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THE HAN CHARIOT FROM NOIN ULA MOUND 20 (MONGOLIA)
ARCHAEOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY & ANTHROPOLOGY OF EURASIA Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 36/4 (2008) 63–69 E-mail: [email protected] THE METAL AGES AND MEDIEVAL PERIOD
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N.V. Polosmak1, E.S. Bogdanov1, D. Tseveendorj2, and N. Erdene-Ochir2 Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akademika Lavrentieva 17, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] 2 Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Zhukoviyn Gudamzh 77, Ulaanbaatar 51, Mongolia E-mail: [email protected]
1
THE HAN CHARIOT FROM NOIN ULA MOUND 20 (MONGOLIA)*
Excavations of Noin Ula mound 20 revealed a light pleasure chariot yao che above the burial. The chariot may have also been used for military and hunting purposes. All its wooden parts were lacquered, and the bronze details were gilded. The umbrella was decorated with scarlet silk bands tied to every sixth rib. The intact chariot was placed in the grave pit, and only the wheels were removed. It was transported to the grave by way of a dromos. The tradition of placing one or several chariots in graves is part of the Chinese funerary rite.
In 2006, a unique “royal” burial mound of the Hunnu was excavated in the Noin Ula Mountains (Northern Mongolia) by joint efforts of the South Altai Team from the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography SB RAS and a team from the Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences. Preliminary results of these studies have been published (Polosmak, Bogdanov, Tseveendorj, 2006; Polosmak, Tseveendordj, Bogdanov, 2007; Polosmak et al., 2008: 77–87). Description of the archaeological context The upper portion of the chariot (an umbrella and parts of the body) was discovered at a depth of 11.62–12.66 m *This work was carried out under the program of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences: “Adaptation of Peoples and Cultures to Environmental Changes, and to Social and Technogenic Transformations” (Project 21.2), Grant NS 2286.2003.6, and was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Project 06-06-80069a).
(from a de¿ned zero) at the level of the last (¿fth) step of the burial pit, nearly in its center, closer to the eastern wall (Fig. 1). The chariot was damaged by looters: the looter’s hole hurt the umbrella and the rear and lateral parts of the body; they were deformed by tons of ¿rm clay mixed with stones that ¿lled the grave. The chariot’s parts were found lying in their original order; evidently, the chariot had not been disassembled. The wheels were possibly removed and laid Àat; such a tradition has been recorded in Chinese burials of the Zhango and Han periods. (For instance, wheels were removed from the chariot found in burial 2 of the Zihedian cemetery (Shandong Province)). Remains of the umbrella (Fig. 2) were unearthed ¿rst: traces of 19 (of a total of 24) black lacquered ribs with gilded copper tips decorated with a tetrapetalous rosette at the end were preserved in situ*. *One more copper tip, the 21st, was located in the looter’s hole. Four other tips of the same shape were found below the chariot. They differ from the above-mentioned tips in metal composition, and absence of gilt or remains of wood
Copyright © 2008, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology & Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.aeae.2009.03.007
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0 1m
Fig. 1. Stratigraphic pro¿le of Noin Ula mound 20.
Fig. 4. Leather “patch” for extending the umbrella silk covering.
Fig. 2. Cleaning of the Han chariot umbrella.
The gilded tips of the umbrella ribs found in situ are of a roughly similar length (slightly over 9 cm), though not identical, so they were possibly cast in different molds. Each tip has a sharp barb directed upward (Fig. 3). On many barbs, pieces of leather are preserved. They are folded double and sewn with small stitches to the silk tissue covering the umbrella (Fig. 4). Inside these “patches,” wooden sticks wrapped in silk cloth were found. Apparently, small pieces of leather with inserted wooden details were attached to protect the silk cover from breaking when the umbrella was being spread by means of the barbs on the copper tops of the ribs. Traces of tied silk ribbons colored red by cinnabar were detected on the upper wooden part of the umbrella handle in which the ribs were inserted and on three rib tips (Fig. 2, 5). The latter including the tips are approx. 1m. long. The diameter of the upper wooden part of the handle similar to that found at Noin Ula mound 6 (Rudenko, 1962: 47, fig. 42) is 0.1 m. Thus the diameter of the umbrella possibly reached 2.1 m. Such an umbrella could cover riders completely. The right part of the chariot body (Fig. 6) was found lying under the umbrella and stone pavement, at a depth of 12.25–13.33 m. The body was made of wood, covered with silk, and lacquered. The decayed wood between lacquer coatings was substituted by clay with inclusions of small, disintegrated pieces of wood. The weave structure of the cloth can be traced on the inner surface of the lacquer coating. The lateral
Fig. 3. Bronze gilded tips of umbrella ribs and fragments of ribs covered with black lacquer.
inside; they are shorter (the length slightly exceeds 7 cm) and massive.
