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The future of reverse osmosis in water desalination
Des&mtion,30(1979)64-74 OElsevierScientific PublishingCompany.Am&x&m-PrintedinTl~eNetherlands
THE EUKJRE
OF REVERSE~ISINW?YfERD~INATloN
DR. JORK K. BEASJXY E-1. du Pant de Nenkxrs&co.,
Wilmington, Delaware USA
Water desalination has emerged as one of the nrxst iqortant Watef shortages through the world. osmosis
Arrong Water desalination
(R9, is one of the nvst innovative and promising.
Since 1970, nvre than
3,000 new RO plants desalting brackish water have been built. RO plants are operating
in nore than 20 countries.
methods of alleviating techniques, reverse
(ref. 1) Seawater
By the end of 1979, about 12
million gallons per day of seawater Rc capacity will be installed_
(ref, 2)
Between the late 1960's and 1977, FCI has grown even faster than desalination generally, which grew nearly 40 percent per year.
(ref. 3)
In the foreseeable future, reverse osnosis is expected to grow at a rate of between 20 to 30 percent and will constitute the major portion of new brackish water capacity.
Seawater FCI is expected to grow at an even faster rate.
This RU groWth will be sustained during the coming years in at least two ways: m First, expansion of installed capacity based on the current state of the art involving applications similar to those underway naw, sonxs newer applications like water x-use
and the construction of larger plants, and
_ Second, innovations in the state of the art leading to better rerrbranes and plant design which will make RCI even nore economically attractive. trJ0ways, innovation will have the greatest impact.
Of the
I will discuss it first
and then turn to expansion based on the current state cf the art.
-'Ihe improved nembranes of the 1980's will reject nore salt, permit the flow of n-ore water , andbenoredurable. central wurse
In these respects, they will be part of the
of Ro innovation typified by Reid and Breton in 1958 and Lomb and
Sourirajan in 1960 who developed n-erbranes which effectively separated salt from water and set the stage for the conmercial applications of the 70's. Theenhanceddurabilitywillbepartof pioneered by 0.1 mnt
(ref. 4)
a trend trrward tougharamidmxrdxanes
in the late 60's and early 70's. 69
Iiopefully, the new menbranes
70
BEASLE!Z
of the 80's will mer
K. C. Qmmbasam's
which he issued in 1976.
call for new and better membranes.
(ref. 5)
Better salt rejection, productivity and durability are the crane the 80's because, with their achievemnt, be reduced.
the real wst
This will permit even broader use of the technology.
better salt rejection could elimina te theneedand desalt very high salinity seawater.
goaL= of
of lU) pm%XX!d
water will
kr
ezranple,
cost of tklopass systests to
Better salt rejection plus better productivity
could permit lower pressure operation and thus reduce energy requiremnts, already are half those of mlti-stage
!l!he growth of R0 will depend on achieving these advance swhich, depend on major
which
flash (MSF) distillation.
research efforts by industry and governsent.
inturn,wil.l
In fact, thiswas
a conclusion of a recent study of RO undertaken by the Fluor corporation. 3zsearch efforts are underway and they will be expanded. DLI Ppnt are comnitted to RO research.
Du Fmt,
(ref. 6)
For inslxnce,weat
noted for its innovatiorbhas
major l33 research programs underway at its manufacturing pIantS and its corporate research facilities at the EU Pbnt Experimzntal Station in Wilmington, Delaware. Other organizations also are making similar comaitnents.
Wearealreadyseeing
soltvz of the results in papers presented at this IDEA Cohference and those published elsewhere. This research will. include a great deal of new work on reverse osmosis membranes, but will also include research on the construction of permators, of water for reverse osmsis,
on the pretreatment
and on the design and construction of all the
components of a complete desalination plant. In this paper, I will briefly examine two areas:
membrane materials and better
energy efficiency in system design. Aramid polymers will continue to replace cellulose acetate polymers in mnbrane manufacture because they resist mechanical change, as well as chemical and biological attack.
As I reported tothisconference
tsmyearsago,duringextensive~~t
research programs in which sore than 100 different polymrs nmbranes
were evaluated,
of cellulose acetate and other cellulose esters shmed
considerable
promise in initial tests but frequently deteriorated during extended testing. Cellulose acetate rmrbranes are subject to biological attack and mst within a narrow pH range to prevent hydrolysis.
