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The geological survey of Sweden
Department of Geology (Geologiska Institutionen), Chalmers Tekniska H6gskola, Gibraltargatan 5 A, GOteborg S This institute s e r v e s both C h a l m e r ' s Technical Institute and the University of Gothenburg, and the r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m m e is not r e s t r i c t e d to applied geology, though t h e s e a s p e c t s dominate. Activities c o m p r i s e regional sedimentology, Q u a t e r n a r y geology, and petrology ( p a r t i c u l a r l y w e s t e r n Sweden), bydrogeology (ground w a t e r migration, etc.), t e s t s of gravel d e p o s i t s and m a t e r i a l s , and the m i n e r a l o g y and geotechnical p r o p e r t i e s of clays. Senior staff: L a r s B e r g s t r S m (petrology), Gunnar Beskow (frost action), K. GSsta E r i k s s o n ( m a r i n e s e d i m e n t s ) , Gert Knutsson (isotope hydrogeology), Lennart Samuelsson (petrology).
OTHER INSTITUTES
Soil s c i e n c e , also c o m p r i s i n g g e o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s , is dealt with at t h e S t a t e Institute of F o r e s t r y (Institutionen f~SrSkoglig Markl~ira, Skoghbgskolan, Stockholm 50; D i r e c t o r : P r o f e s s o r Tryggve T r o e d s s o n ) , and at the State Institute of A g r i c u l t u r e (Institutionen fSr Marklfira, Lantbrukshbgskolan) at Ultuna, Uppsala, w h e r e the geological education is a s s o c i a t e d with the s p e c i a l p r o f e s s o r s h i p of s e d i m e n t a r y petrology at the university. The Technical Institute, Lund (Geologiska Institutionen, Tekniska HSgskolan i Lund) has r e c e n t l y s t a r t e d its activities and will c a r r y on r e s e a r c h in applied geology. A. MARTINSSON
The Geological Survey of Sweden HISTORY
The survey itself is m o r e than 100 y e a r s old. It is d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e to the M i n i s t r y of C o m m e r c e . . A c c o r d i n g to its statutes, the s u r v e y ' s task is to gather information on the geology of the country, to c a r r y out the n e c e s s a r y scientific investigations and pay special attention to economic a s p e c t s of r o c k s and soils, to p r o s p e c t and examine o r e s and o t h e r d e p o s i t s of e c o nomic i n t e r e s t and to handle ground w a t e r p r o b l e m s . Both scientific and p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t s a r e studied, and attention is constantly paid to industrial and other needs. NATURE The survey is divided into six d e p a r t m e n t s (see Table I). Short d e s c r i p t i o n s of the a c t i v i t i e s of t h e s e d e p a r t m e n t s a r e given below.
Department of Research and Applied Geology This d e p a r t m e n t is c o m p r i s e d of Q u a t e r n a r y geology, hydrogeology, geology of r o c k s and n o n - m e t a l l i c m i n e r a l r e s o u r c e s , palaeontology, s t r a t i g r a p h y , and soil geology. In each of t h e s e s p h e r e s r e s e a r c h is c a r r i e d out and consulting work done for other g o v e r n m e n t agencies, c o m m u n i t i e s and p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s as well as s e r v i c e s t o t h e other d e p a r t m e n t s within the survey. A soil laboratory, a l a b o r a t o r y for p o l l e n - a n d - d i a t o m analysis and a photographic l a b o r a t o r y a r e attached to the d e p a r t m e n t . R e c o r d s for w e l l s and drillings a r e being organized at p r e s e n t as well as a data p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m f o r l i t e r a t u r e r e f e r e n c e s . The m u s e u m and s t o r e s of the survey a r e under the s u p e r v i s i o n of this d e p a r t m e n t .
