The global Mio–Pliocene climatic equability and coastal ostracod faunas of southeast Australia

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 225 (2005) 248 – 265 www.elsevier.com/locate/palaeo

The global Mio–Pliocene climatic equability and coastal ostracod faunas of southeast Australia Mark T. Warne School of Ecology and Environment, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria, 3125, Australia Received 31 July 2001; received in revised form 10 October 2003; accepted 25 May 2005

Abstract This study on the Mio–Pliocene ostracod successions of southeast Australia outlines several faunal events indicative of climate warming and/or increased rainfall events. Ostracod faunas associated with a late Late Miocene sea level rise event suggest that the climate of this time in southeast Australia was similar to, or slightly warmer than that of present day southeast Australia. However, it was probably wetter and significantly warmer than immediately preceding (mid Late Miocene) palaeoclimatic conditions within the region. Evidence for a change to wetter and warmer conditions during the late Late Miocene is seen in the appearance of various extant euryhaline and semi-thermophilic ostracod species in coastal ostracod faunas. The appearance of euryhaline species, which are mostly absent from older shallow marine Cenozoic strata of the Bass Strait hinterland, suggests a major influx of fresh water into coastal marine settings, which contributed to the initial phase of development of the southeast Australian late Neogene barrier coastline and associated marginal marine palaeoenvironments. During the time interval latest Miocene to earliest Pliocene, and during the early Late Pliocene, two subsequent global sea level rise events are also preserved in the southeast Australian coastal plain. Many of the species present in ostracod faunas associated with these two events are the same as in older local late Late Miocene faunas. In earliest (?) Pliocene faunas, there is minor evidence for the reappearance of semi-thermophilic ostracods. Faunas of early Late Pliocene age often exhibit a conspicuous faunal dominance by, or large abundance of euryhaline species, indicating the particularly strong influence of fresh water influxes into coastal marine palaeoenvironments. This may reflect the presence of especially wet local temperate palaeoclimatic conditions during a time of equable global climates. Succeeding estuarine, lagoonal and coastal embayment ostracod faunas of late Late Pliocene age are associated with marginal marine sediments that are interbedded with coastal dune aeolianites. This suggests an overall seaward retreat of marginal marine environments that was initiated by a major global sea level fall linked to the onset of cooler Late Pliocene and Quaternary global climates. D 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V. Keywords: Australia; Ostracoda; Late Miocene; Pliocene; Palaeoclimates

E-mail address: [email protected]. 0031-0182/$ - see front matter D 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.06.013

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1. Introduction Evidence for warm and equable global Pliocene palaeoclimates comes from many micropalaeontological and other studies on late Neogene strata from around the world. Dowsett and Cronin (1990) recorded mid Pliocene Ostracoda from North and South Carolina, U.S.A. indicative warmer oceanwater temperatures than prevail along eastern North America during the present time. Quilty (1984) discussed foraminiferal evidence from northwestern Australia that indicated warming during the earliest Pliocene. However, particularly pertinent to the research presented here is the study by Bint (1981)—from which some relevant conclusions can be drawn concerning late Neogene changes in southern Australian rainfall patterns. Bint (1981) observed that Early Pliocene pollen assemblages from southern Western Australia were remarkably similar to coeval assemblages from southeastern Australia, suggesting that the regional phytogeographic differentiation of the southern Australian flora was not well pronounced during the Early Pliocene. This period of southern Australian floral biogeographic homogeneity corresponds in time to the period of supposed equable Pliocene global climates. Substantial regional differentiation of southern Australian floras developed during later Pliocene to Quaternary periods correlating with generally cooler global climates. Significantly, the Early Pliocene pollen assemblages of the Lake Tay area, southwest of Norseman, Western Australia, include elements indicative of a wetter climate than prevails in this regional at the present time (Bint, 1981). It is here suggested, based on Blint’s (1981) observations, that the Early Pliocene floral homogeneity across southern Australia reflects similar rainfall patterns across the region from west (now mostly dry) to east (mostly wet) compared to the present day. 1.1. S.E. Australian coastal ostracod faunas The Cenozoic sedimentary successions of southeast Australia, including those of the southern Victoria coastal plain, generally yield rich ostracod assemblages. Successions of these ostracod assemblages closely mirror trends in global sea level change (Warne, 1993). Arguably, the most notable faunal

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change-over event within this region occurs across a conspicuous Late Miocene unconformity surface (Warne, 2000). Late Late Miocene to mid Pliocene ostracod faunas above this unconformity often include euryhaline species. By analogy with modern southeast Australian ostracod distribution patterns, these fossil occurrences indicate the presence of coastal lagoon and estuarine palaeoenvironments (Warne, 2002a). Older shallow marine Palaeocene to Miocene ostracod faunas from southern Victoria (i.e. McKenzie, 1974; McKenzie et al., 1991, 1993; Neil, 1997; Warne, 1993) generally do not include euryhaline ostracod species. As a consequence there is perhaps a surprising paucity of faunal evidence within these older sediments for widespread saline coastal lagoon and estuarine palaeoenvironments along the palaeo-coastline of southeastern Australia. Major molluscan faunal turnover events during the latest Miocene have also been noted in New Zealand, these being equated with the latest Miocene–Pliocene enhancement of Antarctic Circumpolar Current circulation caused by the initiation of West Antarctic glaciation (Beu et al., 1997). However, similar Antarctic Circumpolar Current circulation influences on New Zealand Cenozoic ostracod faunas are not seen in southeast Australian ostracod faunas. For instance, species of the genus Patagonacythere Hartmann, which have relatively high latitude southern hemisphere Cenozoic distribution patterns presumably associated with the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (New Zealand, Antarctica, southern Atlantic and South America), to date have not been recorded from the Cenozoic of southeast Australia (Warne, 2000). Major changes in southeast Australian molluscan faunas around this time have, however, also been noted, these being in part attributed to facies-related changes connected to a shallowing of depositional environments (Maxwell and Darragh, 2000). This broad scale shallowing (in southern Victoria) can be attributed in part to coastal hinterland uplift (Warne, 1988; Bolger, 1991; Dickinson et al., 2002) caused by the Australian craton being placed into compression by the collision of Australia’s northern margin with island arc terrains near New Guinea (Hill et al., 1995). The scope of this paper is as follows. Firstly, it extends knowledge of the distribution of euryhaline and semi-thermophilic ostracod species within the