(ref. 7)
be used
R. L. Riley also has reported that
the family of aromatic polyamides is "destined to dominate the reverse -is scene because their transport, mechanical, biological and chemical properties are generally superior to cellulose acetate." Rnergy recovery devices will beama streamtoapermzator solution.
must be rejectedwith
This rejectstreamhas
its pressure mltiplied
(ref. 8)
increasingly inportant. allof
apotentially
by its volume.
Partofthe
thedissolvedsalts
still in
recoverableenergyfx@valentto
Recoveryof
thisenergymaynotbevery
important in the desalination of brackish water at high conversions.
feed
Rut in
BEASLEY
71
reverse osmsis of seawater, the reject stream is about two-thirds of the feed StlZalll. I fOreCc%St that devices will be developxl to recover this energy frQn
therejects~eamandtousethisenergytohelpplmp energy recoverydeviceand
the feedstream.
the feedpmpmyactuallybe
The
xmuntedonthe-
punping of the feed stream cunsums less net
shaft, with the net result that
-gYDevelcment efforts by several RO system manufacturers are rapidly leading toconmxcially
feasible energyrecoverydevicescapableofcapturingmchof
thehydraulicpressureenergyavailable
in theconcentratedischarge
Calculations indicate thattheenergyconsumd canbecutinhalf
to17
systemscurrentlyunder demmstratingthis
to20
stream.
by seawater rewseosllosis
kw/l000gallonsofproduct.
tests~rtthisconclusionand
systems
Energy recovery commzrcialplants
concept are under construction.
Stork Werkspoor Water of Pmsterdamhas incorporated energy recovery ina seawater FKD plant it is buildixq on &rto gpdplantwillconsistof
is to be used for driving the pmp
ExPzANs1oxBAsFDcJN
Santa, Madeira,
(ref. 9)
T%e 130,000
The reject water from three of the units
four units.
of the fourth unit by mans
of a water turbine.
c!uFmmm-~
The expansion of water desalting, based on current Ef) technolcgy, will also boost the n&r technolqy
and size of FU3 plants,
will contribute
Becauseof
thenmhlar
New aqlications
based on current
too.
natureof
into plants of any desired size.
reverseosmsis Aspeoplegain
units, theycanbe
ass&lec?
experience in building andoperating
larger and larger plants, still largeroneswi~bepLannedandconstructed. Thistmndhasalreadybegun.
Figure 1 shows the largest m
plants plotted
against their year of construction.
Flpum I
Largest
RO~laf&nstallatlon
1970
1972 1974 1976 1976 1980 1962 Yearof Construction
BRAS=
72
Plant sizes havegrawn
fromsmall
gallonsper
day (GPD) experimentalplants
toa~th60millionC;PD~icipalmrplexscheduledtobeginaperat~this year
in Etiydah,
Saudi Arabia.
(ref. 10)
l%e U.S. Covernnmnt plans to mtruct
a 92 million GPD cc.a@ex in Yuma, Ariz., with start-upscheduled 1980's.
inearly
(ref. ll)
The world's largest industrial KC desalination plant is now under construction and will begin operating facility at mstaganem,
in early 1980.
(ref. 12)
This aultimillion dollar
Algeria, willbecapableofpurifying
llmilliongXUcns
of brackish surface water daily, for useatapaparmilloperatedby firm, Societe Rationale des Industries de la Cellulose the Riyadh comlex,
theAlgerian
(SONIC).
This plant, like
is being built by Degrenont, S.A. of Prance with "Fernmsep"
permeators. In 1979, the world's largest seawater R0 plant was comnissioned by Saudi Arabia. This plant provides 3.2 CGPD of p&able
water to the inhabitants of Jeddah.
In 1960, the first of nine seawater -R0 desalination Machinoinport, started up.
(ref. 13)
units purchased by V/O
a foreign trade organization of the Soviet government, will be (ref. 14)
These plants, which will use IXI Pant's B-10 "Pennasep"
permeators, will provide 3.3 million gallons per day of desalted water.
This water
will be converted to steam and then injected into oil wells to reduce crude oil viscosity and thus increase oil production rates.
The amplex
of desalination
units, built by Water Services of America, Milwaukee, Wis., will be located near the Caspian Sea in the U.S.S.R. Several desalting firms have completed designs for large, 10 million GPD ship/ barge rrounted RO desalination plants.
The self
contained,
relccatableplants,
with construction Periods of less than two years ,areexpectedtomakelargeinroads into the seawater. market previously dominated by nn.rlti-stageflash (MSF) distillation. In addition to the water desalting application represented by these plants, reverse osmosis merrhranes will be used for other applications.