Mapping Department
AIO0 I
In the southern p a r t of Sweden the Mapping D e p a r t m e n t p r o d u c e s combined maps (on a scale of 1:50,000) which c o m p r i s e the Q u a t e r n a r y d e p o s i t s and outcrops of bedrock. The m a p s a r e accompanied by d e s c r i p t i o n s and bedrock m a p s on a scale of 1:100,000. F o r the c e n t r a l and n o r t h e r n p a r t s of Sweden (not yet included in the m o r e detailed mapping d e s c r i b e d ) , maps of bedrock and Q u a t e r n a r y d e p o s i t s a r e p r e p a r e d on a scale of 1:200,000-1:400,000. T h e s e types of mapping r e p r e s e n t the s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e s of the d e p a r t m e n t . F o r r e g i o n s of special i n t e r e s t ,
>
]
Museum and stores
~
Recordsof wells and drillholes .
Data processing.
Consulting activity T Oil and gas prospecting. Hydro- geology. Non- metallic minerals resources. Rock mechanics.
Hydro- geolo ~gy and oil Science.
Statigraphy and Paleontology including ] Micropaleontolo~y. I Rocks and n o n - m e t a l l i c | minerals. _~
Geological Research
57 employees
Department of r e s e a r c h and applied geology O. BROTZEN
[
Publication office
[ I
I Special petrological and petrographical investigations.
Sir atigr aphie investigations in the P r e c a m b r i a n and the Quaternary.
Ministry of Finance
t Kiruna office
Mal~.triisk office workshops
Geophysical surveying on the ground by electro- m a g n e t i c magnetic methods. Construction of geophy~ical i n s t r u m e n t s .
[
Geophysics
Diamond dritHng Transport. Field accomodations. Workshops.
--l-
Drilling
Geological mapping and reconnaisance for ore. Field exploration of ore bodies. I Geochemical p r o s pecting.
--V
Electronic computing and its application to geophysicalj chemical and geological problems.
Development of methods, instruments and interpretation techniques for ore prospecting and general geological purposes.
Airborne geophysical measurements.
31 employees
92 employees 114 w o r k e r s Geology
I
Geophysical department S. WERNER
Ore investigation department G. KAUTSKY
DIRECTOR GENERAL K.A.LINDBERGSON
Geological Survey of Sweden
Maps and descriptions of bedrock and Quaternary deposits.
25 employees
P.H. LUNDEG~=tDH
Mapping department
S T R U C T U R E O F THE G E O L O G I C A L SURVEY O F SWEDEN
TABLE I
Methods development.
analysis.
X-ray dif- 1 fraction. I Microprobe
Mineral se- I paration. [
Mineral chemical laboratory
Wet e h e m istry. Emission spectroscopy. X - r a y fluorescence.
- -yF
~
~-9employees Analytical
Analytical laboratories A. DANIELSON
Library
]
Documentation.
Staff.
Economy.
Secretary offices.
23 e m p l o y e e s
G. NAESMAN
Administration
e s p e c i a l l y o r e - b e a r i n g r e g i o n s , petrological, s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l and tectonic m a p s on a scale of 1:50,000 a r e issued. The mapping is c a r r i e d o u t by the geological and technical stall of the survey, partly with a s s i s t a n c e in field work by r e c o n n a i s s a n c e p e r s o n n e l f r o m the u n i v e r s i t i e s , etc.
Ore Investigations Department This department is responsible for all prospecting and exploration activities for ore and r e lated research financed by the government. These activities are currently re strictedto northern Sweden. The work is administered from survey headquarters in Stockholm, but local offices have been established in Mal~tr~isk, Kiruna and Klimpfj~ill. The department has three main sections - geology, drilling, and geophysics. The geological section does all the geological mapping and reconnaissance for ore, plus float tracing, field exploration for ore bodies and .evaluation of ore reserves. In this section is included even the geological interpretation of geophysical maps, drill-core logs and chemical analyses of ore samples. A geochemical unit is also active in this section. The drilling section carries out all diamond drilling and deviation measurements of the holes: thirteen machines capable of drilling to depths of 800 m are in constant use. This section is also responsible'for all transportation (32 trucks and cars) and field accomodations. Workshops at Mal~trlisk service the equipment for drilling, and manufacture geophysical instruments. The geophysical section carries out ground surveying employing electromagnetic, induced polarization, magnetic and gravimetric methods. Magnetic measurements are made in drillholes. Interpretations of different geophysical maps are also carried out.