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Fig. 1. Locality diagram of Port Phillip Basin situated along the southern coast of Victoria in southeast Australia, indicating locations of stratigraphic sections discussed in text.

Port Phillip Basin (Fig. 1) of southeast Australia (see also Warne, 1993, 2002a). Secondly, it utilises palaeoecological inferences that can be drawn from fossil ostracod successions to interpret aspects of local palaeoenvironmental change during late Neogene time, particularly with respect palaeoclimatic (temperature and rainfall) fluctuations. Thirdly, correlations are drawn between these palaeoenvironmental interpretations and broad scale trends in global Miocene–Pliocene climate change (i.e. Dowsett et al., 1992, 1994; Cronin et al., 1993)—in particular the so-called global Pliocene climatic equability. The palaeoclimatic interpretations presented here build on the palaeoenvironmental and geomorphic analyses of Warne (2002a). 1.2. Physiographical setting and materials The location of this study lies within the northern hinterland of the Bass Strait seaway. This region is

traversed by numerous streams and rivers which run south from the Victorian highlands and coastal ranges, and empty into Bass Strait—a narrow seaway located between the Australian mainland and Tasmania. In many coastal regions of southern Victoria, coastal barrier systems have developed that encompass an extensive range of marginal marine environments including estuaries and saline coastal lagoons. The initiation of a late Neogene barrier system has been dated by Warne (2002a) as late Late Miocene in age based on the first appearance of fossil euryhaline ostracod species in silts and fine sands deposited within the Port Phillip Basin at this time. The Port Phillip Basin of southeast Australia, is a small coastal basin with extensive marine Neogene sedimentary successions. Overlying Palaeogene non marine sediments, open marine deposits consisting of bryozoal limestones, marls, clays and to a lesser extent sands of Late Oligocene to early Middle

Fig. 2. (A) Generalised stratigraphic log for Nepean 1 borehole on the Nepean Peninsula at the south end of the Port Phillip Basin. Euryhaline ostracod intervals (b1, b2, b3) within Nepean 1 borehole; b1 = 178.3 m, b2 = 149.0 m, b3 = 145.1 m. (B) Generalised stratigraphic log for Sandringham Sands outcrop along the Port Phillip Bay coastline at Beaumaris (immediately N.W. of Keefer’s Boatshed). (C) Generalised stratigraphic log for Moorabool Viaduct Sands outcrop in Moorabool River valley beneath the railway viaduct, Moorabool. b4, b5 = Euryhaline ostracod intervals.

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Miocene age occur across this basin. Lithostratigraphic units from this phase of deposition include the Batesford Limestone and lower part of the Fyansford Formation. They are succeeded by glauconitic and sometimes ferruginous sands and silts (upper part of the Fyansford Formation) of late Middle Miocene to early Late Miocene age, which are more restricted in their palaeogeographical distribution than underlying strata. Thin marine and marginal marine sequences of late Late Miocene to mid Pliocene age were then deposited across the basin. The latter generally rest on a very conspicuous erosion surface, which is often associated with a distinctive phosphatic nodule and/or vertebrate bone bed. Inter-fingering marginal marine and coastal dune sediments were then subsequently deposited across the basin during the Late Pliocene and Pleistocene. The ostracod faunas within late Late Miocene to early Early Pliocene sequences of the Port Phillip Basin (Fig. 2) are the principle focus in this study. However, these are considered in the broader context of longer trends through time of key fossil ostracod palaeoenvironmental indicators (Figs. 3 and 4, Tables 1–4). Formations from which late Late Miocene and Pliocene ostracods were extracted include the Sandringham Sand, Moorabool Viaduct Sand and Wannaeue Formation (Fig. 2). Further discussion of the lithostratigraphy is given in Warne (2002a). Fossil ostracod specimens from these formations that are figured in this paper (Plate I) are housed with Museum Victoria, which is located in Melbourne, Australia.

2. Results The Mio–Pliocene ostracods of this study come from three main sources within the Port Phillip Basin; the Nepean 1 borehole, coastal cliff rock exposures at Beaumaris and rock exposures under the Moorabool Railway Viaduct in the Moorabool River valley (Figs. 1 and 2). In addition, some supplementary records of Ostracoda from the Wannaeue 12 borehole (Fig. 1) are also considered. Occurrences of euryhaline and semi-thermophilic ostracod species in particular, are here considered for their palaeoclimatic significance.

