quentin-de-Baron) The rockshelter of Moulin-Neuf (MN), situated in a small valley near a stream, has been excavated several times, the most recent excavations involving an area of 37 m2 (Lenoir, 1983). Only layer 2, which is about 40e50 cm thick, has yielded significant quantities of Magdalenian artefacts. The lithic industry, which is homogeneous

throughout this layer, has been attributed to the Middle Magdalenian (Lenoir, 1983). This chronological attribution has been confirmed by four new radiocarbon datings which place the occupation between 20,000 and 17,500 cal BP (Barshay-Szmidt et al., this issue) corresponding to the early Middle Magdalenian. Several indices (production in situ of lithic and osseous toolkits, and presence of domestic tools, ochre remains, portable art and

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ornaments indicate that the rockshelter was used as a residential camp during successive occupations of a low number of individuals (Lenoir, 1983; Costamagno, 1999, 2000). The faunal remains have been the subject of a detailed taphonomic and zooarchaeological study (Costamagno, 1999, 2000). The osseous remains are in a good state of preservation and have allowed, in the majority of cases, for the analysis of the cortical surfaces. Carnivores had a very limited impact on the osseous stock: only 0.2% of the remains have marks characteristic of their action (Costamagno, 1999, 2000). The total number of individuals is close to that of the lower complex of SGR and RM2. Both in terms of the number of identified species and the minimum number of individuals, saiga antelope is the most highly represented taxa, followed by horse, reindeer, and bovines (Table 3).

Table 3 Faunal spectrum of Moulin-Neuf, layer 2. NISP: Number of Identified Specimens; MNI: Minimum Number of Individuals.

Bos/Bison (Bovines) Saiga tatarica (saiga antelope) Equus caballus (horse) Rangifer tarandus (reindeer) Cervus elaphus (red deer) Sus scrofa (boar) Total

NISP

% NISP

MNI

168 911 502 321 2 1 1905

8.8 47.8 26.4 16.9 0.1 0.1 100

3 18 8 5 1 1 36

The analysis of saiga antelope dental remains again indicates a predominance of young individuals. For horse, adults seem well represented, but the poor state of preservation of the teeth of young individuals may have influenced the mortality profiles. In terms of the dimensions of the distal phalanges of saiga antelope, only a male and a female could be identified; for horse, the existence of canines indicates the presence of a male. The seasonality data are limited. The procurement of horse appears to have been distributed throughout the year (Burke, 1995) and that of saiga antelope between February and June (Costamagno, 1999, 2000). 2.4. Fongaban (Saint Emilion) Fongaban (FON) is an open-air site situated at the base of a cliff which dominates the plain of about fourty meters. It was the subject of a rescue excavation in 1970, carried out over an area of 18 m2 and a maximal depth of 1.5 m (Rigaud, 1972). Only layers 2 and 3 have yielded a significant quantity of archaeological material (Lenoir, 1972). The lithic industry, which was poor, has been attributed only to the Upper Magdalenian or even the final Magdalenian (Rigaud, 1972), while the faunal spectrum (abundance of bison and presence of saiga antelope) incites us instead to attribute this occupation to the Middle Magdalenian (Martin, 2013; Martin et al., in prep.). The loss of lithic material and the poor state of preservation of the bone remains, for which it has not been possible to date any new samples (Barshay-Szmidt et al., this issue), do not allow this hypothesis to be confirmed however, although it does seem to corroborate the data regarding the faunal spectrum in the region (Costamagno et al., this issue). The nature (open-air context) as well as the function of Fongaban differ from that of other sites in the corpus. Indeed, the abundance of faunal remains compared to lithic artefacts, the skeletal profile (see infra), and the absence of osseous industry, portable

5

art and ornaments tend to suggest a short occupation as a kill site (Martin et al., in prep.). A preliminary study of the fauna was carried out by Delpech (1972), and a subsequent study of layer 3 has since been performed (Martin et al., in prep.; Martin, 2013). Due to significant problems of “laboratory taphonomy” and post-depositional degradation, it is difficult to establish the degree of fragmentation of the assemblage. None of the observed remains have carnivore tooth-marks (Martin et al., in prep.; Martin, 2013). Bovines are dominant, representing almost 99% of the identified remains and a minimum number of 27 individuals (Table 4). The specific determination of Bos/Bison based on anatomical criteria (Olsen, 1960; €ller, 1988) indicates that almost 90% of the bovine reSlott-Mo mains are Bison priscus and 6% Bos primigenius (Martin et al., in prep.; Martin, 2013).

Table 4 Faunal spectrum of Fongaban, layer 3. NISP: Number of Identified Specimens; MNI: Minimal Number of Individuals.

Bison priscus (bison) Saiga tatarica (saiga antelope) Equus caballus (horse) Rangifer tarandus (reindeer) Total

NISP

% NISP

MNI

1475 8 11 2 1496

98.6 0.5 0.7 0.1 100

27 1 3 1 32

The mortality profile of the bison indicates a predominance of adults. However, the significant proportion of young individuals could indicate a catastrophic age profile. The scatter plots established according to the measurements taken on certain tarsus bones (talus and capitate trapezoids) show a clear predominance of females and young individuals compared to males. Finally, the seasonal data established by skeletochronology indicate preferential procurement at the beginning of the warm season (Martin et al., in prep.; Martin, 2013).

2.5. Faustin (Cessac) Faustin rockshelter (FAU) is situated in a nearby immediate valley of a stream. It was excavated in the 1970s (Lenoir, 1983) over a surface of 25 m2 using modern techniques. An inventory has been carried out of the archaeological material, including the lithic and osseous industries, portable art, and human remains (Lenoir and Terraza, 1971; Lenoir, 1983; Gambier and Lenoir, 1991; Dubourg, 1997), but the fauna has been only studied from a palaeontological perspective (Delpech, 1971, 1983). The industries, which are homogeneous throughout the site (Lenoir, 1983), and the radiocarbon datings (Fig. 2) have allowed the assemblage to be attributed to the late Upper Magdalenian. The lithic and osseous industries (equipment with domestic tools and hunting weapons), ornaments and portable art provide evidence of long and repeated occupations by small groups of individuals. The Faustin rockshelter thus probably functioned as a residential camp (Feyfant et al., 2015). The faunal material presented here comes from row 24 of the Lenoir excavations (Feyfant, 2013; Feyfant et al., 2015). The remains are relatively well preserved, and it has been possible to analyse almost half of the material. No carnivore marks have been identified on the bone remains. As with layer 3 of Fongaban, the assemblage shows the predominance of one taxon, in this case

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horse, which represents over 97% of the number of identified ungulates, with a minimum of 19 individuals (Table 5).

Table 5 Faunal spectrum of Faustin, row 24. NISP: Number of Identified Specimens; MNI: Minimum Number of Individuals.

Bos/Bison (Bovines) Equus caballus (horse) Rangifer tarandus (reindeer) Cervus elaphus (red deer) Rupicapra rupicapra (chamois) Mammuthus primigenius (woolly mammoth) Total

NISP

% NISP

MNI

8 853 10 5 2 1 879

0.9 97.4 1.1 0.6 0.2 0.1 100

e 19 e e e 1 20

The mortality profile reveals an over-representation of young horses, indicating non-selective hunting in terms of age. The presence of three canines suggests the procurement of at least two stallions. The seasonal data indicate year-round procurement, probably a little more intense in the winter and the spring (Feyfant, 2013; Feyfant et al., 2015). 2.6. Morin (Pessac-sur-Dordogne) Morin rockshelter (MOR), situated at the bottom of a small valley near a stream, was excavated in the 1950s (Lenoir, 1970; Bordes and Sonneville-Bordes, 1979) on a depth of about 2 m. It has undergone the selective collection of the material, which may therefore have partially biased the interpretations. Recent observations indicate that the stratigraphic subdivisions are arbitrary. In terms of the lithic industry, Complex A seems mixed between the late Upper Magdalenian, the Azilian, and the Laborian (Langlais et al., 2014; Mallye et al., in prep.), while Complex B is homogenous and is characteristic of the early Upper Magdalenian (Mallye et al., in prep.). The datings place the occupations between 16,500 and 13,500 cal BP (Szmidt et al., 2009, this issue; Mallye et al., in prep.). The identification in the Magdalenian levels, of the onthe-spot manufacturing of high quantities of lithic and osseous equipment, the importance of portable art on bone and stone, elements of ornaments, and the presence of human remains (Deffarges et al., 1975, 1977; Lenoir, 1983; Gambier and Lenoir, 1991; Mally et al., in prep.) all favour the hypothesis of a residential function of the shelter, repeated over time. An initial faunal inventory was established by Delpech (1983). Since then a new taphonomic and zooarchaeological study has also been undertaken (Kuntz, unpublished; Soulier et al., 2014; Mallye et al., in prep.). The osseous remains are in a very good state of preservation. The action of carnivores is limited: only 1.2% of bones have marks, mainly pits on reindeer remains. Complex A contains the largest number of identified remains (Table 6). In both cases, reindeer are the main prey, followed by bovines and horse. Due to the stratigraphic issues indicated, only reindeer, which are necessarily Magdalenian, have been taken into account. For the reindeer found in complex B, the mortality profiles indicate a predominance of young individuals and a progressive decrease in older individuals. For complex A, young individuals of less than one year of age are less common, but the same type of profile is subsequently gained with a majority of young individuals aged one to three years and a progressive decrease in adults and older individuals. According to the morphometric analyses carried out on the reindeer bones in Complex A, females, whose presence is also demonstrated by foetus bones, appear predominant. For

Complex B, such information is not available due to a shortage of samples. The seasonal data for Complex A indicates that reindeer were principally hunted toward the end of the warm season and during the cold season. Some fallen antlers were collected during the winter and spring. The same observations have been made for Complex B, however the seasonal data are less numerous (Kuntz, unpublished).

