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IMO Malacca Straits Demonstration Project: Sources of Pollution
PII:
Marine Pollution Bulletin Vol. 39, Nos. 1±12, pp. 229±233, 1999 Ó 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain S0025-326X(98)00206-9 0025-326X/99 $ - see front matter
The GEF/UNDP/IMO Malacca Straits Demonstration Project: Sources of Pollution ABDUL RANI ABDULLAH *, NORHAYATI MOHD. TAHIR , TONG SOO LOONG , TAFAZZAL MOHD. HOQUE and ABDUL HALIM SULAIMANà Department of Chemistry, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia àDepartment of Chemistry, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
The Straits of Malacca is subjected to a great variety of environmental stresses due to its strategic location as a major international shipping lane and the concentration of agriculture, industry and urbanisation which predominate on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. This paper gives an overview of the study conducted in the Malacca Straits as part of the GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme on the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas, in particular pertaining to the identi®cation of land and sea-based sources of pollution in Malaysia which contributes to the pollution load in the Straits, as well as the assessment of the relative contribution of each source. Ó 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. The Straits of Malacca is subjected to a great variety of pollutants due to its strategic location as a major international shipping lane and the concentration of agriculture, industry and urbanisation which predominate on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Hence the Straits is a principle repository for agricultural, industrial and domestic wastes originating from land-based activities, while shipping activities in the form of operational discharges, as well as accidental discharges all contribute to the pollution load in the Straits. At the same time the majority of coastal resources in Malaysia are also located in the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia and are therefore particularly exposed to the pollutants. It is the objective of this paper to describe the spatial database and information system pertaining to pollution sources in Malaysia which contributes to the pollution load in the Straits of Malacca as part of the Malacca Straits Demonstration Project under the GEF/UNDP/ IMO Regional Programme on the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas.
*Corresponding author.
State of the Environment In order to ascertain the quality of the environment, the Department of Environment (DOE) in Malaysia undertakes regular monitoring of water and air quality. The DOE water quality monitoring programme for rivers in 1996 involves 909 sampling stations on 116 rivers (DOE, 1997). Thirteen rivers were classi®ed as polluted of which eight are located on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The major contributors to river pollution were identi®ed as suspended solids (TSS) due to soil erosion and organic pollutants from sewage and animal wastes. The DOE marine water quality monitoring programme in 1996 involved 202 monitoring stations of which more than 60% were located in the west coast (DOE, 1997). As in previous years, the major pollutants were oil and grease, TSS and E. coli (Fig. 1). The location of the sampling stations for the marine water quality monitoring programme for coastal waters along the Straits are included in the GIS, together with the water quality database. Furthermore, the pollution loads for speci®c parameters in selected west coast rivers, calculated based on measured concentrations and river discharge rates were also digitised. In addition to the inclusion of the DOE database, the GIS also included the results of various surveys in both the freshwater and marine environment of the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia conducted by concerned groups in recent years involving a variety of parameters including petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticide residues, phthalate esters and heavy metals.
Land-based Sources of Pollution It has been estimated that on a global scale, up to 70% of pollution in the seas originate from land-based sources (UNEP, 1990). Signi®cant land-based sources of pollution in Malaysia include agricultural and industrial activities as well as urbanisation. 229
Marine Pollution Bulletin
Fig. 1 Status of marine environmental quality, 1996 (DOE, 1997).