2.1. Euryhaline ostracods Euryhaline Ostracoda—which are those tolerant of aquatic environments with fluctuating salinity levels—occurs sporadically in late Neogene and Quaternary sequences of the Port Phillip Basin. Within the Nepean 1 borehole (Fig. 1) of the southern Port Phillip Basin, Warne (2002a) recorded two distinct stratigraphical intervals of euryhaline Ostracoda, the lower at 178.3 m and the upper between 149.0 and 145.1 m (Figs. 3 and 5). These occurrences were in the basal bed of the Sandringham Sand (late Late Miocene) and in the basal section of the Wannaeue Formation (early Late Pliocene), respectively. To this euryhaline ostracod distribution data of Warne (2002a) can now be added an interval within outcropping sequences of the Moorabool Viaduct Sand (earliest (?) Early Pliocene) occurring in the western Port Phillip Basin (Figs. 1, 4 and 5). The locality of this occurrence is directly beneath the Moorabool Railway Viaduct in the Moorabool River valley near the provincial city of Geelong, and is situated approximately 6 to 7 m vertically above floor of the river valley. In addition also recorded here, are later Pliocene and younger occurrences of euryhaline Ostracoda at 71.6 and 77.7 m within the Wannaeue 12 borehole (Fig. 1) of the southern Port Phillip Basin. In modern S.E. Australian coastal environments euryhaline ostracods typically occur in marginal marine waters that are subject to periodic influxes of (fresh) river water. Similar past aquatic settings are indicated by the above fossil occurrences of euryhaline species. Euryhaline ostracod species recorded from these successions include Osticythere baragwanathi (Chapman and Crespin, 1928), Leptocythere hartmanni McKenzie, 1967, Tanella gracilis Kingma, 1948, Xestoleberis cedunaensis Hartmann, 1980, Mckenziartia portjacksonensis McKenzie, 1967 and Paracytheroma sudaustralis McKenzie, 1978 (see Table 3). 2.2. Semi-thermophilic ostracods Semi-thermophilic Ostracoda (Table 4) are present in the Nepean 1 borehole interval of late Late Miocene age (178.3 m) and Moorabool Railway Viaduct outcrop of earliest (?) Pliocene age (under the Moorabool Railway Viaduct) (Port Phillip Basin; Figs. 1 and 2). Semi-thermophilic ostracods are here deemed to be

M.T. Warne / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 225 (2005) 248–265 Fig. 3. Distribution diagram of key ostracod species/species groups for the Late Miocene and Pliocene section of the Nepean 1 borehole, Victoria, Australia. Values expressed as percentages of total ostracod fauna for each sample (see Tables 1–4 for palaeoecological outlines of each species/species group). *Total specimens of listed euryhaline species. **Based on specimens of Paranesidea sp. (Plate I, Fig. 4) and N. foveata. 253

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Fig. 4. Distribution diagram of key ostracod species/species groups for the Mio–Pliocene sections that outcrop in the coastal cliff face at Beaumaris (B1) and under the Moorabool Railway Viaduct (M1), Victoria, Australia. Values expressed as percentages of total ostracod fauna for each sample (see Tables 1–4 for palaeoecological outlines of each species/ species group). *Total specimens of listed euryhaline species. **Based on specimens of N. foveata.

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Table 1 Comments on selected environmentally indicative bdeep shelfQ ostracod species groups plotted in Figs. 3 and 4 for (i) Late Miocene–Pliocene sections of the Nepean 1 borehole, Victoria, (ii) outcrop section along coastal cliffs at Beaumaris, Victoria and (iii) outcrop section under Moorabool Railway Viaduct (Moorabool River Valley), Victoria Deep shelf species/species groups

Taxonomic comments

Ecological comments

Bradleya praemckenziei group

Includes Bradleya praemckenziei Whatley and Downing, 1983 and Bradleya mckenziei Benson, 1972 [non Bradleya mckenziei Yassini and Jones, 1995]. Includes Cytherella lata Brady, Cytherella sp. aff. lata Brady (of Yassini and Jones, 1995) and Cytherella sp. Whatley and Downing, 1983 (=Cytherella aff. consueta McKenzie and Peypouquet, 1984). Krithe nitida Whatley and Downing, 1983 was initially described from offshore shelf facies of mid Miocene age in southeast Australia. The Late Miocene successions of this study include the same and/or very similar species.

Characteristic of moderate to deep open marine environments in temperate southern Australia (Benson, 1972; Yassini and Jones, 1995). Mostly deep shelf ecology (McKenzie and Peypouquet, 1984; Yassini and Jones, 1995).

Cytherella lata group

Krithe nitida group

those with a dominantly subtropical and northern warm temperate distribution along the present day eastern Australian coastline. This coastal climatic region is well north of, and warmer than, present day coastal regions in the vicinity of the Port Phillip Basin (for outline of east Australian coastal climate zones see Yassini and Jones, 1995 and references therein). Semi-thermophilic ostracod species recorded from these successions include Neobuntonia foveata McKenzie et al. (1990) and Paranesidea sp. (vadum group) (see Table 4).