Table 6 Faunal spectrum of Morin rockshelter, Complexes A and B. NISP: Number of Identified Specimens; MNI: Minimal Number of Individuals. Complex A NISP Bos/Bison (Bovines) Equus caballus (horse) Equus hydruntinus (european ass) Rangifer tarandus (reindeer) Cervus elaphus (red deer) Sus scrofa (boar) Capreolus Capreolus (roe deer) Mammuthus primigenius (woolly mammoth) Megaloceros giganteus (giant deer) Total

Complex B

% NISP

MNI

NISP

% NISP

MNI

891 569 12

24 15.3 0.3

31 20 3

154 66 1

26 11.1 0.2

6 4 1

1651 427 135 21 1

44.5 11.5 3.6 0.6 0.03

53 10 9 1 1

367 4 1 e e

61.9 0.7 0.2 e e

13 1 1 e e

1

0.03

1

e

e

e

593

100

26

3708

100

129

3. Methods 3.1. Skeletal profiles Using the Minimum Number of Elements (MNE: Lyman, 1994) or the Normed Number of Identified Specimens (NNISP: Grayson and Frey, 2004), we have converted the skeletal proportions into % MAU (Minimum Animal Unit: Binford, 1978) and % NNISP. The shafts of long bones have been systematically taken into account. For MOR, as not all the bone remains were collected, particularly the shafts, the NNISP was calculated. For SGR, due to new stratigraphic subdivisions, the NNISP was also used. These values have been contrasted with the density indexes for horse and reindeer (Lam et al., 1999) and also applied to saiga antelope and bovines (Kreutzer, 1992). In terms of transport strategies, several nutritional utility indexes have been used. For reindeer, the (S)FUI (Standardized Food Utility Index) and marrow volumes come from the work of Metcalfe and Jones (1988), and that of the oleic acid content (UMI: Unsaturated Marrow Index) from Morin (2007). For bison, the (S)FUI and marrow indexes have been taken from the work of Emerson (1990); and for horse, from Outram and Rowley-Conwy (1998). Due to a lack of references for saiga antelope, we took the available data for the pronghorn (Antilocapra americana: O'Brien and Liebert, 2014). We compared our own data with these references using the nonparametric test of Spearman's rs rank correlation coefficient (PAST software version 3.0 © Hammer et al., 2001). 3.2. Observation and quantification of cutmarks The cutmarks were observed with a manual magnifier (magnification x10) and sometimes with a binocular magnifier. Based on the identified cutmarks, the main butchery activities (evisceration, skinning, disarticulation, defleshing, fracturing, and tendon removal) were then transferred onto figures of the complete skeletons. For the fracturing, we used the typology established by Villa and Mahieu (1991) to identify the state of the fracture surfaces

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(fresh bone, dry bone, or unidentified breakages) and thus to determine the human action on the osseous remains. In order to quantify the data, a common database was created. We indicate in tables, for each anatomical portion, the Number of Identified Speciments (NISP), the observable NISP (NISPo corresponding to the remains among which at least half of the cortical surface is readable, in other words non- affected by postdepositional processes), the NISP of shafts (NISPsh) and the total number of remains presenting cutmarks (NISPcut). The numbers of defleshing cutmarks are given for the main anatomical elements (row entitled Deflesh.). Only the meaty bones were taken into account and for the long bones, the descriptions are exclusively limited to the shaft parts as these were the elements where defleshing cutmarks were present; both transverse and longitudinal marks were considered. We also indicate the number of specimens with percussion marks (row entitled Percu.) as well as the percentage of complete proximal and mesial phalanges in order to estimate the intensity of marrow extraction.

4. Results 4.1. Transport of animal carcasses 4.1.1. Bovines The statistical tests comparing % MAU and the density indexes show relatively low correlations with a significance threshold of 5% (Fig. 3) and do not allow us to infer a problem of differential preservation of the bone remains. In all cases, the post-cranial axial

7

skeleton is particularly scarce. At RM2 and MN, the cranial bones and long bones are among the most common elements. The short bones and autopodials (metapodials and phalanges) are present in equal proportions at RM2, while at MN, the proximal phalanges are better represented. FON is an exception here, because the autopodials, particularly the carpals and the metacarpals, demonstrate the highest % MAU, while the cranial bones are underrepresented. In all three cases, the bovine carcasses are incomplete and the quantity and quality of food resources, both in terms of meat and marrow, do not appear to have dictated transport strategies, with the exception of marrow at RM2 (Fig. 3). At FON, it has been suggested that some of the nutritionally rich elements were taken to another site or another part of the site. Indeed, it is the least nutritious skeletal parts which were identified on this site.

4.1.2. Horse For RM2 and FAU, the density analyses indicate that differential preservation has not played a significant role in the disparity in bone occurrence, unlike at MN (Fig. 4). Although the proportions vary from site to site, the skulls, mandibles, and long bones are the most abundant anatomical elements. In contrast, the post-cranial axial skeleton is systematically under-represented. The autopodials are not as common as the upper parts of the limbs (excluding the metatarsals at FAU and MN) but are consistently present. For MN, the scarcity of post-cranial axial skeleton elements can be explained either by the taphonomic loss of the least dense elements or by selective transport by Magdalenian groups (the hypothesis of a bias in the determination of the elements having been

Fig. 3. Skeletal representation of bovine elements and results of the density analyses and nutritional utilities (Spearman correlation) for Roc de Marcamps 2, Moulin-Neuf, and Fongaban.

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D. Kuntz et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e24

Fig. 4. Skeletal representation of horse elements and results of the density analyses and nutritional utilities (Spearman correlation) for Roc de Marcamps 2, Moulin-Neuf and Faustin.

dismissed: Costamagno, 2000). For FAU, the differential determination of the elements and/or a spatial bias has been proposed (Feyfant et al., 2015). While the presence of rib fragments suggests that short ribs were brought to the site, the scarcity of the vertebrae is comparable to that which is observed on the other sites with horse remains. The presence of the atlas in almost equal proportions to the skull is a strong argument in favour of the transport of this vertebra with the skull, the rest of the vertebrae generally being left at the kill sites. The horse carcasses therefore seem to have been generally transported incomplete. Comparing % MAU with (S)FUI values has indicated in all cases that there is no correlation (Fig. 4), even when excluding the elements that have the most meat. Skeletal representations based on the marrow indexes of the mandible and long bones do not show any statistically significant correlations at FAU (Fig. 4). These results thus imply that the nutritional values of the horse carcasses did not really dictate any selective transport, except at RM2 and, to a lesser extent at MN, where a desire for bone marrow appears to have been a determining factor. 4.1.3. Saiga antelope The density analyses indicate relatively low but statistically significant correlations except at SGRupp (Fig. 5). When applied only to the articular parts of the long bones, the correlation remains significant for SGRlow and MN: differential preservation may have thus played a role in the skeletal representation of saiga antelope remains at these two complexes. In all the assemblages, the cranial elements and/or long bones are among the most abundant elements. In terms of the autopodials, the carpals and tarsals are

represented in almost equal proportions, while the metapodials are less abundant at RM2 and the phalanges are better represented at MN. As with the larger ungulates, the elements of the post-cranial axial skeleton are distinctly scarce. This scarcity could be explained by problems of differential preservation (particularly at SGRlow and MN) but we cannot exclude the possibility that elements of the trunk were left behind at the kill site. According to the nutritional utility indexes and the low or negative correlation coefficients (Fig. 5), the quantity and quality of the meat and marrow does not appear to have influenced transport strategies for saiga antelope carcasses, perhaps except at RM2. 4.1.4. Reindeer The density analyses indicate strong, statistically significant correlations, including when applied only to the articular parts of the long bones, with the exception of complex B of MOR (Fig. 6). Problems of differential preservation may therefore have affected the frequency of the skeletal elements. Despite differences between the assemblages, cranial remains (in particular mandibles) and limb bones are the most common elements. The phalanges are nonetheless less well represented, while the cervical vertebrae and elements of the trunk are scarce on all the sites. This scarcity of the postcranial axial skeleton could be explained by problems of differential preservation but we cannot exclude the possibility, as with the saiga antelope, of at least some of these elements being left behind at the kill sites. The correlation coefficients between % MAU or % NNISP and the meat indices are very low (Fig. 6), however, excluding vertebrae and ribs, the coefficients are always non significant. A preference for bones rich in marrow and unsaturated