Malaysia is currently one of the worldÕs primary exporters of natural rubber and the primary exporter of palm oil, which together with cocoa, paper, pineapple and tobacco comprise the main crops responsible for the growth of the agricultural sector. The major agricultural areas are located along the western coastline of Peninsular Malaysia and are included in the GIS on the basis of crop-types. Agricultural activities have resulted in a wide range of environmental eects. Land development aimed at pursuing agricultural activities exposes the land to both wind and water erosion, resulting in loss of the top soil. Soil erosion in the tropics is generally quite severe due to the relatively high level of erosion associated with rainstorms in these regions. The eroded soils end up as sediments in rivers and contribute to the TSS in coastal waters of the Straits. In addition to the impact of agricultural activities on the environment, the processing of agricultural raw materials, particularly those related to the palm oil and natural rubber industry have also been identi®ed as major sources of organic pollution in rivers in Malaysia. The location of the major palm oil mills, palm oil re®neries and palm kernel crushers and the major raw rubber processing factories in the west coast states are included in the GIS together with an appropriate database to indicate the output capacity of each factory, as well as the estimated amounts of wastes generated in selected river basins attributed to this source. Pesticide residues have also been identi®ed as signi®cant pollutants in the Malaysian waterways including the waters of the Straits. To indicate this possible source of pollution, the hectarage of major crops (oil palm, rubber, cocoa and paddy) in the west coast states and the application rates of major pesticides are included in the GIS database. With regard to the livestock industry, signi®cant amounts of wastes are generated from the swine indus230
try which contributes particularly to Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and ammoniacal nitrogen loadings. The locations of the major pig farming areas are included in the GIS to indicate contributing sources of BOD and ammoniacal-nitrogen. The corresponding database shows the standing pig population on a per state basis, as well as BOD loading arising from pig farms on a per state basis. Concomitent with the rapid pace of industrialisation, increasing amounts of toxic and hazardous wastes are generated by a wide range of industrial activities. In a recent survey involving the distribution of industrial sources of water pollution, a total of 3967 industries were identi®ed as signi®cant water pollution sources (DOE, 1997). Of this number, the food and beverage industry were identi®ed as the major source of water pollution (8.9%) (DOE, 1997). It is worth noting that the majority of these sources are located in west coast states. The location of the major industrial areas in Peninsular Malaysia are included in the GIS with the appropriate database showing the number of various types of industries within each industrial estate in the west coast states. An estimate of the industrial wastes discharged from the various industries in the west coast states is also included in the GIS database using the Rapid Assessment Procedure (RAP) method (UN, 1992). The RAP employment coecients used for the selected industries are given in Table 1. In terms of BOD pollution load, the largest contributor of organic pollution for several years has been sewage from partially and untreated sewage from the human population (Table 2) (DOE, 1997). Domestic sewage has become the major pollutant in the waterways and is expected to remain so in view of the rapid development in the urban areas. In 1996, sewage contributed a massive 64.4% of the total organic pollution load in the waterways (DOE, 1997).
Basic metal Fabricated metal products Machinery and transport products
Non-metal products
Paper and paper products Chemicals and chemical products
Wood and wood products
Food and beverage Textile and textile products
Category of industry
TABLE 1
Food manufacturing; Beverage industries Manufacture of textiles; Manufacture of wearing apparel (except footwear) Manufacture of wood and cork products; Manufacture of furniture and ®xtures Manufacture of paper and paper products Manufacture of industrial chemicals; Manufacture of other chemical product; Petroleum re®neries; Miscellaneous products of petroleum and coal Manufacture of plastic products; Manufacture of pottery, china and earthenware; Manufacture of glass and glass products; Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products Iron and steel basic industries; Non ferrous metal basic industries Manufacture of fabricated metal products Manufacture of machinery; Manufacture of electrical machinery; Manufacture of transport equipment
Industries included
0.1 40.0 10.0
0.2
0.3 0.3
0.3
0.2 0.2
Metals
60.2 30.0 59.9
10.0
10.0 80.2
10.0
10.0 38.2
Oil and grease
401.7 50.0 99.9
5.1
1.0 50.2
0.1
0.3 1.0
Acids
100.4 50.0 10.0
50.2
6.0 200.6
3.0
100.0 1.4
Alkalis
Employment coecient
Employment coecients used for the assessment of selected wastes in the manufacturing industries (UN, 1992).
