- Email: [email protected]
The expressive therapies continuum
At-f P.s.vchorhercrp~, Vol. 5 pp. 171-180, Pergamon Press, 1978. Printed in the U.S.A.
THE EXPRESSIVE THERAPIES CONTINUUM*
AND
SANDRA L. KAGIN, M.A., ATR, Director VIJA B. LUSEBRINK, M.A., ATR, Asst. Professor The Institute of the Expressive Therapies University of Louisville
INTRODUCTION The Expressive Therapies Continuum, referred to as the ETC for convenience hereafter, is a conceptual model designed for, and of use to, the various fields of the art and expressive psychotherapies. The continuum is composed of four levels, representing four modes of interaction with the media theoretically assumed to reflect the different modes of human expression. This sequence of expression is encountered recurringly in human development, (Piaget & Inhelder, 1%9), in every day living and in creativity, as well as in therapeutic settings. The first three levels of the ETC reflect three established systems of human information processing: the Kinesthetic/Sensory (K/S level); the Perceptual/Affective (P/A level); and the CognitivelSymbolic (C/S level). The concepts involved with the first three levels of the ETC are similar to those of J. Bruner’s (1964) theoretical three modes of representation: the enactive mode, which reflects past events through an appropriate motor response; the iconic mode, which selectively organizes individual perceptions and images; and the symbolic mode, which is a system of designation and transformation of experience into what is believed to be abstract and complex methods of representing internal and external reality. The fourth level of the ETC is the Creative level (CR). It is seen as a synthesis of the other three levels of the continuum. It is also a
level in its own right, clearly distinguished by the integration, transformation and expression of experiences into new forms. The different aspects.of creativity can be experienced on each level of the continuum. The descriptions of the creative experiences used in this paper are similar to the five different forms of creativity proposed by I. A. Taylor (Taylor & Getzels, 1975). The authors designed the ETC to be general enough to encompass all the basic modalities of expression, i.e., movement, vision, touch, sound and words. In this paper the authors will emphasize only the visual/tactile experience as a modality of expression and will deal with the use of visual arts in therapy. To describe the expression elicited by the art media and the interaction with the art media, the following postulates are presented: (1) the concept of Media Dimension Variables (MDV) (Kagin, 1%9); (2) media potentials; (3) quantity and boundary determined media; (4) mediated and non-mediated materials; and (5) reflective distancing (Rusch, 1970). The postulates of MDV and reflective distancing define the possibilities of interaction between an individual and a given medium, while the other three concepts deal with methods of achieving this interaction. The MDV format describes three main effects of art therapy:’ the complexity of the tasks presented by the art media; the structure of the art and therapy experience; and the physical prop-
*Requests for reprints should be sent to Sandra L. Kagin, Director, the Institute of the Expressive Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208. OOVMO92i78/040171-10%02.00/0 Copyright e 1978 Pergamon Press.
Ltd
Therapies,
University
of
172
KAGIN AND LUSEBRINK
et-ties of the art materials. Each medium possesses a certain potential for the manner and direction it can be utilized. The media properties impose limits, or boundaries on an experience; thus media can be classified as quantiry determined or boundary determined with regard to their abilities to impose. limits. Finally, the materials can be either mediated or non-mediated. A mediator is essentially a tool, such as a brush or ceramic knife, which serves as a distancing agent between the individual and the materials. The emphasis of this paper concerns the specific properties and propensities of art media as they affect the behavior of the individual interacting with them. The individual’s behavior is also influenced by the reflective distance between his action and his perceptions of that act. Reflective distancing is an integrative experience where body sensations take on a perceptual organization and are then given a meaning. The reflective distance establishes a feedback system for the individual’s interaction with the media. The term “reflective distance” will be used in this paper to indicate a cognitive distance between the art experience and the individual’s reflection on that experience (Rusch, 1970). Generally speaking, the greater the reflective distance the more objective the description of the experience being described. Thus, reflective distance provides a cognitive orientation (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972) to kinesthetic and perceptual experience. Reflective distance also depends upon the level of arousal. For our mu-poses, we use the term “arousal” to indicate an active state of energy mobilization which occurs when the organism is presented with resonant stimuli. A subsequent return to a state of homeostasis reestablishes the equilibrium between the internal and external processes (Amheim, 1964). In states of increased arousal, the individual identities with the action, until the reflective distance decreases to the point where the individual and his experience become one (Fischer, 1%8, 1969). Both the dimensions of reflective distance and MDV influence each other. The ETC is an attempt to examine this interaction on the different levels of experience and expression, which also purport to describe a continuum of experiences available to the individual. The media are per-
ceived as the carriers of expression, available for feedback to the individual, the therapist or both. The potential for conveying an expression is inherent in every medium and the potential is activated at each of the different levels of the continuum, according to the catalytic skills of the therapist and the motivation or experience level of the client. Each level of the ETC will be discussed with respect to the uses of all the dimensions enumerated in the preceding introduction. Examples will be given of the use of media which reflect the authors’ preference, but it is hoped are general enough to stimulate the reader’s own selection of media applications.
The KinestheticlSensory
level
Kinesthetic/Sensory The level focuses primarily on the release of energy through bodily action or movement. On the kinesthetic level of expression the media are the passive part of the interaction between individual and materials, and the pure media properties, the fluid or resistive qualities, will determine the scope of the action upon the media. At the same time the media serve an activating role as the facilitators of the kinesthetic response. The kinesthetic interaction either stimulates arousal or allows energy to be discharged and lowers the tension level. The haptic perceptual system obtains information about the environment through the use of the whole body, especially through touch, pressure and joint configuration (Gibson, 1966). The Sensory component of this level of the Continuum refers to the sensations experienced through the haptic system and the internal activity of the organism without the awareness of or involvement with the affective response. The theory of kinesthetic/sensory interaction is based on the assumption that psychic energy is discharged or utilized through motor behavior. When the psychic energy is released there are endless alternatives as to how to use or harness this energy, but before it can be harnessed, it must be realized by the client that the potential for action is open. The individual may therefore be aware of his own psychic energy potential, uncluttered by concepts, affects or any other patterned or limiting response.
EXPRESSIVE
THERAPIES
At this level each medium is sensed without any particular form or goal and possesses a certain potential for the manner and direction it can be utilized. The K/S level emphasizes the uction potential of the given medium. At the Kinesthetic end of the K/S component, the action is predominantly aggressive in its relationship with the materials; slapping, throwing, pounding, etc. The Sensory aspect of the K/S level, on the other hand, utilizes a lowered potential, which allows a more haptic awareness; sliding, touching, daubing, dripping, etc. An isomorphic (Amheim, 1972; Koffka, 1935) awareness is intended, where the individual may experience the analogies to his internal action potentials. The action potential of the .media at the K/S level taps the undifferentiated psychic energy of the individual. The media properties will become important in structuring this energy not only through their intrinsic qualities, but also through internal and external limits or boundaries. The quantity of material available for the experience will determine the limits of the experience. For example, fluid media such as fingerpaints are determined by the size of the container, while wood or clay is determined by the size of the material itself. The increase of quantity of the material is presumed to amplify whatever is being experienced by the use of the material. Thus, the quantity determined media will become amplifiers of psychic discharge on an undifferentiated level. It is important for the art therapist to be aware of the amplification propensity of such materials as fingerpaint because there are numerous occasions when heightening an undifferentiated experience is contraindicated. The use of the mediator inhibits direct tactile involvement with the material, and becomes a limit which helps to differentiate the experience. Thus, a brush full of paint has more limited possibilities for action than a jar full of fingerpaint. The boundary determined materials, on the other hand, are already contained, such as wood, stone, paper and pencil. Both boundary determined and quantity determined media utilize a certain amount of energy which can be limited or directed through the use of the mediators. The therapist and the client must be aware of how much energy they are willing to release, or how much energy release and utiliza-
CONTINUUM
173
tion are needed for optimum therapeutic intervention. The K/S level is characterized by a minimal reflective distance. This is due to the individual being directly involved with generally unlabeled action. Further, the sensory aspect is emphasized and perceptual interpretation kept at a minimum. The media potential on each level of the ETC has a certain developmental, growth, or healing aspect. The action potential of the media used on the K/S level can lead to the awareness of rhythm created through the coordinated action of the organism. General consensus of the literature shows rhythm reflects the organism’s innate tendency to organize stimuli in repeated sequences in time or space (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). The rhythm itself becomes a healing experience as the undifferentiated psychic energy present is patterned and expressed through the body. As a growth experience, the action upon the materials can elicit an emotive affective response which can lead the individual to another level of awareness and another level of the ETC. Developmentally, the recognition and naming of form which results from the action upon the materials (Connolly & Jones, 1970) fosters involvement at the Perceptual/Affective level of the continuum. The PerceptuallAffective
level
The Perceptual/Affective level deals with the perceptions created and the affects aroused in the individual through the interaction with art materials. The perceptions are a developmental sequel to the actions and sensations of the K/S level. These perceptions are experienced visually and haptically as “form” through the differentiation of figure and ground (Amheim, 1964). As discussed previously, action upon fmgerpaints moves the paint around the paper. This kinesthetic action articulates the painting surface (Koffka, 1935; Spielman, 1976) while the paint creates an inhomogeniety of the visual field. The articulation of space and inhomogeniety of the visual field encourage perception (Koffka, 1935). As the visual field is organized, the human organism forms closures on his experiences and creates “good gestalts*’ from his perceptions (Amheim, 1964).