They can, for exanple,
be used to separate water and dissolved organic compounds and to separate organics from organics.
Hcwever, the treaunent of waste water streams will receive more
attention. In a recent waste water application , aTexas England is using "Permasep" permeators, -ether
Instruments, Ltd.,
pl.antinBedford,
with associated filtration, chemical
testing and cleaning eguipnent, to recover up to 70 Percent of the 20,000 gallons per hour of fonzrly
discharged waste water.
(ref. 15)
The plant
was supplied and
installed by Permutit & Roby, a mznber of the Portals Water Treatment Croup.
73
BEASLEY
CXXCXUSION Newapplicaticmsofexisting
RQtechnology suchas thewastewater
plantin
Bedford, ?zilgland.The expansion of water desalination generally and RU innovation will be the prime engines of FO growth in the 1980's. That growth is expected to be between 20 aud 30 percent with seawater RO dfmand growing at an even faster rate. Achievenest of this growth will depend, in large part, on the develoL.mantof new mnbranes with better salt rejection, productivity and durability. The widespread adoption of man+xane materials similar to aramid polymers could lead tothesebreakthroughs. FuTthenmre, advances in RO design, suchasenergyrecoverysystems,should bringbothcapitalandoperatingcmstsof FinaYy,
thet&logydowneven
further.
these advances will be the result of research ccmnitmnts by industry
and governments. Research will mke
the FG~technology of the 80's even mre
ecouomicalthan the ROtechnolcqyof
the 70's. Du Font already has a major research
prqram
underway, both at our manufacturing plants and at our coqxxate research
facilities at the Du Font E%perirrentalStation in Wilmington, Delaware,
Desalting Plants Inventory Report No. 6, Office of Water Research and Technology, U.S. Department of the Interior, *tober 1977. R.A. Kellar, Seawater RO Desalting Mxing Into Big League, World Water, 2(1979) 44-45, Liverpool, England. J.D. Birkett, Wxldwide atlook for Desalination Industry Through 1985, A.D. Little l%pact Services, Inc., Canbridge, M& USA, October 13, 1978. C-E. Reid and E.J. Breton, J. Applied FoIy Sci l(1959) 133. S. Loeb and S. Sourirajan, Pdvan. Chem. Sci. 38(1963) ll7K-C. channaba%ppa, Need for New and Better Menbranes, Desalination, 18(1976) 15-42. Desalting Plans and Progress, an Evaluation of the State of the Art and l%ture Research and Develmt Requiremmts, Fluor mgineers and Constructors, Inc., IKVine, California, prepared for Office of Water Research and Techmlogy, U.S. Department of the Interior, (MRT Contract 14-34-1001-7707,Jarmarx 1978. J.K. Beasley, The Evaluation and Selection of pblymeric IG&erials for Reverse Osmsis Nambranes, Desalination, 22(1977) 181-189, R.L. Riley, et. al., Spiral-M Poly (Ether/Amide)'Iih-Film Coqmsite Membrane System, Hznbrane Separation Technology Conference, Clemson University, __ Clemson, South Carolina, August 2-6, 1976. 9 R. Seaton, et. al., The mrld's First Large Seawater Reverse Osmxiis Desalination Plant at Jeddah, Kingdcm of Saudi Arabia, Prcceedings Sixth International symp>sium, Fresh Water from the Sea, 1978. 10 J.J. Allard, et. al., Pbtable Water Supply of Riyadh (The Saudi Arabia Kingdm'sCapitalCity) by ReverseOsnvsisDesalting Plants. Proceedingsof the First D%alination Congress of the American Continent, Mexico City, October 24-29, i976, Desalination, ZO(1976) 227-238, B. EXics.son,Riyadh's Record Plant Takes Shape,~rldWater, 2 (1979) 4&43, Liverpool, -land. llDesaltingTrendSetat9!5-nqdPlant, EhgineeringNewsRecord,hkxember 3, 1977, P. lx. I.2Desalination in Algeria, Middle East Week, London, June 29, 1978.
74
BZASLEP
I_3 R-E, Seaton, Largest Seawater EU3 Plant Uses NS Menkane Material, World Water, 2 (1979)38-39. 14 Reverse Omvsis to be used for Soviet Oil Recovery Project, NiSIA Newsletter, 6(1979) 4. I5 Reverse Osmxis Saves Water, ConsultingEngineer,kxdon, April 1979.