Geophysical Department This d e p a r t m e n t c a r r i e s out a i r b o r n e geophysical m e a s u r e m e n t s and r e s e a r c h work in app r o p r i a t e b r a n c h e s of applied geophysics in ore p r o s p e c t i n g a n d f o r g e n e r a l geological purposes. T h e r e is also a group for e l e c t r o n i c computing and its application to geophysical, chemical and geological p r o b l e m s . A t e n - y e a r p r o g r a m m e f o r a e r o m a g n e t i c mapping in n o r t h e r n Sweden is at p r e s e n t in p r o g r e s s and magnetic m e a s u r e m e n t s have r e c e n t l y been done o v e r p a r t s of the Baltic. The r e s e a r c h work is especially d i r e c t e d at developments of e l e c t r i c a l methods and i n s t r u m e n t s and of i n t e r pretation techniques r e g a r d i n g g r a v i m e t r i c , magnetic and e l e c t r i c a l anomalies.
Analytical Laboratories The main tasks of the analytical laboratories are chemical analyses, mineralogical analyses and development of analytical methods. Most of the analyses of rocks, ores, soils, etc., are performed with direct-reading spectroscopy, often with a chemical pretreatment. For the mineralogical analyses, different separations followed by X-ray and DTA analyses are used. Recently an X-ray microprobe has been installed.
Conodonts M. LINDSTRCtM Department of Geology, University of Lurid, Lund, Sweden Conodonts are the only knownfossil remains of an undetermined group of animals that became extinct by the end of the Mesozoic Era. It is knownthat these animals had a very long geological history and that they thrived particularly in the ()pen seas of the earlier and middle periods of the Paleozoic Era. This volume deals witb the structure and morphologyof eonodonts, their occurrence, geological history, nomenclature and taxonomy, and with the interpretations of their nature. An annotated and illustrated key to conodont genera that are regarded as valid is particularly help ful. The most extensive and up-to-date book in this field, this treatise should prove invaluable to paleontologists and stratigraphers alike. 7 x I0", vi + 196 pages, 5 tables, 64 ill., 1964, Dfl. 32.50
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ELSEVIER
AMSTERDAM
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LONDON
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NEW Y O R K
Administration
The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is r e s p o n s i b l e for budgeting and accounting, organization and p e r s o n n e l . It i s s u e s g e n e r a l i n s t r u c t i o n s and is in c h a r g e of purchasing, distribution, s u p e r v i s i o n of p r e m i s e s , etc. A s e c r e t a r i a t and a c a r p e n t r y shop for r e p a i r s and the building of special equipment is attached to the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The l i b r a r y , which c o m p r i s e s about 2,000 m of s h e l v e s , a stock of publications i s s u e d by the survey, and the a r c h i v e s belong also to this department. ACTMTIES The survey c u r r e n t l y employs 350 p e r s o n s . Of t h e s e , about 70 have an a c a d e m i c training. The p r e s e n t staff of the s u r v e y includes many p e r s o n s who have obtained t h e i r a c a d e m i c qualifications outside Sweden. This variety in background and e x p e r i e n c e has benefited the work of the survey. Our budget in the coming financial y e a r will be $3,500,000. Of this sum, one half of it will be devoted to m i n e r a l exploration. The r e m a i n d e r will finance o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s of the survey. Though our r e s o u r c e s for m i n e r a l exploration a r e good by Swedish s t a n d a r d s (reflecting, thus, a favourable attitude by the g o v e r n m e n t for this aspect of our work), we have not yet, in our opinion, sufficient money for mapping and purely scientific work. However, during the last ten y e a r s our budget has i n c r e a s e d s i x - f o l d and I am convinced that the s u r v e y during the next few y e a r s will be given the n e c e s s a r y r e s o u r c e s to intensify t h e s e lines of scientific work. It s e e m s to me that we have s u c c e e d e d on convincing the authorities that m o d e r n geological m a p s a r e an e s s e n t i a l foundation for economic geology. K.A. LINDBERGSON