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D. Kuntz et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e24

9

Fig. 5. Skeletal representation of saiga antelope elements and results of the density analyses and nutritional utilities (Spearman correlation) for Roc de Marcamps 2, Saint-Germainre and Moulin-Neuf. la-Rivie

fatty acids may have influenced transport strategies for reindeer carcasses. The abundance of bones in relation to the marrow index and Unsaturated Marrow Index (UMI) indeed indicates strong correlations for all the assemblages, except MOR complex B. 4.2. Butchery techniques and modes of consumption of the resources The abundance of butchery marks on all the bone material excluding FON, reflects intense activity from skinning to the extraction of the bone marrow. For SGR, given the limited numbers of bovines and horse, only the small ungulates (saiga antelope and reindeer) have been considered; at RM2, the four main ungulates have butchery marks; at MN, bovines, saiga antelope, and horse have been considered; at FAU, butchery practices can only be discussed in relation to horse; and at MOR, only for reindeer. 4.2.1. Bovines Given the limited numbers of bovines for SGR and MN and the very low numbers of cutmarks at FON, only RM2 allows us to document the chaînes op
eratoires (Table 7). At this last site, all the stages of the butchery have been directly identified with the exception of evisceration (Fig. 7). Skinning has been carried out on the horizontal branches of the mandibles as well as from the middle of the metapodial diaphysis to the mesial phalanges. As no circular incisions have been documented, we cannot specify the precise location of the areas in which the process began. Disarticulation marks on the mandibular condyles reflect the separation of the mandible and the rest of the skull. On a foreleg, the proximal extremity of an ulna with oblique striations on the

lateral edge of the olecranon indicates the disarticulation of the elbow. Another fragment bears traces of disarticulation by percussion on the olecranon. At MN, striations are documented on the distal end of an ulna (Costamagno, 1999). At FON, transverse striations on the proximal extremity of a metacarpal indicate the disarticulation of the wrist. In terms of the hindleg, the disarticulation of the ankle is documented at RM2 and FON. Finally, in terms of the autopodials, striations on the proximal extremities of the proximal phalanges at RM2 indicate the separation of the metapodials and phalanges as well as that of the mesial and distal phalanges. This disarticulation of the phalanges is also documented at FON and at MN. At RM2, defleshing marks are found on all the flesh-bearing bones except the cervical vertebrae, which are less numerous. They involve the long bones in relatively equal proportions (Table 7, Fig. 7). At MN, the majority of the flesh-bearing bones also have defleshing marks, which is not the case at FON, where few fragments have such marks (Table 7). The tongue has been removed at all the assemblages except FON. Traces of charring on the distal end of a tibia at RM2 indicate that meat was sometimes consumed roasted on the bone. The removal of tendons is documented on some metapodial diaphysis, in particular by transverse and longitudinal cutmarks in the concavity in the anterior surface of a metatarsal at RM2 and by transverse marks on the anterior surface of a metacarpal at FON. A proximal phalanx at RM2 also has marks relating to this activity. Percussion marks have been identified at SGRlow and SGRupp in low proportions because of the low NISP, but are better represented at RM2. These intensely fractured bone remains mainly involve fracture surfaces on fresh bone as well as numerous impact marks. The mandibles of at least six young and adult bovines have

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Table 7 re, Roc de Marcamps 2, Moulin-Neuf and Fongaban. Bovine bones with butchery marks at Saint-Germain-la-Rivie SGRlow

SGRupp

RM2

MN

FON

NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu. NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu. NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu. NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu. NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu. Skull 1 Maxilla 0 Mandible 14 Cervical 0 vertebra Thoracic 0 vertebra Lumbar 1 vertebra Sacrum 0 Ribs 5 Sternum 0 Scapula 3 Humerus 7 Radio1 ulnar Carpals 4 Metacarpal 3 Pelvis 0 Femur 3 Tibia 0 Tarsals 0 Metatarsal 7 Phalanx 1 7 Phalanx 2 0 Phalanx 3 0

0 0 14 0

e e e e

0 0 2 0

e e e 0

0 0 0 0

1 1 7 1

1 1 7 1

e e e e

0 0 5 0

e e e 0

0 0 0

18 2 44 2

14 1 37 1

e e e e

3 0 14 2

e e e 0

0 0 7 0

1 0 6 0

0 0 6 0

e e e e

0 0 0 0

e e e 0

0 0 0 0

4 0 33 55

4 0 24 31

e e e e

0 0 0 0

e e e 0

0 0 0 0

0

e

0

0

0

3

0

e

0

0

2

4

4

e

3

1

0

0

0

e

0

0

0

21

7

e

0

0

0

1

e

0

0

0

5

5

e

2

2

0

5

5

e

1

1

0

6

6

e

1

1

0

22

14

e

0

0

0

0 3 0 3 6 1

e e e e 6 1

0 0 0 1 3 0

0 0 0 1 3 1

0 0 0 2 2 0

0 7 0 0 2 2

0 7 0 0 2 1

e e e e 1

0 3 0 0 2 0

0 3 0 0 1 0

0 3 0 0 0 0

0 26 1 7 26 26

0 23 1 4 24 24

e e e e 23 15

0 5 0 2 11 13

0 5 0 2 11 10

0 0 0 0 14 8

0 0 0 1 6 12

0 0 0 1 3 12

e e e e 3 10

0 0 0 0 0 5

0 0 0 0 0 4

0 0 0 0 0 0

9 7 0 8 42 38

8 3 0 8 39 32

e e e e 19 9

0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

4 3 0 3 0 0 7 5 0 0

e e e 3 0 e e e e e

0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

e 1 0 1 0 e e e e e

1 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 0 0

1 3 0 3 5 2 2 4 1 1

1 3 0 3 5 1 2 4 1 1

e e e 2 3 e e e e e

0 0 0 1 2 1 0 1 0 0

e 0 0 1 1 e 0 e e e

0 0 0 0 2

3 7 4 15 46 10 9 28 9 8

1 4 4 14 41 3 8 23 5 5

e e e 14 39 e e e e e

0 4 1 7 17 1 4 8 3 0

e e 1 7 17 e e e e e

0 3 0 6 12 0 2 4 1 0

6 7 3 2 18 2 3 23 9 9

6 7 3 2 17 2 3 22 9 9

e e e 2 16 e e e e e

0 2 1 2 5 0 1 0 0 0

e e 1 2 5 e e e e e

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

176 148 87 70 20 13 25 23 36 35 160 136 37 34 106 89 78 65 42 39

e e e 7 17 e e e e e

0 8 0 1 2 3 3 0 2 0

0 e 0 1 2 e e e e e

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

D. Kuntz et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e24

11

Fig. 6. Skeletal representation of reindeer elements and results of the density analyses and nutritive utilities (Spearman correlation) for Roc de Marcamps 2, Saint-Germain-la-Riviere, Moulin-Neuf, and Le Morin complexes A and B. NS: non-significant; S: significant; VS: very significant; HS: highly significant.

percussion marks, as do some upper and lower cheek teeth. The humerus have the highest percentage of percussion marks (54% of the NISP), most of them located in the proximal and central parts of

the shafts. In terms of the femurs (40% of the NISP), the percussion marks mainly involve the anterior surfaces of the proximal shafts, while for the radiuses (31% of the NISP) and tibias (26% of the NISP),

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D. Kuntz et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e24

Fig. 7. Simplified diagram of butchery activities (cutmarks and percussion marks) on bovines at Roc de Marcamps 2. For defleshing, the NISPcut/NISPo ratio are indicated on the figures; for the samples that are too low in number (less than 5 remains), the skeletal parts are not coloured.

they are found over the entire length of the shafts. In terms of the metapodials, the metacarpals (43% of the NISP) generally have percussion marks in the middle of the diaphyses shafts, while for the metatarsals (22% of the NISP), percussion marks are found over the entire length of the bones. The proximal phalanges are intensely fractured (on average only 4% are complete) in comparison with the mesial phalanges (43% complete on average), indicating the preference for the marrow content of the former (Table 8). Several of them also have longitudinal fractures that split the phalanx in half down its centreline. This type of fracture indicates the prior disarticulation of the phalanges (Jin and Mills, 2011; Martin et al., in prep.), a practice confirmed by the disarticulation marks on the phalanges. At MN, although the bones do not have percussion marks, they have all been fragmented and the fracture surfaces, which are mainly on fresh bone, again demonstrate the retrieval of the marrow, which, as at RM2, has been intense as all the proximal phalanges have been fractured. At FON, the presence of shaft fragments with fracture surfaces on fresh bone also reflects the retrieval of the marrow, but due to significant post-excavation fragmentation, it is difficult to establish whether this process is exhaustive as appears to be the case on the other two sites. The abundance of burnt bones at this site could reflect the use of bones as fuel (Martin et al., in prep.). Table 8 Complete proximal and mesial phalanges relative to total number of phalanges for bovines (MNE).