THE EUKJRE
OF REVERSE~ISINW?YfERD~INATloN
DR. JORK K. BEASJXY E-1. du Pant de Nenkxrs&co.,
Wilmington, Delaware USA
Water desalination has emerged as one of the nrxst iqortant Watef shortages through the world. osmosis
Arrong Water desalination
(R9, is one of the nvst innovative and promising.
Since 1970, nvre than
3,000 new RO plants desalting brackish water have been built. RO plants are operating
in nore than 20 countries.
methods of alleviating techniques, reverse
(ref. 1) Seawater
By the end of 1979, about 12
million gallons per day of seawater Rc capacity will be installed_
(ref, 2)
Between the late 1960's and 1977, FCI has grown even faster than desalination generally, which grew nearly 40 percent per year.
(ref. 3)
In the foreseeable future, reverse osnosis is expected to grow at a rate of between 20 to 30 percent and will constitute the major portion of new brackish water capacity.
Seawater FCI is expected to grow at an even faster rate.
This RU groWth will be sustained during the coming years in at least two ways: m First, expansion of installed capacity based on the current state of the art involving applications similar to those underway naw, sonxs newer applications like water x-use
and the construction of larger plants, and
_ Second, innovations in the state of the art leading to better rerrbranes and plant design which will make RCI even nore economically attractive. trJ0ways, innovation will have the greatest impact.
Of the
I will discuss it first
and then turn to expansion based on the current state cf the art.
-'Ihe improved nembranes of the 1980's will reject nore salt, permit the flow of n-ore water , andbenoredurable. central wurse
In these respects, they will be part of the
of Ro innovation typified by Reid and Breton in 1958 and Lomb and
Sourirajan in 1960 who developed n-erbranes which effectively separated salt from water and set the stage for the conmercial applications of the 70's. Theenhanceddurabilitywillbepartof pioneered by 0.1 mnt
(ref. 4)
a trend trrward tougharamidmxrdxanes
in the late 60's and early 70's. 69
Iiopefully, the new menbranes
70
BEASLE!Z
of the 80's will mer
K. C. Qmmbasam's
which he issued in 1976.
call for new and better membranes.
(ref. 5)
Better salt rejection, productivity and durability are the crane the 80's because, with their achievemnt, be reduced.
the real wst
This will permit even broader use of the technology.
better salt rejection could elimina te theneedand desalt very high salinity seawater.
goaL= of
of lU) pm%XX!d
water will
kr
ezranple,
cost of tklopass systests to
Better salt rejection plus better productivity
could permit lower pressure operation and thus reduce energy requiremnts, already are half those of mlti-stage
!l!he growth of R0 will depend on achieving these advance swhich, depend on major
which
flash (MSF) distillation.
research efforts by industry and governsent.
inturn,wil.l
In fact, thiswas
a conclusion of a recent study of RO undertaken by the Fluor corporation. 3zsearch efforts are underway and they will be expanded. DLI Ppnt are comnitted to RO research.
Du Fmt,
(ref. 6)
For inslxnce,weat
noted for its innovatiorbhas
major l33 research programs underway at its manufacturing pIantS and its corporate research facilities at the EU Pbnt Experimzntal Station in Wilmington, Delaware. Other organizations also are making similar comaitnents.
Wearealreadyseeing
soltvz of the results in papers presented at this IDEA Cohference and those published elsewhere. This research will. include a great deal of new work on reverse osmosis membranes, but will also include research on the construction of permators, of water for reverse osmsis,
on the pretreatment
and on the design and construction of all the
components of a complete desalination plant. In this paper, I will briefly examine two areas:
membrane materials and better
energy efficiency in system design. Aramid polymers will continue to replace cellulose acetate polymers in mnbrane manufacture because they resist mechanical change, as well as chemical and biological attack.
As I reported tothisconference
tsmyearsago,duringextensive~~t
research programs in which sore than 100 different polymrs nmbranes
were evaluated,
of cellulose acetate and other cellulose esters shmed
considerable
promise in initial tests but frequently deteriorated during extended testing. Cellulose acetate rmrbranes are subject to biological attack and mst within a narrow pH range to prevent hydrolysis.