N.V. Polosmak et al. / Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 36/4 (2008) 63–69
Fig. 5. Umbrella rib tips with remains of silk cloth in situ.
Fig. 7. Tipped wooden rod reinforcing the chariot lateral wall.
Fig. 6. Lateral wall of the chariot.
Fig. 8. Remains of the chariot frontal wall.
wall of the chariot (0.45–0.50 m high and 0.60 m wide) had a raised “checkered” surface covered with red lacquer and contoured with black lacquer. On the side, the wall was reinforced with a wooden rod with a gilded bronze tip of cylindrical shape (Fig. 7). The frontal wall of the chariot was deformed and preserved only partially (Fig. 8). Its upper part was shaped as a ribbed “furrow” 0.15 m wide, and the lower part was comprised of three convex straps. The entire surface of the frontal wall (0.4 m high) was covered with black lacquer; the thickness of the coating was 2–3 mm. The preserved part of the chariot floor, measuring 0.5 by 1 m, was represented by traces of black lacquered planks fixed crosswise. The planks formed a lattice (the size of rhombic openings between the planks was 9 by 9 cm) (Fig. 9–10). Corroded fragments of
iron objects possibly associated with the chariot’s construction were found under the floor. Remains of two wooden wheels approx. 1.5 m in diameter (Fig. 9, 12) lay to the east and west of the chariot body. Spokes were covered with black lacquer, and their central part was lacquered red (Fig. 13). A wide wooden felloe 8 cm thick was painted black and contained no metal parts. Judging by the right, betterpreserved specimen, each wheel had 21 spokes. The outside of the smaller interior felloe holding the spokes was lacquered red, while its inside was painted black. The wheels were attached to the axle with two iron hubs and rings, as well as with massive gilded bronze axle end pieces (only one specimen is available) (Fig. 14). A bronze gilded cylinder containing remains of a wooden rod (Fig. 15) was also found.
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0
50 cm
Fig. 9. Plan of the chariot body and nearby ¿nds.
0
50 cm
Fig. 10. Chariot seat and a part of the body.
Fig. 11. Remains of the chariot Àoor with fragments of corroded iron objects in the center.
Interpretation
during the Han period. Such vehicles were used both as light pleasure carriages and as military chariots. The umbrella called hua gai invented during the Han period was a distinguishing feature of these carriages. During the Chin Dynasty period, such umbrellas were rarely used (Kozhanov, 1984: 74). The wheels of yao
Chariots from Hunnu graves provide unique information about the construction and decoration of Han carriages. The chariot from Noin Ula mound 20 represents the yao che type of carriages which was the most popular
N.V. Polosmak et al. / Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 36/4 (2008) 63–69
0
50 cm
Fig. 12. Spatial distribution of ¿nds under the chariot body.
Fig. 14. Bronze gilded axle end piece with remains of the wooden axle.
Fig. 13. Fragment of the right wheel in situ.
che were large, with a massive hub; the spokes differed in cross-section: they were elliptical near the hub and almost round near the felloe. Normally, one horse was harnessed to such a chariot, sometimes two or three (Ibid.: 70) (Fig. 16). Light chariots with umbrellas were possibly buried in other Noin Ula mounds that have been studied in the past. Bronze tips of umbrella ribs were found scattered in the burial chamber of Mokry kurgan (No. 1) (Rudenko, 1962: 117, pl. 28, 6, 7), in Kondratievsky mound, and in kurgan No. 25 (Ibid.: 123). Fragments of umbrellas and wooden wheels as well as axle end pieces (Ibid.: pl. 28, 5, 6), grab handles (Ibid.: pl. 28, 1, 2, 4), and rein rings (Ibid.: pl. 28, 3, 5) have also been found. In 2005, French archaeologists discovered a light carriage similar to the Noin Ula chariot in grave T20 of
Fig. 15. Bronze gilded tip of a yoke pole (?).