Complete prox. phal. Total prox. phal. % Complete Complete mesial phal. Total mesial phal. % Complete

SGRlow

SGRupp

RM2

MN

FON

0 4 0 e e e

e e e 0 1 0

1 28 3.6 6 9 66.7

0 8 0 4 8 50

2 24 8.3 23 50 46

4.2.2. Horse The bone remains of horse are less abundant in the two complexes of SGR. Only RM2, MN and FAU have been used to reconstruct the butchery chaînes op
eratoires (Table 9). The evisceration

stage has been identified at FAU on the medial surfaces of the ribs (Fig. 8). Skinning marks, which are documented at RM2 and FAU, demonstrate the cutting of the skin at the maxillae and mandibles. On the latter, cutmarks are documented at the symphyses at FAU and the horizontal branches at RM2. In both cases, the skin appears to have been incised very low down: none of the metapodials have circular skinning marks, only the proximal and mesial phalanges. The detachment of the skull and the mandible is observed in the three assemblages. At MN, it is demonstrated by striations in the glenoid cavity of the skull; at RM2, striations on the vertical branch of a mandible, and at FAU, on the mandibular notch, the vertical branch, and the coronoid process of the mandible. At FAU, the skull has also been detached from the atlas. At RM2 and FAU, cutmarks located near the rib heads and the vertebral articular processes reflect the disarticulation of the rib cage. At RM2, this activity appears in some cases to have been carried out by percussion. The shoulder has been disarticulated at MN and FAU, while the disarticulation of the elbow is documented only at FAU. The wrist has been separated in the three cases. In terms of the hind limbs, the pelvis has been systematically separated from the femur. The disarticulation of the femur and tibia is only documented at FAU, however this activity being easily carried out by torsion (Müller, 2014), we cannot conclude that it has not been performed elsewhere as it does not necessarily leave marks. The ankle has been disarticulated at MN (on a proximal metatarsal epiphysis) and at FAU (cutmarks present on several tarsal bones). The autopodials have also been segmented at the three sites and the phalanges detached from each other. Defleshing is documented on the mandibles (removal of the tongue in the three assemblages), long bones, girdle bones, and ribs. The vertebrae, which are among the richest elements in meat (Outram and Rowley-Conwy, 1998), are poorly represented in the assemblages; however, they do have cutmarks at SGRupp and FAU (Table 9). The shafts of the humerus present high percentages of defleshing marks, although they do not offer significant quantities of meat. These abundant cutmarks may correspond to the defleshing of the muscle insertions, which are numerous on this

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Table 9 re, Roc de Marcamps 2, Moulin-Neuf, and Faustin. Horse bones with butchery marks at Saint-Germain-la-Rivie SGRlow

SGRupp

RM2

MN

FAU

NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu. NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu. NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu. NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu. NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu. Skull 8 Maxilla 3 Mandible 11 Cervical 2 vertebra Thoracic 0 vertebra Lumbar 0 vertebra Sacrum 0 Ribs 13 Sternum 0 Scapula 0 Humerus 12 Radio6 ulnar Carpals 4 Metacarpal 3 Pelvis 1 Femur 5 Tibia 8 Tarsals 4 Metatarsal 1 Phalanx 1 5 Phalanx 2 2 Phalanx 3 2

6 2 11 2

e e e e

1 0 5 0

e e e 0

0 0 0 0

1 1 12 3

1 0 12 3

e e e e

1 0 7 1

e e e 1

0 0 0 0

5 8 23 2

5 7 19 2

e e e e

3 2 6 2

e e e 0

0 2 4 0

4 7 34 0

4 6 30 0

e e e e

1 0 4 0

e e e 0

0 0 1 0

e e e e

6 4 36 6

e e e 1

0 0 2 0

0

e

0

0

0

0

0

e

0

0

0

2

1

e

0

0

0

6

5

e

0

0

0

8

7

e

3

3

0

0

e

0

0

0

1

1

e

1

1

0

2

2

e

0

0

1

1

1

e

0

0

0

1

1

e

1

1

0

0 15 0 0 11 5

e e e e 11 5

0 6 0 0 5 1

0 6 0 0 5 1

0 0 0 0 8 3

2 11 0 1 6 7

2 11 0 1 5 6

e e e e 3 3

2 3 0 0 3 1

2 3 0 0 2 1

0 1 0 0 2 1

2 18 0 4 17 17

2 17 0 3 16 13

e e e e 15 12

0 9 0 2 12 9

0 5 0 2 12 9

0 1 0 1 7 4

0 49 0 13 31 15

0 48 0 13 30 14

e e e e 29 14

0 10 0 2 11 1

0 10 0 2 11 1

0 0 0 1 3 2

0 0 69 47 0 0 0 0 20 14 27 19

e e e e 12 13

0 32 0 0 14 12

0 20 0 0 11 9

0 0 e e 7 10

3 3 1 5 8 1 1 6 2 2

e e e 5 5 e e e e e

0 0 0 2 3 1 1 2 0 0

e e 0 2 2 e e e e e

1 0 0 3 2 0 0 3 0 0

0 2 1 1 7 4 2 0 2 0

0 2 1 1 7 4 1 0 2 0

e e e 1 6 e e e e e

0 0 0 1 2 1 1 0 1 0

e e 0 1 1 e 1 e e e

0 0 0 0 3 0 1 0 1 0

5 2 1 21 19 4 4 8 4 3

4 1 0 16 18 3 2 5 3 2

e e e 13 16 e e e e e

1 1 0 10 9 0 1 4 3 1

e e 0 9 9 e e e e e

0 0 0 4 7 1 2 1 0 0

11 6 2 22 40 5 12 15 5 0

11 6 2 22 40 5 12 15 5 0

e e e 21 36 e e e e e

2 4 1 8 7 0 2 3 3 0

e e 1 8 7 e e e e e

0 0 0 1 6 0 1 1 0 0

11 16 2 55 36 21 30 11 10 7

e e e 19 20 e e e e e

2 5 1 12 18 4 15 8 4 0

e e 1 9 16 e e e e e

0 4 0 2 8 0 2 6 0 0

16 12 27 10 122 61 13 8

8 12 1 40 27 11 20 10 6 1

e e e 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 12 10 e e 0 9 11 e e e e e 0 1 4 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 12 12 0 17 0 9 13 2 22 6 3 0 e e e e e e e e e e 27 43 e e e 15 38 e e e e e 6 2 16 0 0 0 0 4 1 13 27 51 27 60 4 20 46 33 95 80 50 29 6 2 16 1 0 0 0 4 1 13 30 51 37 60 5 20 46 34 96 82 51 29 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 8 0 5 1 8 26 0 5 3 0 0 e e e 0 1 0 0 0 0 3 18 7 e 2 18 29 e e e e 3 1 11 0 1 1 1 0 0 5 19 8 3 12 5 19 31 4 18 6 1 0 e e e e e e e e e e 42 24 e e e 32 59 e e e e e 11 7 34 0 8 2 1 7 0 6 45 28 13 38 12 40 68 15 44 116 8 5 11 8 38 0 9 2 1 8 0 6 48 29 14 40 12 43 72 19 44 17 9 5 0 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 21 20 0 19 0 14 17 5 14 12 0 1 e e e 10 5 2 0 0 0 6 32 34 e 18 23 28 e e e e 13 11 65 12 5 2 0 0 0 6 55 60 24 52 18 34 50 37 54 75 19 7 e e e e e e e e e e 68 71 e 68 e 52 68 e e e e e 9 32 117 17 13 16 0 16 1 13 98 113 88 102 32 87 118 94 109 142 64 46 16 34 124 18 13 16 0 17 1 14 99 113 89 103 32 88 120 95 110 145 64 47 0 0 0 1 2 3 0 0 0 1 16 17 2 12 0 11 13 4 9 8 1 0 e e e 0 0 0 1 1 0 3 14 12 e 4 13 12 e e e e

4.2.3. Saiga antelope According to the NISP, the bones of saiga antelope are well represented in the four assemblages where this species is mentioned (Table 11). Numerous butchery marks reflect the whole chaînes op
eratoires apart from evisceration (Fig. 9). Skinning is documented in all the assemblages. The cutmarks are located on the skulls and the horizontal branches of the mandibles (except at MN) and the autopodials. Incisions have been made at different locations from the metapodials to the phalanges at RM2, but as no circular cutmarks have been documented, we cannot specify the exact location where the skinning began. At MN, the cutmarks indicate skin incisions very close to the hooves. In both complexes at SGR, the skin also appears to have been incised very low down, as the metapodials, unlike the phalanges, do not have first cut marks. At RM2, longitudinal incisions of the skin are only documented on the medial surfaces, while at SGR and MN, these marks are present on both surfaces. The disarticulation of the skull and the mandibles is systematically observed. The detachment of the skull and the first cervical vertebrae is reported only in the two assemblages of SGR, as the absence or scarcity of such elements at RM2 and MN does not allow this activity to be documented. In general, the methods used for the disarticulation of the vertebral column cannot be established as vertebrae and ribs heads are rare. However, at RM2, the detachment of the tail is documented on a fragment of the sacrum. On the forelegs, the disarticulation of the shoulder is observed everywhere except at RM2, where the glenoid cavities of the scapulae are absent, and only a single proximal extremity of a humerus has been found. The disarticulation of the elbow is not documented at MN, despite the presence of a distal extremity of a humerus and proximal extremities of two radiuses. The wrists have been detached

4 2 12 0 0 0 1 1 0 3 26 20 7 30 4 17 14 8 26 35 13 0

2 3 67 2 3 67

e e e e e e e e e e 40 44 e e e 41 41 e e e e e

FAU

5 10 50 5 5 100

8 12 52 6 5 8 2 4 0 13 76 75 69 77 16 68 58 80 81 80 58 30

MN

4 8 50 3 4 75

13 12 57 6 5 8 2 4 0 13 77 77 71 78 16 70 59 82 84 84 61 30

RM2

e e e 0 2 0

SGRupp

SGRupp

0 4 0 2 2 100

SGRlow

SGRlow

Table 11 re, Roc de Marcamps 2, and Moulin-Neuf. Saiga antelope bones with butchery marks at Saint-Germain-la-Rivie

Complete prox. phal. Total prox. phal. % Complete Complete mesial phal. Total mesial phal. % Complete

RM2

Table 10 Complete proximal and mesial phalanges relative to total number of phalanges for horse (MNE).