3. Discussion Euryhaline and semi-thermophilic ostracod faunal events for the late Neogene Port Phillip Basin sequences considered here are summarised in Figs. 5 and 6. The first appearances of euryhaline and semithermophilic species during the Late Miocene occurred at a time when many other elements of modern southeast Australian shallow/marginal marine ostracod faunas first appeared in the local fossil record (Warne, 2002a). 3.1. Late Late Miocene faunas Within the late Late Miocene interval of the Nepean 1 borehole (178.3 m), euryhaline Ostracoda are rare and are associated with a high diversity normal marine fauna, suggesting an open ocean

The genus Krithe mostly, but not exclusively, includes species that inhabit moderate to deep open marine environments. Genus has highest relative abundances in deep marine environments.

embayment (Warne, 2002a). Euryhaline species present in this fossil fauna (Fig. 3 and Table 3) include O. baragwanathi (Chapman and Crespin) (Plate I), T. gracilis Kingma and Xestoleberis cedunaensis (Hartmann). The thin silts and sands that contain this fauna rest immediately above an unconformity and contain reworked vertebrate fossils (Warne, 2002a). It appears that the sediments that contain this late Late Miocene ostracod fauna are part of a condensed section (Warne, 1993). Palaeoenvironments favourable to euryhaline species were probably restricted in palaeogeographic extent during this time in southeast Australia—perhaps occurring in newly flooded open ocean embayments into which rivers flowed from the continental mainland. Late Late Miocene occurrences of euryhaline Ostracoda are a significant ecostratigraphic event within southeast Australian Cenozoic successions because these ostracods are mostly absent from the older mainly shallow marine Palaeogene and Neogene deposits within the region. Their appearance as conspicuous faunal elements is inferred to reflect increased precipitation rates and increased fresh water discharge into coastal embayment environments leading to fluctuating salinity conditions favoured by euryhaline ostracod species, and to the development of proto– barrier systems along the southeast Australian coastline. Interestingly, the initial occurrence of euryhaline species within the Nepean 1 borehole (178.3 m) is associated with a glauconitic low sedimentation rate (silty sand) facies (Warne, 2002a). It is therefore

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Table 2 Comments on selected environmentally indicative bshallow shelfQ ostracod species/species groups plotted in Figs. 3 and 4 for (i) Late Miocene– Pliocene sections of the Nepean 1 borehole, Victoria, (ii) outcrop section along coastal cliffs at Beaumaris, Victoria and (iii) outcrop section under Moorabool Railway Viaduct (Moorabool River Valley), Victoria Shallow marine species/species groups

Taxonomic comments

Ecological comments

Actinocythereis jervisbayensis (Yassini and Jones, 1995)

Actinocythereis jervisbayensis is a very close relative of Actinocythereis tetrica (Brady, 1880) [latter= Actinocythereis dampierensis Hartmann, 1978].

Quasibradleya paradictyonites group

Includes Quasibradleya paradictyonites Benson, 1972, Quasibradleya kincardiana (Chapman, 1926) and Quasibradleya plicocarinata Benson, 1972.

Bradleya bassbasinensis Yassini and Jones, 1995

A species of Bradleya Hornibrook, 1952 sensu lato.

Ambolus pumila group

Includes Ambolus pumila (Brady, 1866), Ambolus coniunctus Ikeya et al., 1998 and Ambolus sp. Ikeya et al., 1998. Includes the modern species Loxoconcha australis Brady, 1880 and closely allied fossil forms from the Miocene and Pliocene of southern Australia (Warne, 1989). Includes Neobuntonia batefordiense (Chapman, 1910), Neobuntonia jonesi (Yassini and Jones, 1987), Neobuntonia foveata McKenzie et al. (1990). Includes species belonging to Keijia Teeter, Parakeijia Howe and McKenzie and allied genera that have relatively thick muri.

Open shallow marine environments. In Australia, Actinocythereis jervisbayensis has a more southerly (cooler) temperate water distribution than Actinocythereis tetrica. Shallow to moderate (mid shelf) open marine environments. Quasibradleya plicocarinata is known from temperate waters of southern Australia, but similar species (i.e. Quasibradleya elongata Howe and McKenzie, 1989) are also known from warmer waters of northern Australia. Shallow and sheltered temperate marine environments of southern Australia (Yassini and Jones, 1995). The fossil record of this distinctive species extends back to the latest Miocene in SE Australia (Warne, unpublished data). Shallow open and sheltered marine environments of temperate and (?) subtropical Australian coastal waters. Sheltered and shallow shelf environments.

Loxoconcha australis group

Neobuntonia batefordiense group Parakeijia thomi group

Cytherella dromedaria group

Callistocythere spp

Includes Cytherella sp. aff. dromedaria Brady, 1880 (=Cytherella dromedaria Brady, 1880 of Yassini and Jones, 1995). Australian specimens belonging to this group are here considered a different undescribed species to Cytherella dromedaria as originally described by Brady, 1880 from South Africa. The two are, however, closely related with respect to morphology. Includes various species.

Sheltered to shallow marine.

Keijia s.s. and Parakeijia s.s. were originally described from warm tropical waters. Species of these genera in tropical waters tend to be relatively small and posses a delicate reticulation with thin muri. In comparison, species of these bgeneraQ from cooler temperate waters, such as Keijia s.l. thomi (Yassini and Mikulandra, 1989), posses much thicker muri. Shallow shelf environments (Yassini and Jones, 1995).

Genus that mostly, but by no means exclusively, includes species that inhabit shallow open marine and marginal marine environments. Genus has highest relative abundances in shallow marine environments.