40.2 8.0 6.0
80.3
10.0 40.1
4.0
2.0 3.4
Inorganic wastes
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0
0.2 2.0
0.1
0.2 0.1
Organic wastes
Volume 39/Numbers 1±12/January±December 1999
231
Marine Pollution Bulletin TABLE 2 Estimated load (BOD in MT/day) discharged by sector, 1991±1996 (DOE, 1997). Year
Ago-based
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Total Percent
Manufacturing
10 20 20 20 10 10 90 1.88
20 20 80 40 10 10 180 3.76
The location of the major urban areas served by various sewage treatment facilities are included in the GIS. The related database indicates the type of facilities, population served and the resulting water quality in terms of BOD and suspended solids.
Sea-based Sources Sea-based sources of pollution at the Straits of Malacca arise mainly from operation and accidental discharges of oily pollutants from shipping vessels plying the Straits. Owing to its strategic location, the Straits of Malacca is recognised as one of the busiest waterways in the world. However, because of its shallow seaway and narrow thoroughfare coupled with the heavy trac, the Straits of Malacca is also said to be one of the treacherous ocean routes in the region. Based on observation made from the one-fathom bank along the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an average of 32,331 shipping vessels used the Straits yearly (Table 3) (Marine Department, 1997) of which 34% were oil tankers. Perhaps a more comprehensive estimate is given by Naidu (1997) who reported that about 84,000 vessels used the Straits in 1991, up from 44,000 in 1982. The author estimated an average annual growth of vessel trac in the region of 7.6%. On a daily basis, 231 vessels used the Straits in 1991, up from a daily trac
Pig rearing
Domestic waste
Total
55 200 220 220 160 310 1165 24.32
390 485 700 580 620 580 3355 70.04
475 725 1020 860 800 910 4790 100
volume of 119 in 1982. Using the average annual growth of vessel trac in the region as suggested by Naidu (1997), it is estimated that the vessel trac in 1997 would have increased to 131,005 vessels which amounts to about 358 vessels per day. The threat of oil spills as a result of accidents have been realised over the years as can be seen in Fig. 2. Operational discharges also contribute to the pollution load. The single largest source of oil spill from transportation activities has been identi®ed to be from tanker operations usually associated with the cleaning of cargo residues when the ship is ballasting or cleaning of the tanks for the return voyage from the port of discharge (Law, 1994). The origin of the oil is usually associated with fuel oil sludge and machinery-space bilges. Illegal desludging activities have been frequently observed in the Straits due in part to the lack of the proper reception facilities and cost of deslopping. Other contributing sources of pollution in the Straits include sand dredging operations such as those occurring in the vicinity of Pangkor Island. Sediment/silt loading also arises from the dredging operations in Port Klang, and to a lesser extent ports Penang and Pasir Gudang. However, information regarding the contribution of sediment loading from this particular source is not available. In addition to the contribution to sediment loading in marine waters, port activities also result in the con-
TABLE 3 Number of vessels in the Straits of Malacca, passing at the one-fathom bank (observed from lighthouse) (Marine Department, 1997). Year
Tanker Container
Tug
Fishing
Ro-Ro
Navy
Passenger
Malaysian Indonesian 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997a a
10,769 13,621 12,222 11,298 10,719 11,307 11,177 11,069 8915 9815 5189
2478 3508 4753 4506 4658 5397 5582 5744 5149 5787 3011
Data for 1997 is until June.
232
1190 1489 1311 1316 1457 1386 1405 1579 1765 1920 919
1507 2358 1907 1773 1262 1477 1544 1622 1743 1606 689
512 614 805 738 852 1104 1284 1130 1218 1226 577
249 251 209 243 212 314 257 440 649 554 253
51 82 93 73 50 57 51 33 30 19 6
71 53 17 21 76 69 65 143 131 96 30
Other
Total
239 179 201 319 338 247 272 310 265 212 118
361 314 311 413 464 373 388 486 426 327 154
General Cargo
Others
Total
13248 12,551 11,210 11,502 10,658 11,554 12,298 12,320 10,386 10,437 5831
63
30,377 34,706 32,728 31,831 30,351 32,949 33,998 34,446 30,251 31,672 16,624a
42 69 37 63 56 1
Volume 39/Numbers 1±12/January±December 1999
Fig. 2 Oil spill incidents in the Straits of Malacca (Marine Department, 1997).
tamination of the Straits in the form of tributyltin (TBT) and to a lesser extend lead, arsenic and copper arising from the use of anti-fouling paints used on ships which frequent the ports. A recent survey showed the presence of TBT in the waters of Port Klang ranging from 20.5 to 61.3 ng/l (Tong et al., 1996).