Skull Maxilla Mandible Cervical vertebra Thoracic vertebra Lumbar vertebra Sacrum Ribs Sternum Scapula Humerus Radio-ulnar Carpals Metacarpal Pelvis Femur Tibia Tarsals Metatarsal Phalanx 1 Phalanx 2 Phalanx 3

MN

bone. Signs of charring on the distal end of a humerus at FAU indicate the consumption of meat roasted on the bone. The severing of the tendons is only observed on the metapodials at FAU, where longitudinal striations are present on the posterior surfaces. At RM2, striations on the distal phalanges could correspond to the retrieval of the hooves. The bones rich in marrow have been fractured (Table 9). In addition to the percussion marks on the mandibles of RM2 and FAU, the presence of transversely fragmented teeth at MN and FAU supports the hypothesis of the deliberate fracturing of the mandibles. Due to the limited number of pieces with percussion marks at RM2 and MN, it is impossible to identify recurrent actions however. At FAU, in contrast, the radiuses have percussion marks on the posterior or lateral surfaces, suggesting that these elements were split lengthwise. This is also the case for a metacarpal, which has been entirely refitted, and which has percussion marks on the posterior surface (Feyfant et al., 2015). Finally, except FAU, the proximal phalanges have more percussion marks than the mesial phalanges (Table 10), and several of them have been split longitudinally.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 7 0 7 1 0 0

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NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu. NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu. NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu. NISP NISPo NISPsh NISPcut Deflesh. Percu.

14

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Fig. 8. Simplified diagram of butchery activities (cutmarks and percussion marks) on horse at Roc de Marcamps 2, Moulin-Neuf, and Faustin. For defleshing, the NISPcut/NISPo ratio are indicated on the figures; for the samples that are too low in number (less than 5 remains), the skeletal parts are not coloured.

everywhere with small differences in the location of the cutmarks in the different assemblages. For the hindleg, the disarticulation of the hip and knee is observed everywhere except at MN despite the presence of two acetabula and three proximal ends of femurs. The ankle has been separated at the tarsals everywhere except at SGRlow, where incisions have been made at the proximal extremities of the metatarsals. The distal ends of the metatarsals have been disarticulated everywhere. The phalanges have butchery marks in all the assemblages except at RM2, where they are nonetheless well represented. At MN, only the proximal and mesial phalanges have been separated while in the two assemblages of SGR, all the phalanges have been dislocated from each other. The disarticulation marks therefore demonstrate the systematic dismemberment of saiga antelope carcasses, mainly using cutting tools. Cases of disarticulation by percussion have also been identified on a mandibular condyle at RM2 (Fig. 9). The frequency of the defleshing marks differs from one assemblage to the next (Fig. 9). The cervical and thoracic vertebrae, which are among the elements richest in meat (O'Brien and Liebert, 2014), are absent or present in relatively low proportions and show no signs of such activity at MN and SGRlow. However, they have more frequent incisions at SGLRupp, where they are more common. At RM2, only one thoracic vertebra has such marks. Interestingly, the ribs, which are rich in meat, have defleshing marks in the assemblages where they are the least well represented (MN and SGRlow). The removal of the tongue is documented only at RM2 and SGRupp.

The bones of the pelvic girdle, which are rich in meat, have cutmarks everywhere except the pelvis at MN. On the long bones, longitudinal cutmarks are relatively common in both complexes at SGR, while at MN, transverse cutmarks are also present. At RM2 and MN, the removal of the meat is well documented on the femur (respectively 56% and 60%), which is the long bone with the most meat. In both complexes at SGR, the frequency of defleshing marks on the long bones is relatively similar and demonstrates the importance of filleting prior to cooking. The presence of distal burn marks at RM2 could also indicate the consumption of meat roasted on the bone. The tendons have been systematically removed. The cutmarks are located on the anterior and posterior surfaces of the metapodials (both proximal and above all distal at SGR and MN) as well as the posterior surfaces of the proximal and mesial phalanges at SGR. At RM2 and at MN, the metatarsals are more affected than the metacarpals, while at SGR, the metacarpals and metatarsals are both intensely affected, which is consistent with the extraction of the tendons from the phalanges. The removal of the marrow is important. At MN and SGR, the presence of transversally fragmented teeth supports the hypothesis of the deliberate fracturing of the mandibles; at RM2 and SGRupp, the horizontal branches of the mandibles have percussion marks (Table 11). On the girdles, a scapula at SGRlow has percussion marks as does a pelvis at RM2. At MN, compared to the other assemblages, a limited number of long bone fragments have percussion marks;

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only the tibia, which is the element richest in marrow (O'Brien and Liebert, 2014) has a higher frequency. For this assemblage, it is therefore impossible to identify recurring actions (Costamagno, 1999, 2000). At SGR and RM2, the frequency of percussion marks is relatively similar, except for the metapodials. At SGR, the location of the percussion marks seems to indicate certain recurrences in percussion techniques, particularly around the radius. However they appear different in each of the two complexes. Thus, in the lower complex, the impact points are often on the medial or lateral surface (Costamagno, 1999; Langlais et al., 2015a, 2015b), while in the upper complex, they are very frequently observed on the anterior surface, under the proximal extremity (Costamagno, 1999; Masset, 2014). It has been proposed that bones were used as fuel at this site (Costamagno et al., 1998). Finally, the percentage of complete phalanges reflects a more rigorous search for marrow in the proximal phalanges than in the mesial phalanges (Table 12). Thus, in the four assemblages considered, the average percentage of complete proximal phalanges is 26% and that of complete mesial phalanges, 77%. Table 12 Complete proximal and mesial phalanges relative to total number of phalanges (MNE) for saiga antelope.

Complete prox. phal. Total prox. phal. % Complete Complete mesial phal. Total mesial phal. % Complete

SGRlow

SGRupp

RM2

MN

23 56 41.1 45 55 81.8

10 73 13.7 49 56 87.5

5 17 29.4 8 9 88.9

3 40 7.5 15 29 51.7

4.2.4. Reindeer Numerous butchery marks have allowed for the reconstruction of the chaînes op
eratoires for reindeer from six different assemblages (Table 13). Evisceration is only documented on four sternebrae at MOR, while skinning is documented everywhere except MN (Fig. 10). At RM2, skinning cutmarks are observed on the horizontal branches of the mandibles and the autopodials (medial surfaces of the metapodials and the proximal extremity of a mesial phalanx). As no circular incisions have been documented, we cannot specify the precise location of the areas where skinning began at RM2. In both the complexes of MOR, skinning of the head is documented on cranial remains (parietal and maxillary bones) and the horizontal branches of the mandibles. In contrast, the autopodials do not reflect the same skinning practice. In complex A, where the remains are more abundant, the metapodials only have transverse cutmarks on the medial and lateral surfaces at the distal extremities, whereas in complex B, the metatarsals have transverse cutmarks on the proximal and distal extremities. In both cases, all the phalanges, including the vestigial phalanges, have transverse cutmarks. In complex A, a sacrum fragment indicates the cutting of the skin at the tail. Disarticulation marks are scarce in the majority of the assemblages other than MOR, but the under-representation of the articular extremities at several sites makes interpretation difficult. In both complexes, the skull has been separated from the spine, while the rib cage has undergone important segmentation, both in terms of the cervical vertebrae and the thoracic vertebrae. Despite the low number of elements of the postcranial axial skeleton (see 4.1.4.), parts of the trunks that were priorly removed at the kill site could have been brought to the shelter. In terms of the forelegs, the shoulders and elbows have been dislocated in both complexes at

re, Roc de Marcamps 2, and Moulin-Neuf. For Fig. 9. Simplified diagram of butchery activities (cutmarks and percussion marks) on saiga antelope at Saint-Germain-la-Rivie defleshing, the NISPcut/NISPo ratio are indicated on the figures; for the samples that are too low in number (less than 5 remains), the skeletal parts are not coloured.