the Gol Mod burial site in Arhangay aimag of Mongolia (Guilhem, 2007: 75; Desroches, 2007: ¿g. 21). The grave pit contained bronze tips of umbrella ribs, metal parts of wheels, and traces of red lacquer from the chariot’s walls (Guilhem, 2007: 71–73; Desroches, 2007: ¿g. 13). In the territory of modern China, yao che chariots were recorded at many Han sites (see, e.g., (Liu Yonghua, 2002:
67
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Fig. 16. Reconstruction of a light Han chariot (after (Liu Yonghua, 2002: 133)).
Fig. 17. Reconstruction of chariot No. 1 from Han tomb No. 1 at Shuangrushan Hill (after (Cui Dayong, 1997: 24)).
Fig. 18. Reduced chariot replica from Han burial No. 48 at Wuwei, Gansu Province (after (Liu Yonghua, 2002: 105, ¿g. 127)).
133; Cui Dayong, 1997: 24)). Wheels of the chariot from a Han burial at Shuangrushan Hill ((Shandong Province) were approx. 144 cm in diameter and presumably had 30 spokes. Thirty mushroom-shaped gilded bronze tips of umbrella ribs (5.6 cm long) were found in this burial. The diameter of the umbrella was 160 cm. Traces of silk cloth were preserved on the ribs. The chariot body was poorly preserved. Numerous copper parts of the chariot were encrusted with silver and evidence highly developed Han artistic traditions (Cui Dayong, 1997: 19– 21). Although the chariot was only partially preserved (most wooden parts were decayed, and metal components were disordered), Chinese archaeologists made an attempt to reconstruct its appearance on the base of wooden and bronze sculptures of carriages from Han burials, artifacts from the tomb of Emperor Qing Shihuang, written records, and numerous depictions of Han chariots. Parts of chariot No. 1 from tomb No. 1 at Shuangrushan Hill (Fig. 17) correspond completely to components of a carriage found at the Mancheng burial (Hebei Province) and to those of a reduced chariot replica from Han burial No. 48 at Wuwei (Fig. 18). The similarities evidence that these carriages are attributable to a single type which in written records is referred to as a “light military chariot”* (Ibid.: 22). In his Dispute about Salt and Iron, one of the most important sources of information on the Western Han culture, Huan Kuan, censuring the mores of his time, described this type of chariots with umbrellas thus: “At the present, rich plebeians [decorate their carriages] with silver and gold, and the ornaments include golden Àowers with stalks curved like claws, fastened on tips of the arches of which the frame of the tent is made; [also, they] attach tassels to poles and wrap the Àagpoles in brocade; the middle class inlay bits with gold, paint [parts of carriages] scarlet, decorate banners with jade, and [equip carriages with] ‘Àying wooden grilles’” (Huan Kuan, 2001: 85–86). Interestingly, according to an act issued by Tsin-di (144 BC), dignitaries receiving 2000 measures of shi, were entitled to paint both side doors of their carriages with cinnabar, and of¿cials receiving 1000 to 600 shi were allowed to paint only the left door likewise (Ibid.: 356–357). Chariots belonging to the so-called ¿ve baits of the Chinese court, were meant to subdue the Hunnu (Hu barbarians) and urge them to fall to *Translated from the Chinese by A.N. Chistyakova.