KAGIN AND LUSEBRINK The affective component of this level is activated through the haptic system of the individual or through affective responses to the visual forms. The operational assumption made here is that haptic involvement allows for the expression of more intimate and primitive sensations and emotions, or emotions and experiences which have not previously reached the level of awareness (Pearls, 1969). The individual’s experience and expression of form is influenced by his level of affect. The innate striving for good gestalts mentioned above may be countered by an emotional distortion of the form perceived or created. The possibilities of the form expressed in a particular medium will be determined by the properties of the medium (Kagin, 1968). The media on the P/A level are said to possess a form potential. The form potential will influence the individual’s internal ability to form gestalts using the less differentiated sensory and perceptual data. Thus, media with high structural qualities and inherent good gestalt (such as wood or mosaic) will promote and evoke an inner organization in the individual. The form potential of the media in interaction with the haptic system will promote identification with the body and the reinforcement and differentiation of body concept (Wapner & Werner, 1965). The media boundaries are important to the P/A level. If the material used is quantity determined, and the individual is reacting to the emotive potential of the experience, then a continuity or amplification of the experience can occur simply by adding more and more materials. In the alternative the boundary determined materials may give a different feedback to the individual by placing external limits on the emotional release. Such external limits usually have a “safe” nonthreatening quality. In addition, the boundary determined materials have a tendency to limit the figure-ground possibilities more than quantity determined materials which may create an endless number of forms. The form potential of a brush full of paint is limited not only by the capacity of the media, but also by the capacity of the brush. The brush, as a mediator, in this manner becomes a component of the media dimension of structure as it limits the figure-ground possibilities. The reflective distancing increases from the
K/S to the P/A level. The awareness of media properties and the perception of form elicited from them requires a certain amount of distancing from the direct experience with the materials. For example, the smashing of clay will result in random form until the individual perceives the form potential in the clay and begins to control and contain his motor behavior to actuate the form. The forms may be changed readily through the manipulation of the media or as result of further kinesthetic action upon the media. Increase in the reflective distance and a more restricted use of energy with a concurrent concentration are achieved through the use of boundary determined resistive materials. The therapeutic design and goals will determine the use of the particular form potential of a given medium. Working through the affective blocking or distortion of good form may be one of the art therapist’s tasks at the P/A level. A working through may be accomplished by focusing the individual’s attention on the affect producing aspects of the media, such as its texture on the haptic level or its form on the perceptual level, with the concurrent decrease of the reflective distance. Identification with the forms facilitate the expression of affect and the internalization of structure (Rhyne, 1973). In general, the P/A level of the ETC utilizes the Gestalt theory concept of isomorphism or structural similarity of configurations in the different media (Armheim, 1972). Recognizing and naming the affect associated with the form provides reflective distancing and leads to the following C/S level. The CognitivelSymbolic
level
The C/S level is markedly different from the previous levels, since it requires the development of abstract thought. The P/A level was characterized by an immediacy of experience. With the internalization of actions and forms, and the emergence of mental images associated with the forms, a groundwork is laid for the Cognitive/Symbolic level. This level requires a qualitatively different approach to information processing which permits the individual to deal with the “nonpresent and with things that are remote in space, qualitative similarity and time from the immediate situation” (Bruner, p. 13). Both the cognitive and the symbolic components
EXPRESSIVE
THERAPIES CONTINUUM
of this level provide a release from the immediate present, and allow the processing of increasing amounts of more complex information. The cognitive component of this level focuses on analytical and logical thought. The operations necessary to produce thought are based on the representation through language and are facilitated through the mental representation of action (Bruner, 1964). Problem solving through the use.of media properties is an important part of the cognitive end of the continuum. The exploration of media, their grouping along qualities, categorization, recognition of relationships, and sequencing in time are the different aspects to be considered at the C/S level. The exploration of the media allow for the internalization of the media properties and the ability to understand the actions necessary to manipulate the media. If a client is presented with diverse stimuli such as pieces of wood, hammer and nails, he has to explore and experience the hammer and nails kinesthetically to become familiar with their application. He also has to explore the pieces of wood and form a mental image of how these pieces will fit together to build a desired object. Here the exploration proceeds-on the K level while discovering the operations of the hammer and nails, and on the P level to form the mental imagery which will coalesce on the C level into the more complex systems of images necessary for determining what the desired object will be. The motor and perceptual discovery lead to concrete association of object and action and a schema of the operation emerges (Guilford, 1967). Thus, we can say that on the level of concrete operation, at the Cognitive end of the continuum, the media have a schema (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972; Lowenfeld, 1970) potential. Schema potential requires the knowledge and experience of specific units of information and the ability to form internal schemata before the schema potential can be actualized. The mediators on the C level become an integral part of the schemata since they facilitate and amplify the expression and modify the media properties. The mediators also increase the reflective distance and extend the realm of interaction, as, for example, the paint applied with brush instead of fingers eliminates a major sensory component of the interaction, and the use of hammer and nails allows to join wood in many
175
combinations. The complexity of the media can stimulate schema formation or it can lead to regression. An evaluation of the client’s developmental level and mental functioning will help to determine the complexity of the task and the steps necessary to perform the task successfully. The reflective distancing increases markedly on the C level as compared to the P level. The need to develop schema from the internalized motor actions contributes to the ability to distance. The increased reflective level and the ability to sustain attention over a period of time to bring closure to the complex task of actualizing a schema all require a certain level of arousal, mental development and ability to concentrate. To stay with the task also requires motivation. The schema potential of the media facilitates motivation through evoking curiosity and creative problem-solving. The use of schema potential on the C level facilitates structuring and the mastering reality. It also stimulates growth of intellectual facilities, as the complexity of the schema potential will shift awareness of the individual to the cognitive level of functioning. A shift in awareness can also be used to overcome emotional blocks or resistance. If a client has been asked to draw a Kinetic Family Drawing (Kaufman & Bums, 1970) he is confronted not only with a complex image but also must probably face emotional issues. A boundary determined, familiar, nonemotive producing medium such as a pencil will reduce the complexity of the task. If difficulties are still encountered, a change to a medium with different schema potential may be required. The representation of family members may be shifted to abstract shapes cut out from construction paper. Representing the family in this manner instead of pencil will differentiate the family members through relationships in color and abstract form (Rhyne, 1973). This more abstract manner of representation is presumed to increase the reflective distance from the task and to lessen the emotional involvement with the task. The ability to manipulate the media successfully is necessary in’seeking alternatives to uses of the media and later to discovering analogies to other problem-solving situations outside the therapeutic setting. A percept has a concrete experiental basis