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Table 3 Comments on selected environmentally indicative marginal marine/euryhaline ostracod species plotted in Figs. 3 and 4 for (i) Late Miocene– Pliocene sections of the Nepean 1 borehole, Victoria, (ii) outcrop section along coastal cliffs at Beaumaris, Victoria and (iii) outcrop section under Moorabool Railway Viaduct (Moorabool River Valley), Victoria Euryhaline/marginal marine species

Taxonomic comments

Ecological comments

Osticythere baragwanathi (Chapman and Crespin, 1928)

[=Osticythere reticulata Hartmann, 1980]

Coastal lagoon and estuarine environments where large fluctuations salinity and dissolved oxygen concentrations occur (Yassini and Jones, 1995) Coastal lagoon environments—able to tolerate large fluctuations in salinity (McKenzie, 1967; Yassini and Jones, 1995) Coastal marginal marine environments with Zostera sea grass beds—able to tolerate large fluctuations in salinity (Yassini and Jones, 1995) Lagoonal and estuarine environments (Yassini and Jones, 1995)

Other species with undocumented ecology/palaecology, but with very similar external morphology to Mckenziartia portjacksonensis, occur in the late Cenozoic of southeast Australia (Warne, unpublished data)

Mckenziartia portjacksonensis s.s. occurs in estuarine and lagoonal environments. This species is able to tolerate considerable fluctuations in salinity (McKenzie, 1967; Yassini and Jones, 1995)

Leptocythere hartmanni McKenzie, 1967) Tanella gracilis Kingma, 1948

Xestoleberis cedunaensis Hartmann, 1980 Mckenziartia portjacksonensis McKenzie, 1967

Paracytheroma sudaustralis McKenzie, 1978

arguable that increased run off from river systems was not solely caused by rejuvenation of regional hinterland uplift, as there is little evidence of significant increased sedimentation rates within the Port Phillip Basin until immediately after this particular occurrence of euryhaline species (see discussion below). The appearance of euryhaline Ostracoda in late Late Miocene strata of the Nepean 1 borehole is here interpreted as reflecting a marked change to wetter climates than had previously occurred during the late Middle Miocene to mid Late Miocene in southeast Australia. The regional scale of this interpretation is consistent with the late Neogene appearances of conspicuous lacustrine ostracod faunas within southeast Australian continental sedimentary deposits, and brackish water ostracods (as very rare allochthonous faunal elements) within offshore shelf facies of the Gippsland Basin (eastern Bass Strait region), southeast Australia (Warne, 2002b and references therein). The late Late Miocene fauna of the Nepean 1 borehole, which contains euryhaline ostracods, also includes rare co-occurring bsemi-thermophilicQ (warm temperate to subtropical) species suggestive of warmer palaeoclimates than prevailed during the deposi-

Coastal lagoons with significant fluctuations in salinity (5–47%), temperature (9–30 8C) and dissolved oxygen (1–14 mg/l). (Yassini and Jones, 1995)

tion of strata of earlier Late Miocene age within the region (Fig. 3 and Table 4). For instance, evidence of warmer waters is perhaps reflected by the occurrence of the bTriebelinaQ shaped Paranesidea sp. (vadum group)—see Plate I. Specimens of this species are well preserved in the late Late Miocene euryhaline bearing fauna of the Nepean 1 borehole and are therefore interpreted to be contemporaneous with deposition rather than reworked. An earlier member of the evolutionary lineage to which this species belongs (i.e. Paranesidea vadum Warne, 1986) occurs associated with latest Early Miocene to earliest Middle Miocene warm temperate to subtropical carbonates and marls of the Port Phillip Basin (Warne, 1986). Members of this lineage disappear from late Middle Miocene to mid Late Miocene ostracod faunas in southern Victoria (Warne, 1993) and this is interpreted as reflecting a post mid Miocene cooling of climates within this region. This interpretation correlates with Neogene palaeotemperature trends for S.E. Australia derived from oxygen isotope analyses of Ostrea molluscs (Dorman, 1966). The reappearance of a member of this ostracod lineage in late Late Miocene faunas of the Nepean 1 borehole is here interpreted as indicating a subsequent slight warming of coastal marine cli-

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Table 4 Comments on semi-thermophilic ostracod species/species groups occurring at 178.3 m in Nepean 1 borehole, Victoria (late Late Miocene) and within fossiliferous beds of the Moorabool Viaduct Sand outcropping under Moorabool Railway Viaduct (Moorabool River Valley), Victoria (earliest (?) Pliocene) Semi-thermophilic Taxa

Taxonomic comments

Ecological and Palaeoecological comments

Paranesidea vadum group

Includes the Triebelina-shaped Paranesidea fortificata (Brady, 1880); Paranesidea vadum Warne, 1986 and Paranesidea sp. (illustrated here—similar to Paranesidea fortificata Brady, 1880 of Yassini and Jones, 1995). NB. This group does not include the southern Australian species illustrated by Hartmann, 1980 as Triebelina aff. bradyi Triebel, 1948 as this Hartmann (1980) illustrated specimen lacks the elongated straight dorsal left valve margin of Triebelina bradyi s.s., which is a characteristic feature of the shape of all Triebelina species. The extant species Neobuntonia foveata McKenzie et al. (1990) has strong puctate ornament which, amongst other characteristics, differentiates it from Neobuntonia jonesi Yassini and Jones, 1987 (also extant), both Neobuntonia foveata and Neobuntonia jonesi are almost certainly descendants of the mid Miocene Neobuntonia batefordiense (Chapman, 1910)— the latter having its maximum abundance during a mid Miocene warm climatic phase in S.E Australia, when it co-occurred with subtropical foraminifera (i.e Lepidocyclina) (Warne, 1987).