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the feet of the emperor. “We will entice them, we will attract their ears, we will attract their eyes, we will attract their mouths, we will attract their stomachs, and so they will be attracted in four manners,” a high-ranking of¿cial reported to the emperor, “And we will attract their hearts. Won’t we be able to subdue the Hu barbarians, won’t we make them fall prone before us? These are the ¿ve baits” (quoted after (Ermakov, 2005: 375)). For the ¿rst bait, it was recommended to give Hsiung-nu clan elders luxurious items; among those were ¿ve chariots ornamented with silver. The fourth bait, destined to demonstrate generosity toward the high-ranking Hsiungnu who had defected to the Chinese, included a combat chariot as a personal donation (Ibid.). This, apparently, was the way the chariots reached the steppe. Certain Hunnu burials of that period contained chariots of other types as well. Thus, at Tsaram Mound 7, Buriatia, a Han chariot was found (Minyayev, Sakharovskaya, 2007). Judging by the reconstruction suggested by the excavators, its type differed from that of the chariot from Noin Ula mound 20 (Ibid.: ¿g. 3, 5). Conclusions The chariot discovered at Noin Ula mound 20 was of a pleasure type (yao che); however, it could as well be used as a combat or a hunting vehicle. All its wooden parts were lacquered, and its bronze details were gilded. The umbrella was ornamented with scarlet silk ribbons tied to each sixth rib. The intact chariot was placed in the grave, and only the wheels were removed. It was transported to the graves by way of a dromos. The tradition of placing one or several chariots in the grave was a part of the ancient Chinese funerary rite. Members of the Han elite were sometimes buried with several dozen chariots of various types. They were placed at the entrance to the grave, above the burial chamber or next to it. The presence of a chariot at Noin Ula mound 20 evidences the buried person’s high status, and indicates that the funeral was arranged according to Han traditions. According to Chinese written sources, chariots along with other luxurious items were presented to members of the Hunnu elite by the Chinese emperor’s court, and were buried together with high-ranking Hunnu. However, chariots may have been trophies, which were always far more abundant than were voluntary donations received by the Hunnu from the Han.
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References ɋui Dayong. 1997 Reconstruction and study of horse-drawn carriage No. 1 from Han Tomb No. 1 on Shuagru Hill. Kaogu, No. 3: 16–26, (in Chinese). Desroches J.-P. 2007 The French Archaeological Mission in Mongolia. In International Symposium in Celebrations of the 10th Anniversary of MON-SOL Project. Seul: pp. 190–202. Ermakov M.E. 2005 Dinastiya Han pered ugrozoi izvne (iz dokladov Tzya I tronu). [Introd., trans., con.]. In Dalny Vostok, bk. 4. Moscow: Izdat. ¿rma “Vostochnaya literatura”, pp. 362–383. (Strany i narody Vostoka; iss. 32). Guilhem A. 2007 L’aristocratie xiongnu. In Mongolie, les Xiongnu de l’Arkhagai. Mission archéologique française en Mongolie. Musée national des Arts asiatiques – Guimet. Paris: n.p., pp. 70–75. Huan Kuan. 2001 Spor o soli i zheleze, vol. 2. Moscow: Izdat. firma “Vostochnaya literatura”. Kozhanov S.T. 1984 Kolesnyi transport epokhi Han. In Novoe v arkheologii Kitaya. Issledovaniya i problemy. Novosibirsk: Nauka, pp. 67–75. (Istoriya i kultura Vostoka Azii). Liu Yonghua. 2002 Ancient Chariots and Horse Harness. Shanghai: Cishu chubanshe, (in Chinese). Minyayev S.S., Sakharovskaya L.M. 2007 Hanskaya kolesnitsa iz mogilnika Tsaram. Arkheologicheskiye vesti, iss. 14: 130–137. Polosmak N.V., Bogdanov E.S., Tseveendorj D. 2006 Raskopki kurgana hunnu v gorakh Noin-Ula, Severnaya Mongoliya. In Problemy arkheologii, etnogra¿i, antropologii Sibiri i sopredelnykh territorii: Materialy Godovoi sessii Inst. arkheologii i etnogra¿i SO RAN, vol. 12, pt. 1. Novosibirsk: Izd. IAE SO RAN, pp. 460–462. Polosmak N.V., Bogdanov E.S., Tseveendorj D., Erdene-Ochir N. 2008 The Burial Construction of Noin Ula Mound 20, Mongolia. Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia, No. 2: 77–87. Polosmak N.V., Tseveendordj D., Bogdanov E.S. 2007 Noin-Ula No. 20 Tomb. In International Symposium in Celebrations of the 10th Anniversary of MON-SOL Project. Seul: pp. 155–176. Rudenko S.I. 1962 Kultura hunnu i Noinulinskie kurgany. Moscow, Leningrad: Izd. AN SSSR. Received July 7, 2008.