Conclusion It is evident that the waters of the Straits are exposed to a great variety of pollution sources from land-based activities in the west coast states of Peninsular Malaysia in addition to the fact that it is a major international shipping lane. Clearly the present status of the GIS with respect to pollution sources requires a lot more information particularly with respect to quantitative data relating pollutant loading to sources, both land based as well as sea based.
The authors wish to express their gratitude to the Department of Environment, the Marine Department as well as the various port authorities for their cooperation during the course of this study. DOE (1997) Environmental Quality Report, 1996. Department of Environment, Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment, Kuala Lumpur. Law, A. T. (1994) Oil pollution in the Malaysian seas. Fishmail 6, 5±23. Marine Department (1997) Total number of vessels passing the Straits of Malacca 1987±1997 (observations made from one fathom bank lighthouse). Marine Department, Kuala Lumpur. Naidu, G. (1997) The Straits of Malacca in the Malaysian Economy. In: The Straits of Malacca: International Cooperation in Trade, Funding and Navigational Safety ed Ahmad, pp. 33±60 Pelanduk Publications (M) Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur. Tong, S. L., Pang, F. Y., Phang, S. M. and Lai, H. C. (1996) Tributyltin distribution in the coastal environment of Peninsular Malaysia. Environmental Pollution 91, 209±216. UN (1992) Rapid Assessment of Industrial Hazardous Wastes Quantities, United Nations Publication. UNEP (1990) GESCAMP: State of the environment. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies, No. 115, UNEP, Nairobi.
233
Marine Pollution Bulletin Vol. 39, Nos. 1±12, pp. 229±233, 1999 Ó 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain S0025-326X(98)00206-9 0025-326X/99 $ - see front matter
The GEF/UNDP/IMO Malacca Straits Demonstration Project: Sources of Pollution ABDUL RANI ABDULLAH *, NORHAYATI MOHD. TAHIR , TONG SOO LOONG , TAFAZZAL MOHD. HOQUE and ABDUL HALIM SULAIMANà Department of Chemistry, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia àDepartment of Chemistry, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
The Straits of Malacca is subjected to a great variety of environmental stresses due to its strategic location as a major international shipping lane and the concentration of agriculture, industry and urbanisation which predominate on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. This paper gives an overview of the study conducted in the Malacca Straits as part of the GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme on the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas, in particular pertaining to the identi®cation of land and sea-based sources of pollution in Malaysia which contributes to the pollution load in the Straits, as well as the assessment of the relative contribution of each source. Ó 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. The Straits of Malacca is subjected to a great variety of pollutants due to its strategic location as a major international shipping lane and the concentration of agriculture, industry and urbanisation which predominate on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Hence the Straits is a principle repository for agricultural, industrial and domestic wastes originating from land-based activities, while shipping activities in the form of operational discharges, as well as accidental discharges all contribute to the pollution load in the Straits. At the same time the majority of coastal resources in Malaysia are also located in the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia and are therefore particularly exposed to the pollutants. It is the objective of this paper to describe the spatial database and information system pertaining to pollution sources in Malaysia which contributes to the pollution load in the Straits of Malacca as part of the Malacca Straits Demonstration Project under the GEF/UNDP/ IMO Regional Programme on the Prevention and Management of Marine Pollution in the East Asian Seas.
*Corresponding author.