Paranesidea fortificata Brady, 1880 was originally described from tropical seas near Booby Island off the north coast of Australia. Morphologically similar species also belonging to this a˜ Triebelina-shapeda˜ Paranesidea species group, extend south down the east coast of Australia into warm temperate coastal waters (temperature range = 15 23 F 6 8C; Yassini and Jones, 1987, 1995). One other fossil member of this group—Paranesidea vadum Warne, 1986— co-occurs with subtropical foraminifera (i.e. Lepiodocyclina) in bryozoal limestones deposited during a warm mid Miocene climatic phase in southeast Australia (Warne, 1987; McGowran and Li, 2000). The modern distribution of Neobuntonia foveata includes the northern subtropical waters near the southern extremity of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef. (Labutis, 1977; pl. 31, Fig. 6–10). The annual temperature range in this region is 19–27 8C with some localised variation (Labutis, 1977). The modern distribution of Neobuntonia jonesi includes temperate waters of the southern and southeastern Australian coastline (temperature range 12–23 8C; estimated from data in Yassini and Jones, 1987). McKenzie et al., 1990 contrasted a southern Australian Pleistocene fossil occurrence of Neobuntonia foveata, with its present day lower latitude (more northerly) distribution along the Australian coastline. This southern Australian Pleistocene fossil occurrence was considered by McKenzie et al., 1990 to be indicative of palaeo-temperatures being 3–5 8C higher relative to temperatures along the present day southern Australian coastline.

Neobuntonia foveata McKenzie et al. (1990)

mates. One living member of this lineage, Paranesidea fortificata (Brady), was initially described from tropical waters of northern Australia and a similar, but different living species (=P. fortificata (Brady) of Yassini and Jones, 1995) has been recorded as far south down the east coast of Australia as the entrance to Lake Illawarra, 80 km south of Sydney (Yassini and Jones, 1995, Figs. 41, 43 and 45). Whilst the modern distribution records for these species are probably incomplete, their known ranges suggests that optimum abundances of these species occur in coastal waters slightly warmer than that of the present day Bass Strait/southern Victorian coastal region. In addition, McKenzie et al. (1991) record a member of this lineage (i.e. Paranesidea cf. vadum Warne) in the Upper Oligocene of southern Victoria. The total temporal range of this ostracod lineage in southeast Aus-

tralia therefore approximately matches that of the larger foraminiferan Amphistegina lessoni s.l. (see range recorded in McGowran and Li, 2000). McGowran and Li (2000) have interpreted this larger foraminiferid species as belonging to a group b...which flourish, and flourished, in warm, well-lit, oligotrophic environmentsQ. Similar environmental preferences are here deduced for members of the P. vadum lineage. The inference can therefore be drawn that the late Late Miocene euryhaline-bearing ostracod faunas of the Nepean 1 borehole, which contain specimens belonging to this Paranesidea lineage, accumulated in warmer shallow marine environments than occurred during the late Middle Miocene to mid Late Miocene of southeast Australia. Interestingly, the fossil faunal signals of past warmer climates

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Plate I. Euryhaline and semi-thermophilic Ostracoda from the late Late Miocene to mid Pliocene of the Port Phillip Basin. Specimens 1–3 from Nepean 1 borehole at 145.1 m. Specimen 4 from Nepean 1 borehole at 178.3 m. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Paracytheroma sudaustralis (McKenzie), right valve external view, length = 0.53 mm. Mckenziartia portjacksonensis (McKenzie), right valve external view, length = 0.50 mm. Osticythere baragwanathi (Chapman and Crespin), female, right valve external view, length = 0.94 mm. Paranesidea sp. (vadum group), right valve external view, length = 0.65 mm.

within the southeast Australian Palaeogene and Neogene, are undoubted more subtle than they otherwise would have been had the Australian plate not progressively moved north into warmer latitudes throughout the Cenozoic. As a further note, the degree of development of punctate ornament on this Paranesidea species group may be a reflection of water temperatures. Those specimens from relatively warmer environments/palaeoenvironments tend to be more strongly punctate (i.e. mid Miocene specimens of P. vadum Warne, 1986 from southeast Australia). Also present in the Nepean 1 borehole at 178.3 m is the strongly punctate species Neobuntonia foveata McKenzie et al. (1990) (see Table 4 for ecological/ palaeoecological summary). Based on the analysis of

McKenzie et al. (1990) and modern day distribution data (Labutis, 1977), this fossil occurrence of N. foveata, suggests that aquatic water temperatures along the late Late Miocene coastline of Bass Strait were 3–5 8C higher than temperatures along the present day coastline of the same region (i.e. late Late Miocene ~15–20 8C; present day ~12–18 8C.). The contrast in late Late Miocene and present day coastal aquatic temperatures in southeast Australia is small. However, the occurrence during the late Late Miocene of a strongly punctate (semi-thermophilic) Neobuntonia species in the Nepean 1 borehole is in marked contrast to its absence in older Late Miocene shallow marine sequences (unpublished, Warne, 1989) providing further evidence for a minor late Late Miocene climatic warming in southeast Australia.

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Fig. 5. Diagrammatic correlation of Port Phillip Basin successions within the Nepean 1 borehole, Beaumaris cliff and Moorabool River valley outcrops. Unconformity types as indicated in Haq et al. (1987) and unconformity ages approximated from Vandenberghe and Hardenbol (1998).