KAGIN AND LUSEBRINK (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969) in the early stages of the transition to cognition in the art therapy experience. Each material or object is associated directly with the sensations evoked through their manipulation. The naming of the experience attaches a label to the object of the affect associated with the experience. The labels allow for the abstraction and formation of schemata and concepts, and they are useful in dealing with complex representations. The labels can be words or abstract visual signs which stand for known objects, actions or ideas. Nevertheless, the many stimuli present in a complex situation cannot be processed on a cognitive basis alone; abstraction or concept formation based on intuition also takes place. The symbolic component of the C/S level focuses on intuitive concept formation, symbolic expression, and the realization and actualization of symbols. Not all perceptions and experiences can also be labeled, since internally many sensations are not within the field of conscious awareness. The perceptions can be stored in the preferred perceptual mode in which they are experienced (Bruner, 1964), or they can be multileveled, that is, they can be experienced simultaneously through the different perceptual systems. The latter is manifested in physiognomic perception, which includes intermingled internal and external, motoric, sensual, affective and imaginal elements (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). It has been hypothesized (Chafe, 1977) that an experiential coding system exists whereby information is stored in large nonverbal “chunks” and may be recalled much as a movie is oriented on a screen. These experiences may carry either conscious or subliminal affective charge or both. The experiences can be grouped together or condensed according to their affective valence, their internal or external structural similarity, or their personal or cultural meaning. The structural similarity can be internal or based on anatomical structures and physiological processes, or it can be external based on the structures and processes present in the external reality. The overall meaning of a particular group of experiences may only be sensed, but not known; in this case the meaning may be represented only by a metaphor or parable (Jung, 1958), either imaginal or verbal. If an experience has a negative or threatening aspect, it may be excluded from the field of
awareness, or it may emerge in the conscious awareness presented by a less threatening metaphor through displacement. The term “symbolic” is used here as a generic name representing experiences which have either a displaced (Freud, 1967) or yet unknown meaning (Jung, 1965). Symbols can be either regressive or progressive, that is, futuristic (Jung, 1958; Lusebrink, 1974; Perry, 1953). Regressive symbols may carry metaphors which are more primitive or archaic, while progressive symbols may be more abstract. The more condensed is a particular group of experiences, the more general will be the metaphor describing it, and the more universal will be its symbol (Billig, 1970). The symbols are multileveled and multidimensional, involving movement or action, structure, form, affect and meaning. Physiognomic perception and synesthesia present in the experience of a symbol reflect the whole organismic involvement in symbol formation. Synesthesia represents the response to a stimulus of one sense modality with sensations in another sense modality (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). As an emotionally charged internal structure symbols have to be externalized before they can be resolved on internal terms. At the same time a symbolic attitude, or readiness to bring the physiognomic perceptions and the sensed nonverbal formations into awareness, is a prerequisite for symbolic perception of form. Body relaxation facilitates the flow of internal images. The media are said to possess symbol potential if they can facilitate the formation, expression and resolution of symbols and intuitive concepts. Media which produce ambiguous forms, such as sponge prints, are useful in eliciting symbol formation. Complex media elicit abstraction or intuitive concept formation, since the individual has to rely intuitively on internally experienced structures while organizing a complex field; for example, magazine cut-outs present divergent images which the individual has to organize intuitively while constructing a collage. Fluid media which lend themselves to physiognomic perception facilitate the expression of internal symbolic forms; thus, fingerpaint with its undifferentiated form potential can be manipulated haptically to produce multilayered expression. In general, symbol formation and symbolic expression is facilitated through quantity deter-
EXPRESSIVE
THERAPIES
mined media which stimulate divergent production (Guilford, 1967). On the other hand, boundary determined media facilitate symbol resolution through convergent production (Guilford, 1967) and through concretization of the meaning on a personal level. Resistive media facilitating the expression of the same symbol on a kinesthetic, haptic and visual level, as, for example, wood, clay and felt tip markers, will elicit different aspects of the same symbolic experience. Nonmediated experiences, such as clay work, allow the amplification of the personal meaning of a symbol (Horowitz, 1970; Jung 1974; Naumburg, 1949) and facilitate the expression of its affective charge. Mediated materials are useful in elevating a concrete, personal experience to a cultural or universal level. Thus, organizing personal expression within the quadrapartite division of a mandala (Jung, 1973; Perry, 1953) form while using felt tip pens may condense the meaning of these expressions and put them in a more universal context. The reflective distance on the symbolic level depends on the type of symbol and symbolic experience present. The reflective distance diminishes in the regressive identification with the symbol, which is characterized by regressive behavior. The reflective distance increases if the symbol carries emotionally threatening charges, or if the symbol is progressive pointing to future possibilities. The reflective distance can be too great if very abstract or universal symbols are used. The more abstract is a symbol, the longer time it will take to resolve, and the more complex and larger will be its experiential basis. Resolution of a symbol reveals its meaning. Since the meaning of the symbol is unknown, it has to be resolved through the expression of its behavioral and formal components and through the elaboration of its affective valence. The unknown component invests the symbol with numinosity (Jung, 1974), and the progressive symbols contribute to the motivation for future directed action. The resolution of both regressive and progressive symbols leads to insight and growth. The symbol formation per se may lead to sublimation of aggressive and sexual drives into culturally acceptable expressions (Freud, 1967; Kramer, 1971). The use of guided daydreams (Assagioli, 1971;
CONTINUUM
Singer, 1974) with archetypal symbolism, such as climbing a mountain or descending in a cave, may help to direct the expression and the resolution of regressive or progressive symbols. In general, the amplification of a concrete experience through the external input from cultural or universal sources will help to structure and sublimate the individual’s experience in a larger, more universal context. Depending on the client’s needs and the therapeutic design, the use of mediated and nonmediated materials will help to modify the reflective distance in these experiences. The resolution of a symbol on cultural or universal terms will lead to the creative actualization of the individual, and the emergence of a culturally meaningful creative expression.