Geology and Universities in Finland
Geology is taught at five u n i v e r s i t i e s in Finland. The f i r s t u n i v e r s i t y in the country was founded in 1640. It was situated in Turku (,~bo) but was l a t e r moved to Helsinki when this b e came the capital of the country. L a t e r , however, two new u n i v e r s i t i e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d in the old u n i v e r s i t y town: the Swedish ~bo Akademi in 1918 and the Finnish Turun Yliopisto in 1922. Both t h e s e u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e private but r e c e i v e p a r t i a l support f r o m the state: The Institute of Technology, Technical University of Finland, was founded in 1908. The fifth u n i v e r s i t y in F i n land is located in Oulu and was founded in 1958. In addition, t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l c o m m e r c i a l u n i v e r s i t i e s in which geology is taught only in the f o r m of e l e m e n t a r y c o u r s e s in connection with c h e m i s t r y . THE UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI D e p a r t m e n t of Geology and Mineralogy, Snellmaninkatu 5, Helsinki 17. Head of the d e p a r t m e n t : Prof. Dr. Maunu H~rme. D e p a r t m e n t of Geology and Palaeontology, Snellmaninkatu 5, Helsinki 17. Head of the d e p a r t ment: Prof. Dr. Joakim Donner. The d e p a r t m e n t of geology was founded in 1852 but the chair in g e o l o g y w a s filled for the f i r s t time in 1877. This chair has been occupied by F.J. Wiik, Wilhelm R a m s a y and Pentti Eskola. Since 1928, t h e r e have been two p r o f e s s o r s in geology; one f o r geology and mineralogy and one f o r geology and palaeontology. Both s u b j e c t s have had independent d e p a r t m e n t s since 1958. After Pentti Eskola, the chair of geology and m i n e r a l o g y was held by Martti Saksela until the end of 1966. The c h a i r of geology and palaeontology has been occupied, f i r s t , by M. Sauramo and later, in s u c c e s s i o n , by V. Auer and J. Donner. The d e p a r t m e n t of geology and mineralogy, in addition to its head, includes an a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r ( M . Hfirme), two o r d i n a r y a s s i s t a n t s , two a m a n u e n s e s and on an average, 2-4 t e m p o r a r y a s s i s t a n t s according to the n e e d s confronted in teaching. Different s u b j e c t s a r e l e c t u r e d and d e m o n s t r a t e d by docents who a r e teaching on an hourly wage basis. A r e s e a r c h laboratory with two p e r s o n a l e x t r a o r d i n a r y p r o f e s s o r s for g e o c h e m i s t r y (Th.G.
~'.A103
OTHER INSTITUTES
Soil s c i e n c e , also c o m p r i s i n g g e o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s , is dealt with at t h e S t a t e Institute of F o r e s t r y (Institutionen f~SrSkoglig Markl~ira, Skoghbgskolan, Stockholm 50; D i r e c t o r : P r o f e s s o r Tryggve T r o e d s s o n ) , and at the State Institute of A g r i c u l t u r e (Institutionen fSr Marklfira, Lantbrukshbgskolan) at Ultuna, Uppsala, w h e r e the geological education is a s s o c i a t e d with the s p e c i a l p r o f e s s o r s h i p of s e d i m e n t a r y petrology at the university. The Technical Institute, Lund (Geologiska Institutionen, Tekniska HSgskolan i Lund) has r e c e n t l y s t a r t e d its activities and will c a r r y on r e s e a r c h in applied geology. A. MARTINSSON
The Geological Survey of Sweden HISTORY
The survey itself is m o r e than 100 y e a r s old. It is d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b l e to the M i n i s t r y of C o m m e r c e . . A c c o r d i n g to its statutes, the s u r v e y ' s task is to gather information on the geology of the country, to c a r r y out the n e c e s s a r y scientific investigations and pay special attention to economic a s p e c t s of r o c k s and soils, to p r o s p e c t and examine o r e s and o t h e r d e p o s i t s of e c o nomic i n t e r e s t and to handle ground w a t e r p r o b l e m s . Both scientific and p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t s a r e studied, and attention is constantly paid to industrial and other needs. NATURE The survey is divided into six d e p a r t m e n t s (see Table I). Short d e s c r i p t i o n s of the a c t i v i t i e s of t h e s e d e p a r t m e n t s a r e given below.