3.2. Latest Late Miocene to earliest Early Pliocene faunas Similarly, within the earliest (?) Early Pliocene faunas of the bmiddleQ Moorabool Viaduct Sand (Figs. 1, 2 and 5) outcropping beneath the railway viaduct on the east side of the Moorabool River, euryhaline Ostracoda (Osticythere baragwanathi, Mckenziartia portjacksonensis) occur rarely (Fig. 4 and Table 3) and in association with normal marine ostracod species (for locality details—see Bowler, 1963). During this interval, euryhaline ostracod assemblages are also restricted in their palaeogeographic distribution even though very latest Miocene to Early Pliocene sedimentary strata occur extensively throughout the Port Phillip Basin. At Beaumaris, in the northeast of the basin (Figs. 1, 2 and 5), a broadly equivalent aged formation (Darragh, 1985), the Sandringham Sand, contains more typical diverse normal marine ostracod assemblages lacking in euryhaline species (Fig. 4 and Tables 1, 2 and 3). The Beaumaris faunas examined here are slightly older than the studied Moorabool Viaduct faunas as the former are within 1 m above

the base of the Sandringham Sand (at this locality) and the latter occur 6 to 7 m above the base of the Moorabool Viaduct Sand. The bases of both the Sandringham Sand and Moorabool Viaduct Sand are marked by a major, regionally extensive, unconformity surface and phosphatic nodule bed. The overall successions at Beaumaris and at the Moorabool Railway Viaduct probably contain the Miocene–Pliocene boundary; the Sandringham Sand faunas examined here coming from below the boundary and the Moorabool Viaduct Sand faunas coming from above (Figs. 4 and 5). Sediments containing ostracod faunas of latest Miocene to earliest Pliocene age are generally ferruginised quartz sands that accumulated under higher sedimentation rate conditions and over a far broader area than earlier Late Miocene sediments within the region. Increased sedimentation rates and sediment supply within shallow marine environments may be related to regional uplift and erosion of the Bass Strait hinterland (see Bolger, 1991). The resultant increased supplies in quartz sand may have expanded the development of coastal barrier systems (Carter, 1985) and the presence of facies containing euryhaline ostra-

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Fig. 6. Faunal and palaeoenvironmental events within the Port Phillip Basin as these correlate to global climatic and sea level change. Uplift=southeast Australian regional tectonic event. PPB=Port Phillip Basin.

cod species suggests the presence of coastal lagoon or barred estuary palaeoenvironments (Warne, 2002a). Further, the presence of both euryhaline Ostracoda and Mollusca (Darragh, personal communication) in earliest (?) Pliocene strata of the Moorabool district confirms substantial river discharges into shallow marine environments and therefore appears to record a continuation of the relatively wet climates established during the late Late Miocene in southeast Australia. Rare specimens of N. foveata also occur in the Moorabool Viaduct Sand exposures beneath the Moorabool Railway Viaduct (Fig. 4 and Table 4) suggesting warm earliest (?) Pliocene aquatic palaeotemperatures similar to those inferred from late Late Miocene faunas. This semi-thermophilic species is absent from the slightly older (and presumably cooler) basal Sandringham Sand strata exposed in cliffs faces along the coastline near Beaumaris in the northeastern Port Phillip Basin. The basal Sandringham Sand ostracod faunas at Beaumaris are significant in that they are bracketed in

time by the older late Late Miocene fauna of the Nepean 1 borehole (178.3 m) and by the younger earliest (?) Pliocene fauna from rock outcrops under the Moorabool Railway Viaduct. Both these Nepean 1 and Moorabool Viaduct faunas contain euryhaline and semi-thermophilic ostracods missing from the Beaumaris faunas (Figs. 3 and 4; Tables 3 and 4). Thus, current ostracod faunal evidence from around the Miocene–Pliocene boundary (Figs. 5 and 6) in the Port Phillip Basin suggests that warm late Late Miocene faunas (i.e. Nepean 178.3 m) are succeeded by relatively cool faunas around the Miocene–Pliocene boundary (basal Beaumaris cliff outcrops), which in turn are succeeded by warm (?) earliest Pliocene faunas (Moorabool Viaduct outcrops). This temperature pattern is closely reflected in the benthonic foraminifera oxygen isotope derived bottom water temperature curve for DSDP site 281 on the South Tasman Rise (south of Tasmania) (Shackleton and Kennett, 1975— Fig. 3). Fluctuating aquatic tempera-

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tures across the Mio–Pliocene boundary are also suggested by New Zealand stratigraphic and palaeontologic records (Hornibrook, 1990). A major older mid Late Miocene warming episode recorded from planktonic foraminifera oxygen isotope ratios at DSDP site 281 by Shackleton and Kennett (1975— Fig. 2), does not seem to be mirrored in the mid Late Miocene ostracod faunas of the Nepean 1 borehole. However, overall ostracod faunas (see Warne, 1993) and ostracod frequencies (i.e. Cytherella lata group in Nepean 1 section between 240.2–204.2 m—see Fig. 3) suggest a deepening of water depths at this time and/or the rise of dysaerobic conditions, the latter perhaps being a consequence of coastal (cool water) upwelling. This mid Late Miocene Nepean 1 event correlates with the mid Late Miocene upwelling event recorded from foraminiferal evidence in the Gippsland Basin by McGowran and Li (1997; Fig. 9). 3.3. Earliest Late Pliocene faunas The highest abundance of euryhaline Ostracoda in the Neogene of the Port Phillip Basin occurs in sandy facies of earliest Late Pliocene age from the lower Wannaeue Formation (Fig. 3). The Wannaeue Formation within the Port Phillip Basin is relatively restricted in palaeogeographic extent compared to the latest Miocene to earliest Pliocene Sandringham Sand and Moorabool Viaduct Sand. Lower units of the Wannaeue Formation in the Nepean 1 borehole developed as a consequence of sea level rise, which flooded a narrowly incised coastal plain river valley excavated from underlying Lower Pliocene strata. The faunas consist of two main types. The first, which occurs at 149.0 m in the Nepean 1 borehole, is a high abundance, low diversity fauna dominated by the euryhaline species Osticythere baragwanathi with subordinate occurrences of other euryhaline species—Leptocythere hartmanni (McKenzie), Xestoleberis cedunaensis and Tanella gracilis—indicating a restricted coastal lagoon (or perhaps salt wedge estuarine) environment. This low diversity, high abundance fauna is succeeded in the lower portion of the Wannaeue Formation of the Nepean 1 borehole (145.1 m) by a very high diversity, high abundance fauna, which includes subordinate euryhaline ostracod occurrences of O. baragwanathi, L. hartmanni, X. cedunaensis, T. gracilis, M. portjacksonensis and P. sudaustralis (McKenzie) (Plate I)