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N.V. Polosmak1, E.S. Bogdanov1, D. Tseveendorj2, and N. Erdene-Ochir2 Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akademika Lavrentieva 17, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] 2 Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Zhukoviyn Gudamzh 77, Ulaanbaatar 51, Mongolia E-mail: [email protected]
1
THE HAN CHARIOT FROM NOIN ULA MOUND 20 (MONGOLIA)*
Excavations of Noin Ula mound 20 revealed a light pleasure chariot yao che above the burial. The chariot may have also been used for military and hunting purposes. All its wooden parts were lacquered, and the bronze details were gilded. The umbrella was decorated with scarlet silk bands tied to every sixth rib. The intact chariot was placed in the grave pit, and only the wheels were removed. It was transported to the grave by way of a dromos. The tradition of placing one or several chariots in graves is part of the Chinese funerary rite.
In 2006, a unique “royal” burial mound of the Hunnu was excavated in the Noin Ula Mountains (Northern Mongolia) by joint efforts of the South Altai Team from the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography SB RAS and a team from the Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences. Preliminary results of these studies have been published (Polosmak, Bogdanov, Tseveendorj, 2006; Polosmak, Tseveendordj, Bogdanov, 2007; Polosmak et al., 2008: 77–87). Description of the archaeological context The upper portion of the chariot (an umbrella and parts of the body) was discovered at a depth of 11.62–12.66 m *This work was carried out under the program of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences: “Adaptation of Peoples and Cultures to Environmental Changes, and to Social and Technogenic Transformations” (Project 21.2), Grant NS 2286.2003.6, and was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Project 06-06-80069a).
(from a de¿ned zero) at the level of the last (¿fth) step of the burial pit, nearly in its center, closer to the eastern wall (Fig. 1). The chariot was damaged by looters: the looter’s hole hurt the umbrella and the rear and lateral parts of the body; they were deformed by tons of ¿rm clay mixed with stones that ¿lled the grave. The chariot’s parts were found lying in their original order; evidently, the chariot had not been disassembled. The wheels were possibly removed and laid Àat; such a tradition has been recorded in Chinese burials of the Zhango and Han periods. (For instance, wheels were removed from the chariot found in burial 2 of the Zihedian cemetery (Shandong Province)). Remains of the umbrella (Fig. 2) were unearthed ¿rst: traces of 19 (of a total of 24) black lacquered ribs with gilded copper tips decorated with a tetrapetalous rosette at the end were preserved in situ*. *One more copper tip, the 21st, was located in the looter’s hole. Four other tips of the same shape were found below the chariot. They differ from the above-mentioned tips in metal composition, and absence of gilt or remains of wood
Copyright © 2008, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology & Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.aeae.2009.03.007
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0 1m
Fig. 1. Stratigraphic pro¿le of Noin Ula mound 20.
Fig. 4. Leather “patch” for extending the umbrella silk covering.
Fig. 2. Cleaning of the Han chariot umbrella.
The gilded tips of the umbrella ribs found in situ are of a roughly similar length (slightly over 9 cm), though not identical, so they were possibly cast in different molds. Each tip has a sharp barb directed upward (Fig. 3). On many barbs, pieces of leather are preserved. They are folded double and sewn with small stitches to the silk tissue covering the umbrella (Fig. 4). Inside these “patches,” wooden sticks wrapped in silk cloth were found. Apparently, small pieces of leather with inserted wooden details were attached to protect the silk cover from breaking when the umbrella was being spread by means of the barbs on the copper tops of the ribs. Traces of tied silk ribbons colored red by cinnabar were detected on the upper wooden part of the umbrella handle in which the ribs were inserted and on three rib tips (Fig. 2, 5). The latter including the tips are approx. 1m. long. The diameter of the upper wooden part of the handle similar to that found at Noin Ula mound 6 (Rudenko, 1962: 47, fig. 42) is 0.1 m. Thus the diameter of the umbrella possibly reached 2.1 m. Such an umbrella could cover riders completely. The right part of the chariot body (Fig. 6) was found lying under the umbrella and stone pavement, at a depth of 12.25–13.33 m. The body was made of wood, covered with silk, and lacquered. The decayed wood between lacquer coatings was substituted by clay with inclusions of small, disintegrated pieces of wood. The weave structure of the cloth can be traced on the inner surface of the lacquer coating. The lateral
Fig. 3. Bronze gilded tips of umbrella ribs and fragments of ribs covered with black lacquer.
inside; they are shorter (the length slightly exceeds 7 cm) and massive.