The Creative level (CR) The creative level of ETC utilizes the synthesizing and selfactualizing forces of ego and self. A synthesis takes place between the inner experience and the outer reality (Arieti, 1969; Ulman & Dachinger, 1975), between the individual and the media, or between the different experiential and expressive levels of the ETC. The creative actualization level of the ETC is characterized by the active dialogue and involvement between the individual and the media. This interaction culminates in an expression or experience distinguished by its sense of unity between the media and the message, with a concurrent feeling of closure and/or elation in the individual . The media can enhance the creative climate by providing a stimulating environment and/or support of the different phases of the creative process (Taylor & Getzels, 1975). The skillful use of media will provide rich stimuli for the information gathering phase and alleviates undue anxiety in breaking old boundaries (Ehrenzweig, 1971); media can act as an interphase between the yet unformed inner expression and reality, or they can be seen as transitional objects facilitating inner and outer dialogue (Winnicott, 1953). The creative process is influenced by the intrinsic qualities of the media which are actualized in the process. Thus, the media on the creative level of the ETC can be said to have actualization
KAGIN AND LUSEBRINK potential. The creative interaction with media can occur on any of the levels of ETC and the media can be actualized in any of the above potentials (Taylor & Getzels, 1975). On the K/S level the action potential manifests itself through spontaneous expression, while on the P/A level the actualization of form potential is manifested through the creation of “good Gestalts,” the affective experience of closure (Pearls, 1969; Rhyne, 1973), and achievement of skill and perfection of form (Kramer, 1971). On the Cognitive level the schema potential of a given set of information is actualized (Guilford, 1967), while on the Symbolic level the actualization of the symbol potential results in the resolution of the symbol and the emergence of its meaning (Jung, 1958; Perry, 1953). The stage of the individual’s development as well as the individual’s preferred mode of interaction will determine the optimal choice of the media, and the mode of actualization of the media potential. For example, the young child will create best through unstructured use of paint and color. An individual who experiences the external world predominantly through his haptic perception will create preferably in clay or other threedimensional tactile material. A visually oriented individual may prefer to create a symbolic painting instead of using other forms of expression. In a true creative experience both the individual’s present potential and the medium potential will be actualized. The creative experience thus becomes a quantity determined experiin this instance refers to ence. The “quantity” the potential within the individual himself and the potential of the medium. After the actualization of the above potentials, the individual experiences wholesomeness and satisfaction with concurrent return to homeostasis. The creative actualization can be also boundary determined in that it is either a boundary pushing or boundary breaking experience (Eisner, 1968). The creative experience which actualizes the medium potential on several levels, or which allows the individual to express himself involving actualization on several levels at the same time can be considered as a boundary breaking experience. In this instance a deeper relationship within or without will be discovered, which is common to the potentials on all the levels. The mediators on the creative level become
extensions of the human body and act in unison with it. The experience of time and space becomes suspended through the involvement and identification with the creative act or extended through the amplifying action. In the creative actualization the modifiers expand the boundaries of the body ego. For example, the brush reflects the rhythmical movement of the body and extends it in space when the large muscles are utilized in the expression. The reflective distance in the creative interaction with media is characterized by a total involvement while maintaining some awareness of the interaction; or it can also alternate between periods of total involvement and subsequent reflection upon the interaction. In the creative transformation (Taylor & Getzels, 1975) the individual experiences a high degree of intense arousal while creating, and a sense of selffulfillment while reflecting upon the endproduct as an independant unit. Usually this is concurrent with a sense of closure, elation, and lack of the need for verbalization. The creative actualization (Maslow, 1968) through art media involves the whole individual and therefore has a healing influence on the individual. The experience of actualization may be present even if the external product has a minimal independent value, as it is often true in spontaneous painting. This experience with the concurrent feeling of elation can be used for the individual as a reference point in the future, and as such it can be thought out again in the different activities in daily living. The true creative art work will evoke strong responses and involvement in the viewer, and, thus, the creative art work influences and transforms its environment and suspends the experience of time. The actualization of several levels of potentials within and without creativity involves large and complex areas of action and awareness. Thus, the creative action requires large amount of energy, part of which is obtained from the energy and excitement liberated through the breaking of boundaries, and releasing the energy of the potential of the particular situation. Nevertheless, the capacity for the ego and the organism to tolerate and sustain such a high level of functioning and energy is limited; after the creation is completed, the healthy ego and healthy organism return to homeostasis and rest. with concurrent
EXPRESSIVE feeling go.”
of wholeness,
completion
THERAPIES
and “letting
Conclusion The four levels of the Expressive Therapies Continuum (ETC) discussed here, namely Kinesthetic/Sensory (K/S), Perceptual/Affective (P/A), Cognitive/Symbolic (C/S) and Creative (CR), present the different modes of expression and interaction with media. The reflective distance on the direct experience increases from K/S to P/A to C level. On the symbolic and creative level the creative distance can be more varied, depending on the direction or depth of the process. The properties and the.use of the media modify the reflective distance; this modification is discussed and illustrated for each level. Any and all of the above levels are encountered in everyday functioning. The art experiences on each level are seen as analogies for situations and reactions outside the therapeutic setting. The creative experience can manifest itself on any of the above levels and provide guideposts to more creative approaches to life in general.
REFERENCES ARIETI, S. (1967) The Intrapsychic and Creativity
in Health
Self. Feeling, Cognition and Mental Illness. New York,
London: Basic Books. ARIETI, S. (1%9) The meeting of the inner and external worlds in schizophrenia, everyday life and creativity. American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 29, 115-130. ARNHEIM, R. (1964) Art and Visual Perception. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ARNHEIM. R. (1%9) Visual Thinking. Berkeley and Los _ Angeids: University of California Press. ARNHEIM, R. (1972) Toward a Psychology of Art. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ASSAGIOLI, R. (1971) Psychosynthesis. New York: Viking Compass Book. ATTNEAVE, F. (1954) Some informational aspects of visual perception. Psychological Review, 61 (3), 183-193. BILLIG, 0. (1970) Structure of schizophrenic forms of expression. Psychiatric Quaterly, 44, (2), 187-222. BRLJNER,J. S. (1964) The course of cognitive growth. American Psychologist,
19, 1-16.
CHAFE, W. L. (1977) “Creativity in verbalization and its imolications for the nature of stored knowledge.” In Roy 0. Freedle, Ed. Discourse Production and Comprehension, Vol. 1. Norwood. N.Y.: Ablex Publishing. CONNOLLY, K., & JONES B. (1970) A developmental study of tierent-reafferent integration. British Journal of Psychology,
61, 2, 259-266.
CONTINUUM
179
DENNER, A. (1967) L’Expression Plastique. Pathalogie et Reeducation des Schizophrenes. Paris: Les Editions Sociales Francaises. EHRENZWEIG, A. (1971) The Hidden Order of Art. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. EISNER, E. W. (1%8) A typology of creativity in the visual arts. Studies in Art Education, 4, (2), Fall. FISCHER. R. (1%8) “Snace-time coordinates of excited and tranquilized states.” In 1. Jakab, Psychiatry and Art, Vol. I, 33-68. Basel: S. Karger. FISCHER, R. (1%9) “On creative psychotic and ecstatic states.” In I. Jakab, Psychiatry and Arf. Vol. 2, 33-66. Base]: S. Karger. FREUD, S. (1%7) The Interpretation of Dreums. New York: Discus Book. GIBSON, J. (1966) The Senses Considered as Perceptual Svsterns. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. GUILFORD, J. P. (1%7) The Nature of Human Intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill. HARTMAN, H. (1964) Essays on Ego Psychology. New York: International Universities Press. HOROWITZ, M. (1970) Image Formation und Cognition. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. JUNG, C. G. (1968) Analytical Psychology, Its Theory und Practice. New York: Vintage Books. JUNG, C. G. (1974) Dreums. Bollingen Series, Princeton. N.J.: Princeton University Press. JUNG, C. G. (1973) Mundula Symbolism. Bollingen Series. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. _ JUNG. C. G. (1965) Man und His Svmbols. New York: Doubleday. JUNG, C. G. (1958) Psyche und Symbol. New York: Doubleday. KAGIN, S. (1%9) The effects of structure on the painting of retarded youth. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of Tulsa. KAGIN, S. (1968) Graphic expression of retarded children, AAMD Monograph, Region V, Houston, Texas. KAUFMAN, S. H. & BURNS, R. C. (1970) Kinetic Fami/y Drawings. New York: Brunner-Mazel. KELLOGG, R. (1970) Anulyzing Children’s Art. Palo Alto, CA.: National Press Books. KOFFKA, K. (1935) Principles of Gestalt Psychology. New York: Harcourt Brace. KRAMER, E. (1971) Art us Therapy wifh Children. New York: Schocken Books. KREITLER, H. & KREITLER, S. (1972) Psychology of the Arts. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. Kats, E. (1952) Psychoanalytical Explorations in Art. New York: Schocken Books. LOWENFELD, V. (1939) The Nature of Creative Activity. London: Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. LOWENFELD. V. (1970) Creative and Mental Growth. 6th Ed. New York: Macmillan. LUSEBRINK.V. (1977) ‘Doodle diarv: The creative witness.” In Shoemaker, R.’ Ed. Creativity und the Art Therapist’s Identity. American Art Therapy Association. LUSEBRINK, V. (1974) Visual expression and creativity in psychosis. Paper presented at the 5th Annual AATA convention. MASLOW, A. H. (1968) Toward a Psychology of Being. New York: Van Nostrand.