State of the Environment In order to ascertain the quality of the environment, the Department of Environment (DOE) in Malaysia undertakes regular monitoring of water and air quality. The DOE water quality monitoring programme for rivers in 1996 involves 909 sampling stations on 116 rivers (DOE, 1997). Thirteen rivers were classi®ed as polluted of which eight are located on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The major contributors to river pollution were identi®ed as suspended solids (TSS) due to soil erosion and organic pollutants from sewage and animal wastes. The DOE marine water quality monitoring programme in 1996 involved 202 monitoring stations of which more than 60% were located in the west coast (DOE, 1997). As in previous years, the major pollutants were oil and grease, TSS and E. coli (Fig. 1). The location of the sampling stations for the marine water quality monitoring programme for coastal waters along the Straits are included in the GIS, together with the water quality database. Furthermore, the pollution loads for speci®c parameters in selected west coast rivers, calculated based on measured concentrations and river discharge rates were also digitised. In addition to the inclusion of the DOE database, the GIS also included the results of various surveys in both the freshwater and marine environment of the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia conducted by concerned groups in recent years involving a variety of parameters including petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticide residues, phthalate esters and heavy metals.
Land-based Sources of Pollution It has been estimated that on a global scale, up to 70% of pollution in the seas originate from land-based sources (UNEP, 1990). Signi®cant land-based sources of pollution in Malaysia include agricultural and industrial activities as well as urbanisation. 229
Marine Pollution Bulletin
Fig. 1 Status of marine environmental quality, 1996 (DOE, 1997).
Malaysia is currently one of the worldÕs primary exporters of natural rubber and the primary exporter of palm oil, which together with cocoa, paper, pineapple and tobacco comprise the main crops responsible for the growth of the agricultural sector. The major agricultural areas are located along the western coastline of Peninsular Malaysia and are included in the GIS on the basis of crop-types. Agricultural activities have resulted in a wide range of environmental eects. Land development aimed at pursuing agricultural activities exposes the land to both wind and water erosion, resulting in loss of the top soil. Soil erosion in the tropics is generally quite severe due to the relatively high level of erosion associated with rainstorms in these regions. The eroded soils end up as sediments in rivers and contribute to the TSS in coastal waters of the Straits. In addition to the impact of agricultural activities on the environment, the processing of agricultural raw materials, particularly those related to the palm oil and natural rubber industry have also been identi®ed as major sources of organic pollution in rivers in Malaysia. The location of the major palm oil mills, palm oil re®neries and palm kernel crushers and the major raw rubber processing factories in the west coast states are included in the GIS together with an appropriate database to indicate the output capacity of each factory, as well as the estimated amounts of wastes generated in selected river basins attributed to this source. Pesticide residues have also been identi®ed as signi®cant pollutants in the Malaysian waterways including the waters of the Straits. To indicate this possible source of pollution, the hectarage of major crops (oil palm, rubber, cocoa and paddy) in the west coast states and the application rates of major pesticides are included in the GIS database. With regard to the livestock industry, signi®cant amounts of wastes are generated from the swine indus230
try which contributes particularly to Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and ammoniacal nitrogen loadings. The locations of the major pig farming areas are included in the GIS to indicate contributing sources of BOD and ammoniacal-nitrogen. The corresponding database shows the standing pig population on a per state basis, as well as BOD loading arising from pig farms on a per state basis. Concomitent with the rapid pace of industrialisation, increasing amounts of toxic and hazardous wastes are generated by a wide range of industrial activities. In a recent survey involving the distribution of industrial sources of water pollution, a total of 3967 industries were identi®ed as signi®cant water pollution sources (DOE, 1997). Of this number, the food and beverage industry were identi®ed as the major source of water pollution (8.9%) (DOE, 1997). It is worth noting that the majority of these sources are located in west coast states. The location of the major industrial areas in Peninsular Malaysia are included in the GIS with the appropriate database showing the number of various types of industries within each industrial estate in the west coast states. An estimate of the industrial wastes discharged from the various industries in the west coast states is also included in the GIS database using the Rapid Assessment Procedure (RAP) method (UN, 1992). The RAP employment coecients used for the selected industries are given in Table 1. In terms of BOD pollution load, the largest contributor of organic pollution for several years has been sewage from partially and untreated sewage from the human population (Table 2) (DOE, 1997). Domestic sewage has become the major pollutant in the waterways and is expected to remain so in view of the rapid development in the urban areas. In 1996, sewage contributed a massive 64.4% of the total organic pollution load in the waterways (DOE, 1997).