Department of Research and Applied Geology This d e p a r t m e n t is c o m p r i s e d of Q u a t e r n a r y geology, hydrogeology, geology of r o c k s and n o n - m e t a l l i c m i n e r a l r e s o u r c e s , palaeontology, s t r a t i g r a p h y , and soil geology. In each of t h e s e s p h e r e s r e s e a r c h is c a r r i e d out and consulting work done for other g o v e r n m e n t agencies, c o m m u n i t i e s and p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s as well as s e r v i c e s t o t h e other d e p a r t m e n t s within the survey. A soil laboratory, a l a b o r a t o r y for p o l l e n - a n d - d i a t o m analysis and a photographic l a b o r a t o r y a r e attached to the d e p a r t m e n t . R e c o r d s for w e l l s and drillings a r e being organized at p r e s e n t as well as a data p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m f o r l i t e r a t u r e r e f e r e n c e s . The m u s e u m and s t o r e s of the survey a r e under the s u p e r v i s i o n of this d e p a r t m e n t .
Mapping Department
AIO0 I
In the southern p a r t of Sweden the Mapping D e p a r t m e n t p r o d u c e s combined maps (on a scale of 1:50,000) which c o m p r i s e the Q u a t e r n a r y d e p o s i t s and outcrops of bedrock. The m a p s a r e accompanied by d e s c r i p t i o n s and bedrock m a p s on a scale of 1:100,000. F o r the c e n t r a l and n o r t h e r n p a r t s of Sweden (not yet included in the m o r e detailed mapping d e s c r i b e d ) , maps of bedrock and Q u a t e r n a r y d e p o s i t s a r e p r e p a r e d on a scale of 1:200,000-1:400,000. T h e s e types of mapping r e p r e s e n t the s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e s of the d e p a r t m e n t . F o r r e g i o n s of special i n t e r e s t ,
>
]
Museum and stores
~
Recordsof wells and drillholes .
Data processing.
Consulting activity T Oil and gas prospecting. Hydro- geology. Non- metallic minerals resources. Rock mechanics.
Hydro- geolo ~gy and oil Science.
Statigraphy and Paleontology including ] Micropaleontolo~y. I Rocks and n o n - m e t a l l i c | minerals. _~
Geological Research
57 employees
Department of r e s e a r c h and applied geology O. BROTZEN
[
Publication office
[ I
I Special petrological and petrographical investigations.
Sir atigr aphie investigations in the P r e c a m b r i a n and the Quaternary.
Ministry of Finance
t Kiruna office
Mal~.triisk office workshops
Geophysical surveying on the ground by electro- m a g n e t i c magnetic methods. Construction of geophy~ical i n s t r u m e n t s .
[
Geophysics
Diamond dritHng Transport. Field accomodations. Workshops.
--l-
Drilling
Geological mapping and reconnaisance for ore. Field exploration of ore bodies. I Geochemical p r o s pecting.
--V
Electronic computing and its application to geophysicalj chemical and geological problems.
Development of methods, instruments and interpretation techniques for ore prospecting and general geological purposes.
Airborne geophysical measurements.
31 employees
92 employees 114 w o r k e r s Geology
I
Geophysical department S. WERNER
Ore investigation department G. KAUTSKY
DIRECTOR GENERAL K.A.LINDBERGSON
Geological Survey of Sweden
Maps and descriptions of bedrock and Quaternary deposits.
25 employees
P.H. LUNDEG~=tDH
Mapping department
S T R U C T U R E O F THE G E O L O G I C A L SURVEY O F SWEDEN
TABLE I
Methods development.
analysis.
X-ray dif- 1 fraction. I Microprobe
Mineral se- I paration. [
Mineral chemical laboratory
Wet e h e m istry. Emission spectroscopy. X - r a y fluorescence.
- -yF
~
~-9employees Analytical
Analytical laboratories A. DANIELSON
Library
]
Documentation.
Staff.
Economy.
Secretary offices.