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re, Roc de Marcamps 2, Moulin-Neuf, and Morin. For Fig. 10. Simplified diagram of butchery activities (cutmarks and percussion marks) on reindeer at Saint-Germain-la-Rivie defleshing, the NISPcut/NISPo ratio are indicated on the figures; for the samples that are too low in number (less than 5 remains), the skeletal parts are not coloured.

MOR, however the carpal block has only been separated from the adjacent bones in complex A. In terms of the upper limbs, the pelvis, knee, and ankle have been disarticulated in both complexes at MOR. In all the assemblages, the tarsals have cutmarks but the affected bones differ. At RM2 and SGR, disarticulation marks are visible on a

talus bone, a naviculo-cuboid bone, and a large cuneiform, while at MN only a naviculo-cuboid bone has cutmarks. At MOR, all the tarsals have cutmarks except the small and large cuneiforms in complex B. In complex A only the anterior and medial surfaces of the cuneiforms have cutmarks. For the talus bone, cutting has mainly

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been carried out on the medial surfaces, indicating some recurrence in butchery methods. In complex A, the phalanges have all been separated from each other while in complex B, only a distal extremity of a proximal phalanx shows signs of disarticulation. This disarticulation of the phalanges is also frequent at SGR but not at RM2. Signs of disarticulation by percussion are observed on two calcanei at MOR (complex A) and a rib at MOR complex B.

5. Discussion 5.1. The different exploitation of species? 5.1.1. The transport of carcasses Regardless to the size of the animals, the carcasses have been brought to the site incomplete. The post-cranial axial skeleton is

Table 13 re, Roc de Marcamps 2, Moulin-Neuf, and Morin. Reindeer bones with butchery marks at Saint-Germain-la-Rivie SGRlow

Skull Maxilla Mandible Cervical vertebra Thoracic vertebra Lumbar vertebra Sacrum Ribs Sternum Scapula Humerus Radio-ulnar Carpals Metacarpal Pelvis Femur Tibia Tarsals Metatarsal Phalanx 1 Phalanx 2 Phalanx 3

SGRupp

RM2

NISP

NISPo

NISPsh

NISPcut

Deflesh.

Percu.

NISP

NISPo

NISPsh

NISPcut

Deflesh.

Percu.

NISP

NISPo

NISPsh

Deflesh.

Percu.

3 0 8 0 0 1 0 10 0 2 10 17 10 21 1 15 22 6 24 9 9 2

1 0 8 0 0 1 0 10 0 2 8 15 9 17 1 15 21 5 21 9 8 2

e e e e e e e e e e 8 15 e e e 13 21 e e e e e

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 4 5 2 4 0 4 8 3 5 2 3 0

e e e 0 0 0 0 3 e 1 4 5 e e 0 4 7 e e e e e

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 3 5 1 2 0 1 4 1 6 1 0 0

3 0 14 1 5 2 0 32 0 2 11 11 3 9 3 10 30 6 17 14 11 4

2 0 14 1 5 2 0 32 0 2 11 10 3 8 3 10 27 6 16 14 11 4

e e e e e e e e e e 10 10 e e e 10 27 e e e e e

0 0 4 0 2 0 0 11 0 1 4 6 1 5 0 3 13 3 5 5 4 1

e e e 0 2 0 0 11 e 1 4 2 e e 0 3 11 e e e e e

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 0 2 0 3 5 3 2 2 0 0

2 0 14 0 1 1 0 14 0 1 17 18 3 15 2 12 13 6 23 7 5 1

2 0 12 0 1 1 0 14 0 1 17 16 2 12 2 12 12 5 20 6 5 1

e e e e e e e e e e 17 13 e e e 11 11 e e e e e

e e e 0 1 1 0 6 0 0 8 4 e e 1 1 7 e e e e e

0 0 4 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 7 3 1 0 0 3 1 0 3 2 1 0

Defleshing is documented in all the assemblages as well as the removal of the tongue and meat from the rib cages. Defleshing cutmarks are particularly abundant on reindeer vertebrae at MOR. The defleshing of the long bones has been systematically carried out everywhere with transverse or longitudinal movements. The bones that most commonly have such marks are the shafts of the humerus, tibias, and femurs. The tendons have also frequently been removed, except at MN and complex B of MOR. At RM2, as at complex A of MOR, the metatarsals are more greatly affected than the metacarpals. The exploitation of the bone marrow has been systematic in all the assemblages, including the mandibles of RM2 and MOR. In general, the humerus and femurs are the long bones with the most percussion marks (Table 13), mainly in the shafts. All the surfaces have been struck, and it has not been possible to establish any recurrent actions. One interesting observation has been made in both complexes of MOR however: the presence of several complete diaphyseal cylinders with percussion marks. This mainly involves femur (Fig. 11) and tibia bones, but also includes humerus and radius. The exploitation of the bone marrow contained in the phalanges is even more marked than for saiga antelope, as in the majority of assemblages even the mesial phalanges are frequently fractured (Table 14). Table 14 Complete proximal and mesial phalanges relative to total number of phalanges (MNE) for reindeer.

Complete prox. phal. Total prox. phal. % Complete Complete mesial phal. Total mesial phal. % Complete

SGRlow

SGRupp

RM2

MN

MOR A

MOR B

2 6 33.3 3 11 27.3

0 9 0 0 6 0

0 7 0 0 5 0

2 8 25 1 10 10

25 58 43.1 21 37 56.8

22 28 78.6 12 14 85.7

rarely present and, in the majority of assemblages, its scarcity is due to it being abandoned by Magdalenian hunters at the kill site and not to a problem of differential preservation. In terms of the bovines, two transport patterns can be observed (Fig. 3). At MN and RM2, the fleshy long bones of the limbs have been preferentially transported, as have the cranial elements. The underrepresentation of the metapodials and phalanges is particularly striking at RM2. In contrast, FON demonstrates a marked overrepresentation of the metapodials in comparison with the fleshy long bones of the limbs, and the skull is also poorly represented. For horse, transport methods similar to the first type of transport pattern for bovines can be generally observed. The fleshy long bones and cranial elements have been preferentially transported at all the sites. In terms of the metapodials however, in particular the metatarsals, with the exception of RM2, they appear to have been more frequently transported than those of bovines, which is not the case for the phalanges, which are distinctly under-represented both for horse and bovines. At RM2, the scarcity of metapodials, both for bovines and horse, appears to indicate the preferential transport of the skeletal elements richest in bone marrow, as demonstrated by the highly significant correlation coefficients between these two variables. For reindeer, with the exception of MOR for which numbers are very low and skull remains over-represented, all the skeletal profiles show an over-representation of the limb bones. The metapodials, particularly the metatarsals, have sometimes been brought to the site in higher proportions than the fleshy long bones. Much lighter, and containing proportionally more bone marrow than the metapodials of horses or bovines, it is, however, their richness in unsaturated fatty acids (Morin, 2007) that appears to best explain their appeal to Magdalenians (the correlation coefficients of % MAU and UMI are generally highly significant). If we exclude MOR B, whole reindeer limbs have been transported

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to the skulls of smaller ungulates. Could this be because their hunting grounds were closer or because Magdalenians had a particular attraction for this skeletal element? It is hard to say, but without falling into a forced analogism, it is interesting to note that among many of today's hunter-gatherers, the head receives special attention (Birouste et al., this issue), particularly during ritual ceremonies (Tanner, 1979; Abe, 2005; Descola, 2005). Thus at RM2,

without any preferential selection of the metapodials only at RM2. At the same time, with the exception of SGR, the mandibles, which are also rich in unsaturated fatty acids, are highly abundant, and in some cases they may have been transported independently of the skulls. For saiga antelope, despite their small size, we generally observe this dichotomy between skull and limbs on the one hand and the post-cranial axial skeleton on the other. Compared to

MN

19

MOR_A

MOR_B

NISP

NISPo

NISPsh

NISPcut

Deflesh.

Percu.

NISP

NISPo

NISPsh

NISPcut

Deflesh.

Percu.

NISP

NISPo

NISPsh

NISPcut

Deflesh.

Percu.