THE EXPRESSIVE THERAPIES CONTINUUM*
AND
SANDRA L. KAGIN, M.A., ATR, Director VIJA B. LUSEBRINK, M.A., ATR, Asst. Professor The Institute of the Expressive Therapies University of Louisville
INTRODUCTION The Expressive Therapies Continuum, referred to as the ETC for convenience hereafter, is a conceptual model designed for, and of use to, the various fields of the art and expressive psychotherapies. The continuum is composed of four levels, representing four modes of interaction with the media theoretically assumed to reflect the different modes of human expression. This sequence of expression is encountered recurringly in human development, (Piaget & Inhelder, 1%9), in every day living and in creativity, as well as in therapeutic settings. The first three levels of the ETC reflect three established systems of human information processing: the Kinesthetic/Sensory (K/S level); the Perceptual/Affective (P/A level); and the CognitivelSymbolic (C/S level). The concepts involved with the first three levels of the ETC are similar to those of J. Bruner’s (1964) theoretical three modes of representation: the enactive mode, which reflects past events through an appropriate motor response; the iconic mode, which selectively organizes individual perceptions and images; and the symbolic mode, which is a system of designation and transformation of experience into what is believed to be abstract and complex methods of representing internal and external reality. The fourth level of the ETC is the Creative level (CR). It is seen as a synthesis of the other three levels of the continuum. It is also a
level in its own right, clearly distinguished by the integration, transformation and expression of experiences into new forms. The different aspects.of creativity can be experienced on each level of the continuum. The descriptions of the creative experiences used in this paper are similar to the five different forms of creativity proposed by I. A. Taylor (Taylor & Getzels, 1975). The authors designed the ETC to be general enough to encompass all the basic modalities of expression, i.e., movement, vision, touch, sound and words. In this paper the authors will emphasize only the visual/tactile experience as a modality of expression and will deal with the use of visual arts in therapy. To describe the expression elicited by the art media and the interaction with the art media, the following postulates are presented: (1) the concept of Media Dimension Variables (MDV) (Kagin, 1%9); (2) media potentials; (3) quantity and boundary determined media; (4) mediated and non-mediated materials; and (5) reflective distancing (Rusch, 1970). The postulates of MDV and reflective distancing define the possibilities of interaction between an individual and a given medium, while the other three concepts deal with methods of achieving this interaction. The MDV format describes three main effects of art therapy:’ the complexity of the tasks presented by the art media; the structure of the art and therapy experience; and the physical prop-
*Requests for reprints should be sent to Sandra L. Kagin, Director, the Institute of the Expressive Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40208. OOVMO92i78/040171-10%02.00/0 Copyright e 1978 Pergamon Press.
Ltd
Therapies,
University
of
172
KAGIN AND LUSEBRINK
et-ties of the art materials. Each medium possesses a certain potential for the manner and direction it can be utilized. The media properties impose limits, or boundaries on an experience; thus media can be classified as quantiry determined or boundary determined with regard to their abilities to impose. limits. Finally, the materials can be either mediated or non-mediated. A mediator is essentially a tool, such as a brush or ceramic knife, which serves as a distancing agent between the individual and the materials. The emphasis of this paper concerns the specific properties and propensities of art media as they affect the behavior of the individual interacting with them. The individual’s behavior is also influenced by the reflective distance between his action and his perceptions of that act. Reflective distancing is an integrative experience where body sensations take on a perceptual organization and are then given a meaning. The reflective distance establishes a feedback system for the individual’s interaction with the media. The term “reflective distance” will be used in this paper to indicate a cognitive distance between the art experience and the individual’s reflection on that experience (Rusch, 1970). Generally speaking, the greater the reflective distance the more objective the description of the experience being described. Thus, reflective distance provides a cognitive orientation (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972) to kinesthetic and perceptual experience. Reflective distance also depends upon the level of arousal. For our mu-poses, we use the term “arousal” to indicate an active state of energy mobilization which occurs when the organism is presented with resonant stimuli. A subsequent return to a state of homeostasis reestablishes the equilibrium between the internal and external processes (Amheim, 1964). In states of increased arousal, the individual identities with the action, until the reflective distance decreases to the point where the individual and his experience become one (Fischer, 1%8, 1969). Both the dimensions of reflective distance and MDV influence each other. The ETC is an attempt to examine this interaction on the different levels of experience and expression, which also purport to describe a continuum of experiences available to the individual. The media are per-
ceived as the carriers of expression, available for feedback to the individual, the therapist or both. The potential for conveying an expression is inherent in every medium and the potential is activated at each of the different levels of the continuum, according to the catalytic skills of the therapist and the motivation or experience level of the client. Each level of the ETC will be discussed with respect to the uses of all the dimensions enumerated in the preceding introduction. Examples will be given of the use of media which reflect the authors’ preference, but it is hoped are general enough to stimulate the reader’s own selection of media applications.
The KinestheticlSensory
level
Kinesthetic/Sensory The level focuses primarily on the release of energy through bodily action or movement. On the kinesthetic level of expression the media are the passive part of the interaction between individual and materials, and the pure media properties, the fluid or resistive qualities, will determine the scope of the action upon the media. At the same time the media serve an activating role as the facilitators of the kinesthetic response. The kinesthetic interaction either stimulates arousal or allows energy to be discharged and lowers the tension level. The haptic perceptual system obtains information about the environment through the use of the whole body, especially through touch, pressure and joint configuration (Gibson, 1966). The Sensory component of this level of the Continuum refers to the sensations experienced through the haptic system and the internal activity of the organism without the awareness of or involvement with the affective response. The theory of kinesthetic/sensory interaction is based on the assumption that psychic energy is discharged or utilized through motor behavior. When the psychic energy is released there are endless alternatives as to how to use or harness this energy, but before it can be harnessed, it must be realized by the client that the potential for action is open. The individual may therefore be aware of his own psychic energy potential, uncluttered by concepts, affects or any other patterned or limiting response.
EXPRESSIVE
THERAPIES
At this level each medium is sensed without any particular form or goal and possesses a certain potential for the manner and direction it can be utilized. The K/S level emphasizes the uction potential of the given medium. At the Kinesthetic end of the K/S component, the action is predominantly aggressive in its relationship with the materials; slapping, throwing, pounding, etc. The Sensory aspect of the K/S level, on the other hand, utilizes a lowered potential, which allows a more haptic awareness; sliding, touching, daubing, dripping, etc. An isomorphic (Amheim, 1972; Koffka, 1935) awareness is intended, where the individual may experience the analogies to his internal action potentials. The action potential of the .media at the K/S level taps the undifferentiated psychic energy of the individual. The media properties will become important in structuring this energy not only through their intrinsic qualities, but also through internal and external limits or boundaries. The quantity of material available for the experience will determine the limits of the experience. For example, fluid media such as fingerpaints are determined by the size of the container, while wood or clay is determined by the size of the material itself. The increase of quantity of the material is presumed to amplify whatever is being experienced by the use of the material. Thus, the quantity determined media will become amplifiers of psychic discharge on an undifferentiated level. It is important for the art therapist to be aware of the amplification propensity of such materials as fingerpaint because there are numerous occasions when heightening an undifferentiated experience is contraindicated. The use of the mediator inhibits direct tactile involvement with the material, and becomes a limit which helps to differentiate the experience. Thus, a brush full of paint has more limited possibilities for action than a jar full of fingerpaint. The boundary determined materials, on the other hand, are already contained, such as wood, stone, paper and pencil. Both boundary determined and quantity determined media utilize a certain amount of energy which can be limited or directed through the use of the mediators. The therapist and the client must be aware of how much energy they are willing to release, or how much energy release and utiliza-
CONTINUUM
173
tion are needed for optimum therapeutic intervention. The K/S level is characterized by a minimal reflective distance. This is due to the individual being directly involved with generally unlabeled action. Further, the sensory aspect is emphasized and perceptual interpretation kept at a minimum. The media potential on each level of the ETC has a certain developmental, growth, or healing aspect. The action potential of the media used on the K/S level can lead to the awareness of rhythm created through the coordinated action of the organism. General consensus of the literature shows rhythm reflects the organism’s innate tendency to organize stimuli in repeated sequences in time or space (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). The rhythm itself becomes a healing experience as the undifferentiated psychic energy present is patterned and expressed through the body. As a growth experience, the action upon the materials can elicit an emotive affective response which can lead the individual to another level of awareness and another level of the ETC. Developmentally, the recognition and naming of form which results from the action upon the materials (Connolly & Jones, 1970) fosters involvement at the Perceptual/Affective level of the continuum. The PerceptuallAffective
level
The Perceptual/Affective level deals with the perceptions created and the affects aroused in the individual through the interaction with art materials. The perceptions are a developmental sequel to the actions and sensations of the K/S level. These perceptions are experienced visually and haptically as “form” through the differentiation of figure and ground (Amheim, 1964). As discussed previously, action upon fmgerpaints moves the paint around the paper. This kinesthetic action articulates the painting surface (Koffka, 1935; Spielman, 1976) while the paint creates an inhomogeniety of the visual field. The articulation of space and inhomogeniety of the visual field encourage perception (Koffka, 1935). As the visual field is organized, the human organism forms closures on his experiences and creates “good gestalts*’ from his perceptions (Amheim, 1964).