(ref. 7)
be used
R. L. Riley also has reported that
the family of aromatic polyamides is "destined to dominate the reverse -is scene because their transport, mechanical, biological and chemical properties are generally superior to cellulose acetate." Rnergy recovery devices will beama streamtoapermzator solution.
must be rejectedwith
This rejectstreamhas
its pressure mltiplied
(ref. 8)
increasingly inportant. allof
apotentially
by its volume.
Partofthe
thedissolvedsalts
still in
recoverableenergyfx@valentto
Recoveryof
thisenergymaynotbevery
important in the desalination of brackish water at high conversions.
feed
Rut in
BEASLEY
71
reverse osmsis of seawater, the reject stream is about two-thirds of the feed StlZalll. I fOreCc%St that devices will be developxl to recover this energy frQn
therejects~eamandtousethisenergytohelpplmp energy recoverydeviceand
the feedstream.
the feedpmpmyactuallybe
The
xmuntedonthe-
punping of the feed stream cunsums less net
shaft, with the net result that
-gYDevelcment efforts by several RO system manufacturers are rapidly leading toconmxcially
feasible energyrecoverydevicescapableofcapturingmchof
thehydraulicpressureenergyavailable
in theconcentratedischarge
Calculations indicate thattheenergyconsumd canbecutinhalf
to17
systemscurrentlyunder demmstratingthis
to20
stream.
by seawater rewseosllosis
kw/l000gallonsofproduct.
tests~rtthisconclusionand
systems
Energy recovery commzrcialplants
concept are under construction.
Stork Werkspoor Water of Pmsterdamhas incorporated energy recovery ina seawater FKD plant it is buildixq on &rto gpdplantwillconsistof
is to be used for driving the pmp
ExPzANs1oxBAsFDcJN
Santa, Madeira,
(ref. 9)
T%e 130,000
The reject water from three of the units
four units.
of the fourth unit by mans
of a water turbine.
c!uFmmm-~
The expansion of water desalting, based on current Ef) technolcgy, will also boost the n&r technolqy
and size of FU3 plants,
will contribute
Becauseof
thenmhlar
New aqlications
based on current
too.
natureof
into plants of any desired size.
reverseosmsis Aspeoplegain
units, theycanbe
ass&lec?
experience in building andoperating
larger and larger plants, still largeroneswi~bepLannedandconstructed. Thistmndhasalreadybegun.
Figure 1 shows the largest m
plants plotted
against their year of construction.
Flpum I
Largest
RO~laf&nstallatlon
1970
1972 1974 1976 1976 1980 1962 Yearof Construction
BRAS=
72
Plant sizes havegrawn
fromsmall
gallonsper
day (GPD) experimentalplants
toa~th60millionC;PD~icipalmrplexscheduledtobeginaperat~this year
in Etiydah,
Saudi Arabia.
(ref. 10)
l%e U.S. Covernnmnt plans to mtruct
a 92 million GPD cc.a@ex in Yuma, Ariz., with start-upscheduled 1980's.
inearly
(ref. ll)
The world's largest industrial KC desalination plant is now under construction and will begin operating facility at mstaganem,
in early 1980.
(ref. 12)
This aultimillion dollar
Algeria, willbecapableofpurifying
llmilliongXUcns
of brackish surface water daily, for useatapaparmilloperatedby firm, Societe Rationale des Industries de la Cellulose the Riyadh comlex,
theAlgerian
(SONIC).
This plant, like
is being built by Degrenont, S.A. of Prance with "Fernmsep"
permeators. In 1979, the world's largest seawater R0 plant was comnissioned by Saudi Arabia. This plant provides 3.2 CGPD of p&able
water to the inhabitants of Jeddah.
In 1960, the first of nine seawater -R0 desalination Machinoinport, started up.
(ref. 13)
units purchased by V/O
a foreign trade organization of the Soviet government, will be (ref. 14)
These plants, which will use IXI Pant's B-10 "Pennasep"
permeators, will provide 3.3 million gallons per day of desalted water.
This water
will be converted to steam and then injected into oil wells to reduce crude oil viscosity and thus increase oil production rates.
The amplex
of desalination
units, built by Water Services of America, Milwaukee, Wis., will be located near the Caspian Sea in the U.S.S.R. Several desalting firms have completed designs for large, 10 million GPD ship/ barge rrounted RO desalination plants.
The self
contained,
relccatableplants,
with construction Periods of less than two years ,areexpectedtomakelargeinroads into the seawater. market previously dominated by nn.rlti-stageflash (MSF) distillation. In addition to the water desalting application represented by these plants, reverse osmosis merrhranes will be used for other applications.