Basic metal Fabricated metal products Machinery and transport products
Non-metal products
Paper and paper products Chemicals and chemical products
Wood and wood products
Food and beverage Textile and textile products
Category of industry
TABLE 1
Food manufacturing; Beverage industries Manufacture of textiles; Manufacture of wearing apparel (except footwear) Manufacture of wood and cork products; Manufacture of furniture and ®xtures Manufacture of paper and paper products Manufacture of industrial chemicals; Manufacture of other chemical product; Petroleum re®neries; Miscellaneous products of petroleum and coal Manufacture of plastic products; Manufacture of pottery, china and earthenware; Manufacture of glass and glass products; Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products Iron and steel basic industries; Non ferrous metal basic industries Manufacture of fabricated metal products Manufacture of machinery; Manufacture of electrical machinery; Manufacture of transport equipment
Industries included
0.1 40.0 10.0
0.2
0.3 0.3
0.3
0.2 0.2
Metals
60.2 30.0 59.9
10.0
10.0 80.2
10.0
10.0 38.2
Oil and grease
401.7 50.0 99.9
5.1
1.0 50.2
0.1
0.3 1.0
Acids
100.4 50.0 10.0
50.2
6.0 200.6
3.0
100.0 1.4
Alkalis
Employment coecient
Employment coecients used for the assessment of selected wastes in the manufacturing industries (UN, 1992).
40.2 8.0 6.0
80.3
10.0 40.1
4.0
2.0 3.4
Inorganic wastes
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0
0.2 2.0
0.1
0.2 0.1
Organic wastes
Volume 39/Numbers 1±12/January±December 1999
231
Marine Pollution Bulletin TABLE 2 Estimated load (BOD in MT/day) discharged by sector, 1991±1996 (DOE, 1997). Year
Ago-based
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Total Percent
Manufacturing
10 20 20 20 10 10 90 1.88
20 20 80 40 10 10 180 3.76
The location of the major urban areas served by various sewage treatment facilities are included in the GIS. The related database indicates the type of facilities, population served and the resulting water quality in terms of BOD and suspended solids.
Sea-based Sources Sea-based sources of pollution at the Straits of Malacca arise mainly from operation and accidental discharges of oily pollutants from shipping vessels plying the Straits. Owing to its strategic location, the Straits of Malacca is recognised as one of the busiest waterways in the world. However, because of its shallow seaway and narrow thoroughfare coupled with the heavy trac, the Straits of Malacca is also said to be one of the treacherous ocean routes in the region. Based on observation made from the one-fathom bank along the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, an average of 32,331 shipping vessels used the Straits yearly (Table 3) (Marine Department, 1997) of which 34% were oil tankers. Perhaps a more comprehensive estimate is given by Naidu (1997) who reported that about 84,000 vessels used the Straits in 1991, up from 44,000 in 1982. The author estimated an average annual growth of vessel trac in the region of 7.6%. On a daily basis, 231 vessels used the Straits in 1991, up from a daily trac
Pig rearing
Domestic waste
Total
55 200 220 220 160 310 1165 24.32
390 485 700 580 620 580 3355 70.04
475 725 1020 860 800 910 4790 100
volume of 119 in 1982. Using the average annual growth of vessel trac in the region as suggested by Naidu (1997), it is estimated that the vessel trac in 1997 would have increased to 131,005 vessels which amounts to about 358 vessels per day. The threat of oil spills as a result of accidents have been realised over the years as can be seen in Fig. 2. Operational discharges also contribute to the pollution load. The single largest source of oil spill from transportation activities has been identi®ed to be from tanker operations usually associated with the cleaning of cargo residues when the ship is ballasting or cleaning of the tanks for the return voyage from the port of discharge (Law, 1994). The origin of the oil is usually associated with fuel oil sludge and machinery-space bilges. Illegal desludging activities have been frequently observed in the Straits due in part to the lack of the proper reception facilities and cost of deslopping. Other contributing sources of pollution in the Straits include sand dredging operations such as those occurring in the vicinity of Pangkor Island. Sediment/silt loading also arises from the dredging operations in Port Klang, and to a lesser extent ports Penang and Pasir Gudang. However, information regarding the contribution of sediment loading from this particular source is not available. In addition to the contribution to sediment loading in marine waters, port activities also result in the con-
TABLE 3 Number of vessels in the Straits of Malacca, passing at the one-fathom bank (observed from lighthouse) (Marine Department, 1997). Year
Tanker Container
Tug
Fishing
Ro-Ro
Navy
Passenger
Malaysian Indonesian 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997a a
10,769 13,621 12,222 11,298 10,719 11,307 11,177 11,069 8915 9815 5189
2478 3508 4753 4506 4658 5397 5582 5744 5149 5787 3011
Data for 1997 is until June.
232
1190 1489 1311 1316 1457 1386 1405 1579 1765 1920 919
1507 2358 1907 1773 1262 1477 1544 1622 1743 1606 689
512 614 805 738 852 1104 1284 1130 1218 1226 577
249 251 209 243 212 314 257 440 649 554 253
51 82 93 73 50 57 51 33 30 19 6
71 53 17 21 76 69 65 143 131 96 30
Other
Total
239 179 201 319 338 247 272 310 265 212 118
361 314 311 413 464 373 388 486 426 327 154
General Cargo
Others
Total
13248 12,551 11,210 11,502 10,658 11,554 12,298 12,320 10,386 10,437 5831
63
30,377 34,706 32,728 31,831 30,351 32,949 33,998 34,446 30,251 31,672 16,624a
42 69 37 63 56 1
Volume 39/Numbers 1±12/January±December 1999
Fig. 2 Oil spill incidents in the Straits of Malacca (Marine Department, 1997).
tamination of the Straits in the form of tributyltin (TBT) and to a lesser extend lead, arsenic and copper arising from the use of anti-fouling paints used on ships which frequent the ports. A recent survey showed the presence of TBT in the waters of Port Klang ranging from 20.5 to 61.3 ng/l (Tong et al., 1996).
Conclusion It is evident that the waters of the Straits are exposed to a great variety of pollution sources from land-based activities in the west coast states of Peninsular Malaysia in addition to the fact that it is a major international shipping lane. Clearly the present status of the GIS with respect to pollution sources requires a lot more information particularly with respect to quantitative data relating pollutant loading to sources, both land based as well as sea based.
The authors wish to express their gratitude to the Department of Environment, the Marine Department as well as the various port authorities for their cooperation during the course of this study. DOE (1997) Environmental Quality Report, 1996. Department of Environment, Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment, Kuala Lumpur. Law, A. T. (1994) Oil pollution in the Malaysian seas. Fishmail 6, 5±23. Marine Department (1997) Total number of vessels passing the Straits of Malacca 1987±1997 (observations made from one fathom bank lighthouse). Marine Department, Kuala Lumpur. Naidu, G. (1997) The Straits of Malacca in the Malaysian Economy. In: The Straits of Malacca: International Cooperation in Trade, Funding and Navigational Safety ed Ahmad, pp. 33±60 Pelanduk Publications (M) Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur. Tong, S. L., Pang, F. Y., Phang, S. M. and Lai, H. C. (1996) Tributyltin distribution in the coastal environment of Peninsular Malaysia. Environmental Pollution 91, 209±216. UN (1992) Rapid Assessment of Industrial Hazardous Wastes Quantities, United Nations Publication. UNEP (1990) GESCAMP: State of the environment. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies, No. 115, UNEP, Nairobi.
233