KAGIN AND LUSEBRINK The affective component of this level is activated through the haptic system of the individual or through affective responses to the visual forms. The operational assumption made here is that haptic involvement allows for the expression of more intimate and primitive sensations and emotions, or emotions and experiences which have not previously reached the level of awareness (Pearls, 1969). The individual’s experience and expression of form is influenced by his level of affect. The innate striving for good gestalts mentioned above may be countered by an emotional distortion of the form perceived or created. The possibilities of the form expressed in a particular medium will be determined by the properties of the medium (Kagin, 1968). The media on the P/A level are said to possess a form potential. The form potential will influence the individual’s internal ability to form gestalts using the less differentiated sensory and perceptual data. Thus, media with high structural qualities and inherent good gestalt (such as wood or mosaic) will promote and evoke an inner organization in the individual. The form potential of the media in interaction with the haptic system will promote identification with the body and the reinforcement and differentiation of body concept (Wapner & Werner, 1965). The media boundaries are important to the P/A level. If the material used is quantity determined, and the individual is reacting to the emotive potential of the experience, then a continuity or amplification of the experience can occur simply by adding more and more materials. In the alternative the boundary determined materials may give a different feedback to the individual by placing external limits on the emotional release. Such external limits usually have a “safe” nonthreatening quality. In addition, the boundary determined materials have a tendency to limit the figure-ground possibilities more than quantity determined materials which may create an endless number of forms. The form potential of a brush full of paint is limited not only by the capacity of the media, but also by the capacity of the brush. The brush, as a mediator, in this manner becomes a component of the media dimension of structure as it limits the figure-ground possibilities. The reflective distancing increases from the
K/S to the P/A level. The awareness of media properties and the perception of form elicited from them requires a certain amount of distancing from the direct experience with the materials. For example, the smashing of clay will result in random form until the individual perceives the form potential in the clay and begins to control and contain his motor behavior to actuate the form. The forms may be changed readily through the manipulation of the media or as result of further kinesthetic action upon the media. Increase in the reflective distance and a more restricted use of energy with a concurrent concentration are achieved through the use of boundary determined resistive materials. The therapeutic design and goals will determine the use of the particular form potential of a given medium. Working through the affective blocking or distortion of good form may be one of the art therapist’s tasks at the P/A level. A working through may be accomplished by focusing the individual’s attention on the affect producing aspects of the media, such as its texture on the haptic level or its form on the perceptual level, with the concurrent decrease of the reflective distance. Identification with the forms facilitate the expression of affect and the internalization of structure (Rhyne, 1973). In general, the P/A level of the ETC utilizes the Gestalt theory concept of isomorphism or structural similarity of configurations in the different media (Armheim, 1972). Recognizing and naming the affect associated with the form provides reflective distancing and leads to the following C/S level. The CognitivelSymbolic
level
The C/S level is markedly different from the previous levels, since it requires the development of abstract thought. The P/A level was characterized by an immediacy of experience. With the internalization of actions and forms, and the emergence of mental images associated with the forms, a groundwork is laid for the Cognitive/Symbolic level. This level requires a qualitatively different approach to information processing which permits the individual to deal with the “nonpresent and with things that are remote in space, qualitative similarity and time from the immediate situation” (Bruner, p. 13). Both the cognitive and the symbolic components
EXPRESSIVE
THERAPIES CONTINUUM
of this level provide a release from the immediate present, and allow the processing of increasing amounts of more complex information. The cognitive component of this level focuses on analytical and logical thought. The operations necessary to produce thought are based on the representation through language and are facilitated through the mental representation of action (Bruner, 1964). Problem solving through the use.of media properties is an important part of the cognitive end of the continuum. The exploration of media, their grouping along qualities, categorization, recognition of relationships, and sequencing in time are the different aspects to be considered at the C/S level. The exploration of the media allow for the internalization of the media properties and the ability to understand the actions necessary to manipulate the media. If a client is presented with diverse stimuli such as pieces of wood, hammer and nails, he has to explore and experience the hammer and nails kinesthetically to become familiar with their application. He also has to explore the pieces of wood and form a mental image of how these pieces will fit together to build a desired object. Here the exploration proceeds-on the K level while discovering the operations of the hammer and nails, and on the P level to form the mental imagery which will coalesce on the C level into the more complex systems of images necessary for determining what the desired object will be. The motor and perceptual discovery lead to concrete association of object and action and a schema of the operation emerges (Guilford, 1967). Thus, we can say that on the level of concrete operation, at the Cognitive end of the continuum, the media have a schema (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972; Lowenfeld, 1970) potential. Schema potential requires the knowledge and experience of specific units of information and the ability to form internal schemata before the schema potential can be actualized. The mediators on the C level become an integral part of the schemata since they facilitate and amplify the expression and modify the media properties. The mediators also increase the reflective distance and extend the realm of interaction, as, for example, the paint applied with brush instead of fingers eliminates a major sensory component of the interaction, and the use of hammer and nails allows to join wood in many
175
combinations. The complexity of the media can stimulate schema formation or it can lead to regression. An evaluation of the client’s developmental level and mental functioning will help to determine the complexity of the task and the steps necessary to perform the task successfully. The reflective distancing increases markedly on the C level as compared to the P level. The need to develop schema from the internalized motor actions contributes to the ability to distance. The increased reflective level and the ability to sustain attention over a period of time to bring closure to the complex task of actualizing a schema all require a certain level of arousal, mental development and ability to concentrate. To stay with the task also requires motivation. The schema potential of the media facilitates motivation through evoking curiosity and creative problem-solving. The use of schema potential on the C level facilitates structuring and the mastering reality. It also stimulates growth of intellectual facilities, as the complexity of the schema potential will shift awareness of the individual to the cognitive level of functioning. A shift in awareness can also be used to overcome emotional blocks or resistance. If a client has been asked to draw a Kinetic Family Drawing (Kaufman & Bums, 1970) he is confronted not only with a complex image but also must probably face emotional issues. A boundary determined, familiar, nonemotive producing medium such as a pencil will reduce the complexity of the task. If difficulties are still encountered, a change to a medium with different schema potential may be required. The representation of family members may be shifted to abstract shapes cut out from construction paper. Representing the family in this manner instead of pencil will differentiate the family members through relationships in color and abstract form (Rhyne, 1973). This more abstract manner of representation is presumed to increase the reflective distance from the task and to lessen the emotional involvement with the task. The ability to manipulate the media successfully is necessary in’seeking alternatives to uses of the media and later to discovering analogies to other problem-solving situations outside the therapeutic setting. A percept has a concrete experiental basis