23 e m p l o y e e s
G. NAESMAN
Administration
e s p e c i a l l y o r e - b e a r i n g r e g i o n s , petrological, s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l and tectonic m a p s on a scale of 1:50,000 a r e issued. The mapping is c a r r i e d o u t by the geological and technical stall of the survey, partly with a s s i s t a n c e in field work by r e c o n n a i s s a n c e p e r s o n n e l f r o m the u n i v e r s i t i e s , etc.
Ore Investigations Department This department is responsible for all prospecting and exploration activities for ore and r e lated research financed by the government. These activities are currently re strictedto northern Sweden. The work is administered from survey headquarters in Stockholm, but local offices have been established in Mal~tr~isk, Kiruna and Klimpfj~ill. The department has three main sections - geology, drilling, and geophysics. The geological section does all the geological mapping and reconnaissance for ore, plus float tracing, field exploration for ore bodies and .evaluation of ore reserves. In this section is included even the geological interpretation of geophysical maps, drill-core logs and chemical analyses of ore samples. A geochemical unit is also active in this section. The drilling section carries out all diamond drilling and deviation measurements of the holes: thirteen machines capable of drilling to depths of 800 m are in constant use. This section is also responsible'for all transportation (32 trucks and cars) and field accomodations. Workshops at Mal~trlisk service the equipment for drilling, and manufacture geophysical instruments. The geophysical section carries out ground surveying employing electromagnetic, induced polarization, magnetic and gravimetric methods. Magnetic measurements are made in drillholes. Interpretations of different geophysical maps are also carried out.
Geophysical Department This d e p a r t m e n t c a r r i e s out a i r b o r n e geophysical m e a s u r e m e n t s and r e s e a r c h work in app r o p r i a t e b r a n c h e s of applied geophysics in ore p r o s p e c t i n g a n d f o r g e n e r a l geological purposes. T h e r e is also a group for e l e c t r o n i c computing and its application to geophysical, chemical and geological p r o b l e m s . A t e n - y e a r p r o g r a m m e f o r a e r o m a g n e t i c mapping in n o r t h e r n Sweden is at p r e s e n t in p r o g r e s s and magnetic m e a s u r e m e n t s have r e c e n t l y been done o v e r p a r t s of the Baltic. The r e s e a r c h work is especially d i r e c t e d at developments of e l e c t r i c a l methods and i n s t r u m e n t s and of i n t e r pretation techniques r e g a r d i n g g r a v i m e t r i c , magnetic and e l e c t r i c a l anomalies.
Analytical Laboratories The main tasks of the analytical laboratories are chemical analyses, mineralogical analyses and development of analytical methods. Most of the analyses of rocks, ores, soils, etc., are performed with direct-reading spectroscopy, often with a chemical pretreatment. For the mineralogical analyses, different separations followed by X-ray and DTA analyses are used. Recently an X-ray microprobe has been installed.
Conodonts M. LINDSTRCtM Department of Geology, University of Lurid, Lund, Sweden Conodonts are the only knownfossil remains of an undetermined group of animals that became extinct by the end of the Mesozoic Era. It is knownthat these animals had a very long geological history and that they thrived particularly in the ()pen seas of the earlier and middle periods of the Paleozoic Era. This volume deals witb the structure and morphologyof eonodonts, their occurrence, geological history, nomenclature and taxonomy, and with the interpretations of their nature. An annotated and illustrated key to conodont genera that are regarded as valid is particularly help ful. The most extensive and up-to-date book in this field, this treatise should prove invaluable to paleontologists and stratigraphers alike. 7 x I0", vi + 196 pages, 5 tables, 64 ill., 1964, Dfl. 32.50
i
I
•,:~. ;;
A102 •
i ! i I ,r
L
ELSEVIER
AMSTERDAM
-
LONDON
-
NEW Y O R K
Administration