amongst a diverse shallow normal marine ostracod fauna. The later association probably indicates a lagoonal environment with large ocean exchanges and close to normal marine salinities (Warne, 2002a). The increased prevalence of euryhaline species within transgressive sediments of this age perhaps reflects increased influxes of fresh water into coastal marine settings at this time. This palaeoenvironmental scenario is suggestive of especially wet (relatively high rainfall) temperate palaeoclimatic conditions occurring during a time of equable global climates. 3.4. Post mid Pliocene faunas Within succeeding strata of Late Pliocene age within the Nepean 1 borehole (133.5–68.8 m), marginal marine units are increasing associated with interbedded coastal dune aeolianites (Chapman, 1928) and the overlying Pleistocene section is dominantly of aeolianite facies (Mallett and Holdgate, 1985). This late Late Pliocene and Pleistocene succession indicates a seaward retreat of marginal marine and marine deposits correlating with the major global mid Pliocene sea level fall and onset of cooler later Pliocene and Quaternary global climatic regimes. Oxygen isotope data from molluscan shells extracted from the earliest Late Pliocene Whalers Bluff Formation of southeast Australia (southwestern Victoria) also suggest somewhat warmer aquatic palaeotemperatures than prevailed during the deposition of younger strata within the same region (Dorman and Gill, 1959)— oxygen isotope data for the latter indicating lower post mid Pliocene aquatic palaeotemperatures. Not all borehole sections through the Wannaeue Formation display identical facies successions. For instance, at the same time (late Late Pliocene) that aeolianites were developing in the Nepean 1 borehole, extensive estuarine environments/deposits with high abundance, low diversity ostracod faunas (which varyingly include Mckenziartia portjacksonensis, Osticythere baragwanathi, Tanella gracilis and Paracytheroma sudaustralis) developed in the nearby Wannaeue 12 borehole (71.6 and 77.7 m). This lateral facies change within the late Late Pliocene of the Wannaeue Formation presumably indicates coexisting estuarine, lagoonal and coastal dune depositional settings in very close palaeogeographic proximity. The presence of latest Late Pliocene marginal marine

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palaeoenvironments within the Wannaeue Formation perhaps led Holdgate et al. (2001) to emphasise the importance of the subsequent transition to dominant aeolianites across the Wannaeue Formation–Bridgewater Formation boundary as well as the disconformity between these two formations (which approximates the Pliocene–Pleistocene boundary). However, in contrast, it is here emphasised, that the first occurrence of aeolianites within the Nepean 1 borehole dates from the mid Pliocene (Chapman, 1928) and appears to correlate with the onset of generally lower global sea levels and globally cooler climatic regimes. A similar correlation has been made by Hornibrook (1990) between a sudden Late Pliocene cooling event apparent within the New Zealand palaeontological record and the onset of major ice accumulation and rafting in the Northern Hemisphere (Shackleton et al., 1984).

faunal characteristics of the Port Phillip Basin suggest phases of local climatic amelioration consistent with the periodic development of more equable global climates during this period. Subsequent to mid Pliocene times, euryhaline ostracod bearing biofacies become increasing associated with aeolianites within sequences occurring at the southern end of the Port Phillip Basin (i.e. Nepean 1 borehole). This progressive depositional trend probably reflects the onset of lower sea levels associated with the generally cooler global climates and the Northern Hemisphere ice age period. However, as a final postscript comment, brief reversals to warmer and probably relatively wet climatic (and high sea level) phases (Fig. 6) occurred during this post mid Pliocene period as noted by McKenzie et al. (1990) for the mid Pleistocene of southeast Australia.

4. Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Fossil occurrences of euryhaline and semi-thermophilic Ostracoda in the Port Phillip Basin, southeast Australia (Fig. 5) are associated with late Late Miocene and Pliocene transgressive episodes (Fig. 6). Prior to the late Late Miocene, there is little evidence in the southeast Australian Cenozoic fossil record for euryhaline Ostracoda and associated coastal palaeoenvironments with fluctuating salinity levels (Fig. 6). This is despite the fact that there are many shallow marine transgressive successions with rich ostracod faunas ranging in age from Late Palaeocene to mid Late Miocene preserved in coastal outcrops and boreholes of southern Victoria (Fig. 6). Thus, whilst late Late Miocene to mid Pliocene ostracod faunal patterns strongly reflect sea level records, they also appear to record a fundamental shift in broad coastal palaoesalinity settings. The late Late Miocene to mid Pliocene occurrences of euryhaline ostracods within strata of the Port Phillip Basin are here interpreted to reflect phases of increased rainfall and run-off into coastal marine environments across southeast Australia. Late Late Miocene and earliest Pliocene semi-thermophilic ostracod occurrences within the Port Phillip Basin suggest slightly elevated aquatic palaeotemperature ranges (3–5 8C higher) compared to aquatic temperature ranges for the same region during the present day. In sum, late Late Miocene to mid Pliocene ostracod

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