KAGIN AND LUSEBRINK (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969) in the early stages of the transition to cognition in the art therapy experience. Each material or object is associated directly with the sensations evoked through their manipulation. The naming of the experience attaches a label to the object of the affect associated with the experience. The labels allow for the abstraction and formation of schemata and concepts, and they are useful in dealing with complex representations. The labels can be words or abstract visual signs which stand for known objects, actions or ideas. Nevertheless, the many stimuli present in a complex situation cannot be processed on a cognitive basis alone; abstraction or concept formation based on intuition also takes place. The symbolic component of the C/S level focuses on intuitive concept formation, symbolic expression, and the realization and actualization of symbols. Not all perceptions and experiences can also be labeled, since internally many sensations are not within the field of conscious awareness. The perceptions can be stored in the preferred perceptual mode in which they are experienced (Bruner, 1964), or they can be multileveled, that is, they can be experienced simultaneously through the different perceptual systems. The latter is manifested in physiognomic perception, which includes intermingled internal and external, motoric, sensual, affective and imaginal elements (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). It has been hypothesized (Chafe, 1977) that an experiential coding system exists whereby information is stored in large nonverbal “chunks” and may be recalled much as a movie is oriented on a screen. These experiences may carry either conscious or subliminal affective charge or both. The experiences can be grouped together or condensed according to their affective valence, their internal or external structural similarity, or their personal or cultural meaning. The structural similarity can be internal or based on anatomical structures and physiological processes, or it can be external based on the structures and processes present in the external reality. The overall meaning of a particular group of experiences may only be sensed, but not known; in this case the meaning may be represented only by a metaphor or parable (Jung, 1958), either imaginal or verbal. If an experience has a negative or threatening aspect, it may be excluded from the field of
awareness, or it may emerge in the conscious awareness presented by a less threatening metaphor through displacement. The term “symbolic” is used here as a generic name representing experiences which have either a displaced (Freud, 1967) or yet unknown meaning (Jung, 1965). Symbols can be either regressive or progressive, that is, futuristic (Jung, 1958; Lusebrink, 1974; Perry, 1953). Regressive symbols may carry metaphors which are more primitive or archaic, while progressive symbols may be more abstract. The more condensed is a particular group of experiences, the more general will be the metaphor describing it, and the more universal will be its symbol (Billig, 1970). The symbols are multileveled and multidimensional, involving movement or action, structure, form, affect and meaning. Physiognomic perception and synesthesia present in the experience of a symbol reflect the whole organismic involvement in symbol formation. Synesthesia represents the response to a stimulus of one sense modality with sensations in another sense modality (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972). As an emotionally charged internal structure symbols have to be externalized before they can be resolved on internal terms. At the same time a symbolic attitude, or readiness to bring the physiognomic perceptions and the sensed nonverbal formations into awareness, is a prerequisite for symbolic perception of form. Body relaxation facilitates the flow of internal images. The media are said to possess symbol potential if they can facilitate the formation, expression and resolution of symbols and intuitive concepts. Media which produce ambiguous forms, such as sponge prints, are useful in eliciting symbol formation. Complex media elicit abstraction or intuitive concept formation, since the individual has to rely intuitively on internally experienced structures while organizing a complex field; for example, magazine cut-outs present divergent images which the individual has to organize intuitively while constructing a collage. Fluid media which lend themselves to physiognomic perception facilitate the expression of internal symbolic forms; thus, fingerpaint with its undifferentiated form potential can be manipulated haptically to produce multilayered expression. In general, symbol formation and symbolic expression is facilitated through quantity deter-
EXPRESSIVE
THERAPIES
mined media which stimulate divergent production (Guilford, 1967). On the other hand, boundary determined media facilitate symbol resolution through convergent production (Guilford, 1967) and through concretization of the meaning on a personal level. Resistive media facilitating the expression of the same symbol on a kinesthetic, haptic and visual level, as, for example, wood, clay and felt tip markers, will elicit different aspects of the same symbolic experience. Nonmediated experiences, such as clay work, allow the amplification of the personal meaning of a symbol (Horowitz, 1970; Jung 1974; Naumburg, 1949) and facilitate the expression of its affective charge. Mediated materials are useful in elevating a concrete, personal experience to a cultural or universal level. Thus, organizing personal expression within the quadrapartite division of a mandala (Jung, 1973; Perry, 1953) form while using felt tip pens may condense the meaning of these expressions and put them in a more universal context. The reflective distance on the symbolic level depends on the type of symbol and symbolic experience present. The reflective distance diminishes in the regressive identification with the symbol, which is characterized by regressive behavior. The reflective distance increases if the symbol carries emotionally threatening charges, or if the symbol is progressive pointing to future possibilities. The reflective distance can be too great if very abstract or universal symbols are used. The more abstract is a symbol, the longer time it will take to resolve, and the more complex and larger will be its experiential basis. Resolution of a symbol reveals its meaning. Since the meaning of the symbol is unknown, it has to be resolved through the expression of its behavioral and formal components and through the elaboration of its affective valence. The unknown component invests the symbol with numinosity (Jung, 1974), and the progressive symbols contribute to the motivation for future directed action. The resolution of both regressive and progressive symbols leads to insight and growth. The symbol formation per se may lead to sublimation of aggressive and sexual drives into culturally acceptable expressions (Freud, 1967; Kramer, 1971). The use of guided daydreams (Assagioli, 1971;
CONTINUUM
Singer, 1974) with archetypal symbolism, such as climbing a mountain or descending in a cave, may help to direct the expression and the resolution of regressive or progressive symbols. In general, the amplification of a concrete experience through the external input from cultural or universal sources will help to structure and sublimate the individual’s experience in a larger, more universal context. Depending on the client’s needs and the therapeutic design, the use of mediated and nonmediated materials will help to modify the reflective distance in these experiences. The resolution of a symbol on cultural or universal terms will lead to the creative actualization of the individual, and the emergence of a culturally meaningful creative expression.