The a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is r e s p o n s i b l e for budgeting and accounting, organization and p e r s o n n e l . It i s s u e s g e n e r a l i n s t r u c t i o n s and is in c h a r g e of purchasing, distribution, s u p e r v i s i o n of p r e m i s e s , etc. A s e c r e t a r i a t and a c a r p e n t r y shop for r e p a i r s and the building of special equipment is attached to the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The l i b r a r y , which c o m p r i s e s about 2,000 m of s h e l v e s , a stock of publications i s s u e d by the survey, and the a r c h i v e s belong also to this department. ACTMTIES The survey c u r r e n t l y employs 350 p e r s o n s . Of t h e s e , about 70 have an a c a d e m i c training. The p r e s e n t staff of the s u r v e y includes many p e r s o n s who have obtained t h e i r a c a d e m i c qualifications outside Sweden. This variety in background and e x p e r i e n c e has benefited the work of the survey. Our budget in the coming financial y e a r will be $3,500,000. Of this sum, one half of it will be devoted to m i n e r a l exploration. The r e m a i n d e r will finance o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s of the survey. Though our r e s o u r c e s for m i n e r a l exploration a r e good by Swedish s t a n d a r d s (reflecting, thus, a favourable attitude by the g o v e r n m e n t for this aspect of our work), we have not yet, in our opinion, sufficient money for mapping and purely scientific work. However, during the last ten y e a r s our budget has i n c r e a s e d s i x - f o l d and I am convinced that the s u r v e y during the next few y e a r s will be given the n e c e s s a r y r e s o u r c e s to intensify t h e s e lines of scientific work. It s e e m s to me that we have s u c c e e d e d on convincing the authorities that m o d e r n geological m a p s a r e an e s s e n t i a l foundation for economic geology. K.A. LINDBERGSON
Geology and Universities in Finland
Geology is taught at five u n i v e r s i t i e s in Finland. The f i r s t u n i v e r s i t y in the country was founded in 1640. It was situated in Turku (,~bo) but was l a t e r moved to Helsinki when this b e came the capital of the country. L a t e r , however, two new u n i v e r s i t i e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d in the old u n i v e r s i t y town: the Swedish ~bo Akademi in 1918 and the Finnish Turun Yliopisto in 1922. Both t h e s e u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e private but r e c e i v e p a r t i a l support f r o m the state: The Institute of Technology, Technical University of Finland, was founded in 1908. The fifth u n i v e r s i t y in F i n land is located in Oulu and was founded in 1958. In addition, t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l c o m m e r c i a l u n i v e r s i t i e s in which geology is taught only in the f o r m of e l e m e n t a r y c o u r s e s in connection with c h e m i s t r y . THE UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI D e p a r t m e n t of Geology and Mineralogy, Snellmaninkatu 5, Helsinki 17. Head of the d e p a r t m e n t : Prof. Dr. Maunu H~rme. D e p a r t m e n t of Geology and Palaeontology, Snellmaninkatu 5, Helsinki 17. Head of the d e p a r t ment: Prof. Dr. Joakim Donner. The d e p a r t m e n t of geology was founded in 1852 but the chair in g e o l o g y w a s filled for the f i r s t time in 1877. This chair has been occupied by F.J. Wiik, Wilhelm R a m s a y and Pentti Eskola. Since 1928, t h e r e have been two p r o f e s s o r s in geology; one f o r geology and mineralogy and one f o r geology and palaeontology. Both s u b j e c t s have had independent d e p a r t m e n t s since 1958. After Pentti Eskola, the chair of geology and m i n e r a l o g y was held by Martti Saksela until the end of 1966. The c h a i r of geology and palaeontology has been occupied, f i r s t , by M. Sauramo and later, in s u c c e s s i o n , by V. Auer and J. Donner. The d e p a r t m e n t of geology and mineralogy, in addition to its head, includes an a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r ( M . Hfirme), two o r d i n a r y a s s i s t a n t s , two a m a n u e n s e s and on an average, 2-4 t e m p o r a r y a s s i s t a n t s according to the n e e d s confronted in teaching. Different s u b j e c t s a r e l e c t u r e d and d e m o n s t r a t e d by docents who a r e teaching on an hourly wage basis. A r e s e a r c h laboratory with two p e r s o n a l e x t r a o r d i n a r y p r o f e s s o r s for g e o c h e m i s t r y (Th.G.
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