They can, for exanple,
be used to separate water and dissolved organic compounds and to separate organics from organics.
Hcwever, the treaunent of waste water streams will receive more
attention. In a recent waste water application , aTexas England is using "Permasep" permeators, -ether
Instruments, Ltd.,
pl.antinBedford,
with associated filtration, chemical
testing and cleaning eguipnent, to recover up to 70 Percent of the 20,000 gallons per hour of fonzrly
discharged waste water.
(ref. 15)
The plant
was supplied and
installed by Permutit & Roby, a mznber of the Portals Water Treatment Croup.
73
BEASLEY
CXXCXUSION Newapplicaticmsofexisting
RQtechnology suchas thewastewater
plantin
Bedford, ?zilgland.The expansion of water desalination generally and RU innovation will be the prime engines of FO growth in the 1980's. That growth is expected to be between 20 aud 30 percent with seawater RO dfmand growing at an even faster rate. Achievenest of this growth will depend, in large part, on the develoL.mantof new mnbranes with better salt rejection, productivity and durability. The widespread adoption of man+xane materials similar to aramid polymers could lead tothesebreakthroughs. FuTthenmre, advances in RO design, suchasenergyrecoverysystems,should bringbothcapitalandoperatingcmstsof FinaYy,
thet&logydowneven
further.
these advances will be the result of research ccmnitmnts by industry
and governments. Research will mke
the FG~technology of the 80's even mre
ecouomicalthan the ROtechnolcqyof
the 70's. Du Font already has a major research
prqram
underway, both at our manufacturing plants and at our coqxxate research
facilities at the Du Font E%perirrentalStation in Wilmington, Delaware,
Desalting Plants Inventory Report No. 6, Office of Water Research and Technology, U.S. Department of the Interior, *tober 1977. R.A. Kellar, Seawater RO Desalting Mxing Into Big League, World Water, 2(1979) 44-45, Liverpool, England. J.D. Birkett, Wxldwide atlook for Desalination Industry Through 1985, A.D. Little l%pact Services, Inc., Canbridge, M& USA, October 13, 1978. C-E. Reid and E.J. Breton, J. Applied FoIy Sci l(1959) 133. S. Loeb and S. Sourirajan, Pdvan. Chem. Sci. 38(1963) ll7K-C. channaba%ppa, Need for New and Better Menbranes, Desalination, 18(1976) 15-42. Desalting Plans and Progress, an Evaluation of the State of the Art and l%ture Research and Develmt Requiremmts, Fluor mgineers and Constructors, Inc., IKVine, California, prepared for Office of Water Research and Techmlogy, U.S. Department of the Interior, (MRT Contract 14-34-1001-7707,Jarmarx 1978. J.K. Beasley, The Evaluation and Selection of pblymeric IG&erials for Reverse Osmsis Nambranes, Desalination, 22(1977) 181-189, R.L. Riley, et. al., Spiral-M Poly (Ether/Amide)'Iih-Film Coqmsite Membrane System, Hznbrane Separation Technology Conference, Clemson University, __ Clemson, South Carolina, August 2-6, 1976. 9 R. Seaton, et. al., The mrld's First Large Seawater Reverse Osmxiis Desalination Plant at Jeddah, Kingdcm of Saudi Arabia, Prcceedings Sixth International symp>sium, Fresh Water from the Sea, 1978. 10 J.J. Allard, et. al., Pbtable Water Supply of Riyadh (The Saudi Arabia Kingdm'sCapitalCity) by ReverseOsnvsisDesalting Plants. Proceedingsof the First D%alination Congress of the American Continent, Mexico City, October 24-29, i976, Desalination, ZO(1976) 227-238, B. EXics.son,Riyadh's Record Plant Takes Shape,~rldWater, 2 (1979) 4&43, Liverpool, -land. llDesaltingTrendSetat9!5-nqdPlant, EhgineeringNewsRecord,hkxember 3, 1977, P. lx. I.2Desalination in Algeria, Middle East Week, London, June 29, 1978.
74
BZASLEP
I_3 R-E, Seaton, Largest Seawater EU3 Plant Uses NS Menkane Material, World Water, 2 (1979)38-39. 14 Reverse Omvsis to be used for Soviet Oil Recovery Project, NiSIA Newsletter, 6(1979) 4. I5 Reverse Osmxis Saves Water, ConsultingEngineer,kxdon, April 1979.