The Creative level (CR) The creative level of ETC utilizes the synthesizing and selfactualizing forces of ego and self. A synthesis takes place between the inner experience and the outer reality (Arieti, 1969; Ulman & Dachinger, 1975), between the individual and the media, or between the different experiential and expressive levels of the ETC. The creative actualization level of the ETC is characterized by the active dialogue and involvement between the individual and the media. This interaction culminates in an expression or experience distinguished by its sense of unity between the media and the message, with a concurrent feeling of closure and/or elation in the individual . The media can enhance the creative climate by providing a stimulating environment and/or support of the different phases of the creative process (Taylor & Getzels, 1975). The skillful use of media will provide rich stimuli for the information gathering phase and alleviates undue anxiety in breaking old boundaries (Ehrenzweig, 1971); media can act as an interphase between the yet unformed inner expression and reality, or they can be seen as transitional objects facilitating inner and outer dialogue (Winnicott, 1953). The creative process is influenced by the intrinsic qualities of the media which are actualized in the process. Thus, the media on the creative level of the ETC can be said to have actualization
KAGIN AND LUSEBRINK potential. The creative interaction with media can occur on any of the levels of ETC and the media can be actualized in any of the above potentials (Taylor & Getzels, 1975). On the K/S level the action potential manifests itself through spontaneous expression, while on the P/A level the actualization of form potential is manifested through the creation of “good Gestalts,” the affective experience of closure (Pearls, 1969; Rhyne, 1973), and achievement of skill and perfection of form (Kramer, 1971). On the Cognitive level the schema potential of a given set of information is actualized (Guilford, 1967), while on the Symbolic level the actualization of the symbol potential results in the resolution of the symbol and the emergence of its meaning (Jung, 1958; Perry, 1953). The stage of the individual’s development as well as the individual’s preferred mode of interaction will determine the optimal choice of the media, and the mode of actualization of the media potential. For example, the young child will create best through unstructured use of paint and color. An individual who experiences the external world predominantly through his haptic perception will create preferably in clay or other threedimensional tactile material. A visually oriented individual may prefer to create a symbolic painting instead of using other forms of expression. In a true creative experience both the individual’s present potential and the medium potential will be actualized. The creative experience thus becomes a quantity determined experiin this instance refers to ence. The “quantity” the potential within the individual himself and the potential of the medium. After the actualization of the above potentials, the individual experiences wholesomeness and satisfaction with concurrent return to homeostasis. The creative actualization can be also boundary determined in that it is either a boundary pushing or boundary breaking experience (Eisner, 1968). The creative experience which actualizes the medium potential on several levels, or which allows the individual to express himself involving actualization on several levels at the same time can be considered as a boundary breaking experience. In this instance a deeper relationship within or without will be discovered, which is common to the potentials on all the levels. The mediators on the creative level become
extensions of the human body and act in unison with it. The experience of time and space becomes suspended through the involvement and identification with the creative act or extended through the amplifying action. In the creative actualization the modifiers expand the boundaries of the body ego. For example, the brush reflects the rhythmical movement of the body and extends it in space when the large muscles are utilized in the expression. The reflective distance in the creative interaction with media is characterized by a total involvement while maintaining some awareness of the interaction; or it can also alternate between periods of total involvement and subsequent reflection upon the interaction. In the creative transformation (Taylor & Getzels, 1975) the individual experiences a high degree of intense arousal while creating, and a sense of selffulfillment while reflecting upon the endproduct as an independant unit. Usually this is concurrent with a sense of closure, elation, and lack of the need for verbalization. The creative actualization (Maslow, 1968) through art media involves the whole individual and therefore has a healing influence on the individual. The experience of actualization may be present even if the external product has a minimal independent value, as it is often true in spontaneous painting. This experience with the concurrent feeling of elation can be used for the individual as a reference point in the future, and as such it can be thought out again in the different activities in daily living. The true creative art work will evoke strong responses and involvement in the viewer, and, thus, the creative art work influences and transforms its environment and suspends the experience of time. The actualization of several levels of potentials within and without creativity involves large and complex areas of action and awareness. Thus, the creative action requires large amount of energy, part of which is obtained from the energy and excitement liberated through the breaking of boundaries, and releasing the energy of the potential of the particular situation. Nevertheless, the capacity for the ego and the organism to tolerate and sustain such a high level of functioning and energy is limited; after the creation is completed, the healthy ego and healthy organism return to homeostasis and rest. with concurrent
EXPRESSIVE feeling go.”
of wholeness,
completion
THERAPIES
and “letting
Conclusion The four levels of the Expressive Therapies Continuum (ETC) discussed here, namely Kinesthetic/Sensory (K/S), Perceptual/Affective (P/A), Cognitive/Symbolic (C/S) and Creative (CR), present the different modes of expression and interaction with media. The reflective distance on the direct experience increases from K/S to P/A to C level. On the symbolic and creative level the creative distance can be more varied, depending on the direction or depth of the process. The properties and the.use of the media modify the reflective distance; this modification is discussed and illustrated for each level. Any and all of the above levels are encountered in everyday functioning. The art experiences on each level are seen as analogies for situations and reactions outside the therapeutic setting. The creative experience can manifest itself on any of the above levels and provide guideposts to more creative approaches to life in general.
REFERENCES ARIETI, S. (1967) The Intrapsychic and Creativity
in Health
Self. Feeling, Cognition and Mental Illness. New York,
London: Basic Books. ARIETI, S. (1%9) The meeting of the inner and external worlds in schizophrenia, everyday life and creativity. American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 29, 115-130. ARNHEIM, R. (1964) Art and Visual Perception. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ARNHEIM. R. (1%9) Visual Thinking. Berkeley and Los _ Angeids: University of California Press. ARNHEIM, R. (1972) Toward a Psychology of Art. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ASSAGIOLI, R. (1971) Psychosynthesis. New York: Viking Compass Book. ATTNEAVE, F. (1954) Some informational aspects of visual perception. Psychological Review, 61 (3), 183-193. BILLIG, 0. (1970) Structure of schizophrenic forms of expression. Psychiatric Quaterly, 44, (2), 187-222. BRLJNER,J. S. (1964) The course of cognitive growth. American Psychologist,
19, 1-16.
CHAFE, W. L. (1977) “Creativity in verbalization and its imolications for the nature of stored knowledge.” In Roy 0. Freedle, Ed. Discourse Production and Comprehension, Vol. 1. Norwood. N.Y.: Ablex Publishing. CONNOLLY, K., & JONES B. (1970) A developmental study of tierent-reafferent integration. British Journal of Psychology,
61, 2, 259-266.
CONTINUUM
179
DENNER, A. (1967) L’Expression Plastique. Pathalogie et Reeducation des Schizophrenes. Paris: Les Editions Sociales Francaises. EHRENZWEIG, A. (1971) The Hidden Order of Art. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. EISNER, E. W. (1%8) A typology of creativity in the visual arts. Studies in Art Education, 4, (2), Fall. FISCHER. R. (1%8) “Snace-time coordinates of excited and tranquilized states.” In 1. Jakab, Psychiatry and Art, Vol. I, 33-68. Basel: S. Karger. FISCHER, R. (1%9) “On creative psychotic and ecstatic states.” In I. Jakab, Psychiatry and Arf. Vol. 2, 33-66. Base]: S. Karger. FREUD, S. (1%7) The Interpretation of Dreums. New York: Discus Book. GIBSON, J. (1966) The Senses Considered as Perceptual Svsterns. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. GUILFORD, J. P. (1%7) The Nature of Human Intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill. HARTMAN, H. (1964) Essays on Ego Psychology. New York: International Universities Press. HOROWITZ, M. (1970) Image Formation und Cognition. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. JUNG, C. G. (1968) Analytical Psychology, Its Theory und Practice. New York: Vintage Books. JUNG, C. G. (1974) Dreums. Bollingen Series, Princeton. N.J.: Princeton University Press. JUNG, C. G. (1973) Mundula Symbolism. Bollingen Series. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. _ JUNG. C. G. (1965) Man und His Svmbols. New York: Doubleday. JUNG, C. G. (1958) Psyche und Symbol. New York: Doubleday. KAGIN, S. (1%9) The effects of structure on the painting of retarded youth. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of Tulsa. KAGIN, S. (1968) Graphic expression of retarded children, AAMD Monograph, Region V, Houston, Texas. KAUFMAN, S. H. & BURNS, R. C. (1970) Kinetic Fami/y Drawings. New York: Brunner-Mazel. KELLOGG, R. (1970) Anulyzing Children’s Art. Palo Alto, CA.: National Press Books. KOFFKA, K. (1935) Principles of Gestalt Psychology. New York: Harcourt Brace. KRAMER, E. (1971) Art us Therapy wifh Children. New York: Schocken Books. KREITLER, H. & KREITLER, S. (1972) Psychology of the Arts. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. Kats, E. (1952) Psychoanalytical Explorations in Art. New York: Schocken Books. LOWENFELD, V. (1939) The Nature of Creative Activity. London: Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. LOWENFELD. V. (1970) Creative and Mental Growth. 6th Ed. New York: Macmillan. LUSEBRINK.V. (1977) ‘Doodle diarv: The creative witness.” In Shoemaker, R.’ Ed. Creativity und the Art Therapist’s Identity. American Art Therapy Association. LUSEBRINK, V. (1974) Visual expression and creativity in psychosis. Paper presented at the 5th Annual AATA convention. MASLOW, A. H. (1968) Toward a Psychology of Being. New York: Van Nostrand.