4 0 17 0 1 0 0 5 0 2 7 16 3 16 1 7 20 6 25 8 11 2

1 0 17 0 1 0 0 5 0 2 7 15 3 16 1 7 20 6 25 8 10 2

e e e e e e e e e e 6 11 e e e 7 20 e e e e e

0 0 5 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 4 1 1 6 1 7 0 0 0

e e e 0 0 0 0 2 e 0 3 0 e e 1 1 6 e e e e e

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 5 0 0 0 0 0

24 13 86 11 20 7 2 51 7 27 56 51 32 34 21 56 48 69 77 94 54 39

23 13 85 10 19 7 2 50 7 27 55 49 31 32 21 50 42 67 70 90 51 37

e e e e e e e e e e 36 30 e e e 39 30 e e e e e

9 3 22 9 13 4 1 18 1 21 35 18 3 13 9 27 24 39 25 19 14 4

e e e 7 13 4 0 15 0 15 29 14 e e 6 23 15 e e e e e

0 0 15 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 22 16 0 21 0 12 19 11 25 36 14 0

19 7 40 11 7 3 0 11 8 3 7 5 3 9 3 9 8 23 9 33 15 5

19 7 39 11 7 3 0 11 8 3 7 5 3 9 3 9 7 22 9 33 15 5

e e e e e e e e e e 2 5 e e e 5 3 e e e e e

7 1 9 10 5 2 0 1 4 2 4 3 0 0 1 4 4 12 6 7 1 2

e e e 9 5 2 0 1 0 2 1 1 e e 0 2 2 e e e e e

0 0 4 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 4 2 0 2 0 5 4 3 3 2 0 0

reindeer, the attraction for the metapodials is not as marked, however. These skeletal elements are abundant, but always in equivalent amounts (SGR) or lower (RM2) to the other long bones of the limbs, probably reflecting the transport of whole legs, with the possible exception of MN, where the profile is similar to that of reindeer. In summary, strong similarities can be observed in methods for transporting carcasses regardless to the size of the animals hunted, with FON being the only exception (see 5.2.). The scarcity of the post-cranial axial skeleton, in particular the vertebrae, observed at the majority of the sites, where it has been possible to exclude problems of differential preservation, does not necessarily imply a lack of interest in meat, as fillets could have been collected at the kill site and then brought to the settlements. The limb and mandible bones are common, but when analysed in detail, differences are observed between the species exploited, reflecting either logistical constraints (disarticulation and then relatively frequent abandonment of bovine metapodials at the kill site or transport of whole legs of saiga antelope with no selective preference) or nutritional contingencies, such as the preferential transport of reindeer metapodials due to their richness in polyunsaturated fatty acids (Morin, 2007). At MN and FAU, the abundance of metatarsals could also reflect this search for essential fatty acids; horse marrow is indeed richer in polyunsaturated acids than that of other ruminants (Outram and Rowley-Conwy, 1998). The diversity of factors that can come into play in transport choices (see for example Bartram, 1993) should not be undervalued however. For example, at SGR, the production of needles from saiga antelope metapodials could partly explain the abundance of these elements on the site (Langlais et al., 2015a, 2015b). Given their weight and the fact that the removal of the brain can easily be carried out at the kill site, the skulls of large ungulates are relatively well represented compared

although a fairly rigorous selection of the limb bones is made regardless to the size of the species, the skulls of large animal are numerous, suggesting motivations that were not purely logistical. 5.1.2. Butchery chaînes op
eratoires and resources used The butchery marks observed on the carcasses of ungulates demonstrate their exhaustive exploitation, particularly the defleshing of meaty bones, as at other Magdalenian sites in the Gironde for which the chronological attributions are more imprecise (see for example Vidon rockshelter: Campmas et al., 2011). In all the assemblages considered here, skinning cutmarks almost systematically involve the cranial elements and phalanges, except for reindeer and horse at MN. In terms of the phalanges, the cutmarks indicate that skinning began very close to the hooves, and this could be the result, regardless of the species, of a certain standardization of methods with the aim of retrieving the largest skins possible. Only on the reindeer at MOR have cutmarks been observed on both the metapodials and the phalanges, indicating that skinning began in a range of different areas and reflecting a certain inconsistency in skinning methods. In contrast, the presence of striations at the base of reindeer antler at MOR reflects an effort to retrieve the skin of the scalp. Among Nunamiut groups, this type of careful skinning is observed when the skins are retrieved for producing hooded anoraks (Binford, 1981). Regardless to the animal species, in all the assemblages studied, numerous defleshing marks are documented, attesting to the systematic and thorough removal of the meat. The presence of abundant cutmarks demonstrates the removal of raw fillets (Costamagno and David, 2009); furthermore, the presence of distal burns on the articular extremities at RM2, FAU, and MOR complex A could also indicate, for all the species, the occasional consumption

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Fig. 11. Reindeer femur and tibia diaphyseal cylinders at Morin.

of meat roasted on the bone. The removal of the tongue identified by cutmarks on the lingual surface of the mandibles and/or the crowns of the teeth or the hyoid bones is observed everywhere. The tongue appears to have been more frequently removed from reindeer and horse than saiga antelope. Among modern day groups living off reindeer, the tongue is the subject of a ritual: the tip is systematically removed and cast into a fire (Abe, 2005; Costamagno and David, 2009) before being consumed fried (Costamagno, 2012). Disarticulation is also very systematic on all the species and demonstrates the significant segmentation of the carcasses, especially as the articular extremities are not always well represented in the assemblages. The severing of the ligaments has been performed using cutting tools and, more occasionally, for all the species, by percussion. With a few exceptions, the skulls have all been separated from the first cervical vertebrae. The limb bones have also been intensely disarticulated, including the carpals, tarsals, and phalanges. This important disarticulation is also observed in modern day hunting societies (Nunamiut of Alaska: Binford, 1978) and among reindeer herders (Siberian Evenks: Abe, 2005), who accord particular attention to dismemberment. The disarticulation of the limbs and phalanges can be explained from a technical and practical point of view: a disarticulated bone is easier to fracture for the extraction of the marrow. It can also be related to the sharing of carcasses between different family units living together at the same settlement (Costamagno and David, 2009). The separation of the carpal and tarsal bones from the adjacent long bones is more intriguing however, as these bones are not involved in the

fracturing process and do not need to be disarticulated for the quartering of the limbs. Among the Evenk, this practice is more related to ritual practices, the disarticulation of the small bones symbolizing respect paid to the animal (Abe, 2005). Without falling into a strict analogism, we can hypothesize that Magdalenian groups in the Gironde implemented practices whose significance went beyond simple nutritional needs and that could indicate a form of respect paid to the ungulates that were hunted and consumed. The tendons were removed from the metapodials of all the ungulates considered and, more exceptionally, the phalanges. The site of SGR is notable here for the presence of cutmarks indicating the removal of the tendons from the phalanges of reindeer and saiga antelope. The presence of cutmarks on the distal phalanges of horse at RM2 and MN could correspond to the retrieval of the hooves for producing keratin glue or for consumption (references in Soulier, 2013). The importance of marrow for Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers has been highlighted by many authors (see for example Morin and Ready, 2013; Costamagno and Rigaud, 2014), and the sites of the Gironde are no exception to this. Analysis of the fracturing of the bones indeed highlights the intensity of the search for bone marrow. Percussion marks are numerous on the mandibles, long bones, metapodials, and phalanges of all the species in the assemblages analysed, and no bones were found complete. The selective transport of carcasses also reflects a desire for this substance (see 5.1.1.).

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The marrow of large ungulates, which is nonetheless more difficult to access due to the thickness of the cortical bone and the presence of cancellous bone in horse (Binford, 1981; Outram and Rowley-Conwy, 1998), was also sought. In terms of the metapodials, the metacarpals and metatarsals have also been systematically fractured. The phalanges, which vary in abundance according to the species and the site, have been widely exploited for their marrow, with the exception of MOR, where the high percentage of complete phalanges could be linked to a bias in the collection of bones. Reindeer marrow was particularly sought at SGRupp, RM2, and MN, sites where the mesial phalanges appear to have been systematically fractured (Table 14). For saiga antelope, for which higher numbers of phalanges have been found, this exploitation is much less systematic however, and the mesial phalanges are most often documented whole. It has been possible to identify some recurrences in fracturing techniques for all the species except the bovines, for which techniques appear to differ from site to site. This is the case at SGR, where saiga antelope radiuses have undergone fracturing techniques that differ between the two complexes; at FAU, where a radius and a horse metacarpal show longitudinal splitting; and at MOR, where reindeer diaphyseal cylinders have been discovered. This latter technique, which is observed among the Nunamiut, involves breaking the long bones at the articular ends and keeping the shafts intact to extract the marrow more easily (Møhl, 1972; Binford, 1978, 1981; Outram, 2002; Soulier et al., 2014). This type of fracturing is carried out at the settlements; the bones being first heated to liquefy the marrow and the articular ends set aside in order to obtain the grease that they contain (Binford, 1978). The grease contained in the bone tissue can be used for different purposes: food, technology, and fuel. However, the extraction of fat for food is particularly difficult to demonstrate at Palaeolithic sites (Outram, 2005; Costamagno, 2012; Costamagno and Rigaud, 2014) in contrast with the use of the bone for fuel, which can now be identified using several markers (Costamagno et al., 2009a). At SGR, the abundance of burnt bones, mainly cancellous bone fragments, demonstrates the use of the bone as a fuel (Costamagno, 1999, 2003). At FON, it is the abundance of these fragments of burnt bones and the intensity of their combustion that also suggests such use (Martin et al., in prep.). At RM2, some of the cancellous parts could have been used as fuel but we cannot exclude the hypothesis that fat was obtained as a broth or by crushing (Kuntz et al., 2015). At MN, the scarcity of burnt bones indicates that if the bone was used as fuel it was in small quantities (Costamagno, 2000). Burnt remains are also rare at MOR but the selective collection of the bones remains makes interpretation possible. Finally, at FAU, a single burnt bone has been identified in the sample and does not demonstrate the use of the bone as fuel. If at several deposits, the fracture surfaces of spongy portions sometimes suggest intentional fracturing, overall the cancellous parts are relatively well represented at the Magdalenian sites of the Gironde compared to other Magdalenian sites (Costamagno, 2005; Costamagno and Fano, 2005; Costamagno and Rigaud, 2014), suggesting that if the grease was extracted, it was in relatively small quantities. 5.2. Perceptible differences in relation to the function of the sites and the hunting seasons? Following the pioneering work of Binford (1978), the function of sites is considered a key factor in the potential differences observed in the skeletal profiles and butchery of carcasses (see Bunn et al., 1988; Costamagno et al., 2006; Rendu et al., 2011). In addition, due to fat mobilization in ungulates during the course of the year (Speth and Spielmann, 1983), the hunting season is not to be ignored and may have implications both on the transport of

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carcasses and their exploitation (Speth, 1983). Beyond the state of health of the carcasses, the conservation of food resources is also strongly affected by the season, especially in terms of storage techniques (Costamagno and David, 2009), which consequently impact the butchery chaînes op
eratoires. Among the various sites studied, FON which is largely dominated by bison, is a clear exception both in terms of the skeletal profiles and the exploitation of resources. It is interesting to note that the skeletal profile of FON, if we exclude the post-cranial axial skeleton, is the negative of the two other sites considered (RM2 and MN) (Fig. 3). The over-representation of the autopodials is clearly suggestive of a kill site but the reality appears to be more complex (Martin et al., in prep.). While the under-representation of the skull, which is initially surprising at a kill site, is not incompatible with the way in which the Magdalenians of the Entre-Deux-Mers appear to have transported bison carcasses, the scarcity of the post-cranial axial skeleton is more difficult to explain. The use of the bone as fuel could be a possible reason (Martin et al., in prep.) but it is difficult to establish whether the bison were slaughtered at the site itself or whether they were first transported before undergoing initial butchery. Although it is difficult to assess the intensity of the fracturing due to problems in bone condition that may have led to significant secondary fragmentation (Martin et al., in prep.), for the fleshy long bones abandoned at the site, exploitation of the bone marrow appears to have been relatively common, suggesting that the scarcity of cutmarks compared to what is observed at the other sites is not linked to the simple abandonment of these elements without treatment, but rather to a rough defleshing or, in any case one that was less thorough than at the other sites, which are settlements sites. At FON, the low quantity of lithic industry suggests short-term occupations in which it is difficult to envisage the immediate consumption of the entire mass of meat available (around 700 kg of meat, see Emerson, 1990, p. 432). Did this meat undergo specific treatment in view of its storage and later consumption in parallel with the transport of complete fleshy limbs, which could be transported elsewhere without treatment due to the cold season, which was conducive to conservation? Was a small part consumed locally, the rest discarded and only the marrow retained? Once again it is difficult to draw conclusions, but the quantity of burnt bones found at the site (Martin et al., in prep.) could be an argument for the smoking of the meat, because when the bones are burned
ryfresh, the smoke they generate is particularly important (The
ry-Parisot et al., 2005). Parisot and Costamagno, 2005; The If we exclude FON, is it possible to perceive differences in the exploitation of carcasses according to the seasons? This question is all the more problematic because, depending on the site, due to a low degree of resolution, exploitation is indicated for some species throughout the year and must therefore be excluded from the discussion. Without criteria allowing us to perceive different defleshing techniques according to the season, we must base our analysis on skeletal profiles and the exploitation of phalanges as well as indices regarding the removal of the skins. For saiga antelope, only MN indicates hunting during the cold season and the beginning of the warm season, a period during which saiga antelope, regardless to sex, are in poor physical condition (Bannikov, 1967). MN is the site at which saiga antelope phalanges are the most abundant and have been the most frequently fractured (Fig. 5 and Table 12). Although for reindeer, the hunting season is not known, the over-representation of metapodials and the abundance of phalanges, together with their almost systematic fracturing, appears to confirm this systematic search for the marrow of the autopodials and could therefore indicate the winter hunting of reindeer. However, at RM2, the bison hunted during the winter season do not show an over-representation of phalanges; the same is observed for reindeer. This early Middle Magdalenian site thus

Please cite this article in press as: Kuntz, D., et al., The exploitation of ungulates in the Magdalenian in the Entre-Deux-Mers (Gironde, France), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.12.079

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demonstrates a less rigorous search for marrow than MN. In contrast, intensive exploitation of marrow is observed at SGRupp, where saiga antelope were hunted during the warm season, yet this is not the case in the underlying lower Magdalenian level, where saiga antelope were also hunted during the warm season. Thus, while the seasons may play a role, they cannot be the only factor influencing the intensity of the exploitation of the carcasses. With regard to the skin, with the exception of MOR, the skin of the legs, when the data is available, has been removed over the greatest length possible. The care paid to removing the skin could, as suggested by Binford (1978), reflect the retrieval of good quality skins, but in reality, regardless to the season and therefore the quality of the skin or fur, it appears to be tradition that has dictated it. 5.3. Chronological variations during the Magdalenian? Comparisons are not possible for all the animal species over the whole diachrony of the Magdalenian. For bovines in particular, discussion is proving limited to the early Middle Magdalenian (RM2, MN, and FON). Due to its disappearance from the Gironde at the end of the Middle Magdalenian (Delpech, 1989; Costamagno, 2001), discussion of the saiga antelope is only possible in terms of the Lower Magdalenian (SGRlow) and early Middle Magdalenian (RM2, SGRupp, and MN). The inclusion of just one assemblage attributed to the Lower Magdalenian limits comparison here, however. For horse, comparisons can be established between the early Middle Magdalenian (RM2 and MN) and the late Upper Magdalenian (FAU). As with saiga antelope, the existence of just one assemblage from the Upper Magdalenian allowing for the reconstruction of transport and butchery practices for horse carcasses does not allow us to advance far with any diachronic interpretations. Finally, only reindeer is exploited continuously from the Lower Magdalenian (SGRlow) to the late Upper Magdalenian (MOR complex A) including the early Upper Magdalenian (MOR complex B) and the early Middle Magdalenian (SGRupp, RM2, and MN). Furthermore, it is difficult to compare the diachronic variations with the changes in lithic equipment (particularly types of cutting tools, types of skins worked, etc.) for which functional studies are also lacking (Langlais et al., this issue). We have seen that whatever the species hunted, the carcasses were brought back to the settlements incomplete; there is no variation in this in relation to the different time periods of the Magdalenian. The preferential transport of skulls and limb bones to the settlements, although variable depending on the species (see 5.1.1.), does not appear to differ between the techno-complexes either. However, some differences can be perceived, such as the less systematic transport of reindeer mandibles in the Lower Magdalenian and an increased presence of horse skulls in the late Upper Magdalenian compared to the early Middle Magdalenian. No major differences are observed in the butchery chaînes op
eratoires either, except in the Middle Magdalenian occupation of FON, whose function differs from that of the other sites (see 5.2.). In terms of skinning, some recurrence has been observed across all the Magdalenian sites, namely the retrieval of large skins. The disarticulation patterns and frequency of defleshing marks and percussion marks also illustrate the extensive dismemberment of the carcasses and the systematic removal of meat and marrow over the entire period. It can nonetheless be noted, particularly for reindeer, that disarticulation was less systematic during the Lower Magdalenian in comparison with the other facies. Recurrences that differ according to the species and time periods, have been observed in the fracturing techniques of the long bones. The retrieval of the marrow from reindeer diaphyseal cylinders is a unique feature in the Upper Magdalenian in the Gironde for which few other examples are known for the Magdalenian in the southwest of France.

Finally, the exploitation of reindeer and saiga antelope phalanges appears less significant during the Lower Magdalenian but in the absence of other sites of comparison, it is difficult to draw conclusions regarding any practice specific to this period. 6. Conclusion The analysis of faunal remains from eight assemblages in the Gironde attributed to the Lower to Upper Magdalenian has not revealed any temporally diverse transport or butchery patterns, despite palaeoenvironmental variations and cultural changes in terms of the lithic and osseous industries. For several millennia, the Magdalenian groups of the Gironde thus appear to have immortalized certain traditions regarding the acquisition and processing of carcasses, regardless to the size of the ungulates concerned. They generally transported incomplete carcasses to the camp which then underwent important processing with the aim of obtaining maximum quantities of food (meat, marrow, fat, etc.) and technical resources (skin, tendons, antlers, etc.). This model is in line with those of other geographical areas in the southwest of France that show the exploitation of diverse prey, in particular the French Pyrenees. In this region, in spite of still fragmented data, the processing of carcasses in relation to food exploitation indeed indicates similarities regardless to the techno-complex (Costamagno et al.,
tillon et al., 2015 and in prep.). In the current state of 2009b; Pe knowledge, it does not seem that there were any real deviations in strategies of prey acquisition or the exploitation of food resources during the Last Glacial on the western fringes of the Aquitaine basin and the French Pyrenees. Acknowledgements We would like to thank the ANR MAGDATIS (2011 BSH3 005 02) and all its participating members, as well as the persons concerned with access to the collections, in particular Dominique Armand
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Please cite this article in press as: Kuntz, D., et al., The exploitation of ungulates in the Magdalenian in the Entre-Deux-Mers (Gironde, France), Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.12.079