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Fig. 5. Umbrella rib tips with remains of silk cloth in situ.
Fig. 7. Tipped wooden rod reinforcing the chariot lateral wall.
Fig. 6. Lateral wall of the chariot.
Fig. 8. Remains of the chariot frontal wall.
wall of the chariot (0.45–0.50 m high and 0.60 m wide) had a raised “checkered” surface covered with red lacquer and contoured with black lacquer. On the side, the wall was reinforced with a wooden rod with a gilded bronze tip of cylindrical shape (Fig. 7). The frontal wall of the chariot was deformed and preserved only partially (Fig. 8). Its upper part was shaped as a ribbed “furrow” 0.15 m wide, and the lower part was comprised of three convex straps. The entire surface of the frontal wall (0.4 m high) was covered with black lacquer; the thickness of the coating was 2–3 mm. The preserved part of the chariot floor, measuring 0.5 by 1 m, was represented by traces of black lacquered planks fixed crosswise. The planks formed a lattice (the size of rhombic openings between the planks was 9 by 9 cm) (Fig. 9–10). Corroded fragments of
iron objects possibly associated with the chariot’s construction were found under the floor. Remains of two wooden wheels approx. 1.5 m in diameter (Fig. 9, 12) lay to the east and west of the chariot body. Spokes were covered with black lacquer, and their central part was lacquered red (Fig. 13). A wide wooden felloe 8 cm thick was painted black and contained no metal parts. Judging by the right, betterpreserved specimen, each wheel had 21 spokes. The outside of the smaller interior felloe holding the spokes was lacquered red, while its inside was painted black. The wheels were attached to the axle with two iron hubs and rings, as well as with massive gilded bronze axle end pieces (only one specimen is available) (Fig. 14). A bronze gilded cylinder containing remains of a wooden rod (Fig. 15) was also found.
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0
50 cm
Fig. 9. Plan of the chariot body and nearby ¿nds.
0
50 cm
Fig. 10. Chariot seat and a part of the body.
Fig. 11. Remains of the chariot Àoor with fragments of corroded iron objects in the center.
Interpretation
during the Han period. Such vehicles were used both as light pleasure carriages and as military chariots. The umbrella called hua gai invented during the Han period was a distinguishing feature of these carriages. During the Chin Dynasty period, such umbrellas were rarely used (Kozhanov, 1984: 74). The wheels of yao
Chariots from Hunnu graves provide unique information about the construction and decoration of Han carriages. The chariot from Noin Ula mound 20 represents the yao che type of carriages which was the most popular
N.V. Polosmak et al. / Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 36/4 (2008) 63–69
0
50 cm
Fig. 12. Spatial distribution of ¿nds under the chariot body.
Fig. 14. Bronze gilded axle end piece with remains of the wooden axle.
Fig. 13. Fragment of the right wheel in situ.
che were large, with a massive hub; the spokes differed in cross-section: they were elliptical near the hub and almost round near the felloe. Normally, one horse was harnessed to such a chariot, sometimes two or three (Ibid.: 70) (Fig. 16). Light chariots with umbrellas were possibly buried in other Noin Ula mounds that have been studied in the past. Bronze tips of umbrella ribs were found scattered in the burial chamber of Mokry kurgan (No. 1) (Rudenko, 1962: 117, pl. 28, 6, 7), in Kondratievsky mound, and in kurgan No. 25 (Ibid.: 123). Fragments of umbrellas and wooden wheels as well as axle end pieces (Ibid.: pl. 28, 5, 6), grab handles (Ibid.: pl. 28, 1, 2, 4), and rein rings (Ibid.: pl. 28, 3, 5) have also been found. In 2005, French archaeologists discovered a light carriage similar to the Noin Ula chariot in grave T20 of
Fig. 15. Bronze gilded tip of a yoke pole (?).
the Gol Mod burial site in Arhangay aimag of Mongolia (Guilhem, 2007: 75; Desroches, 2007: ¿g. 21). The grave pit contained bronze tips of umbrella ribs, metal parts of wheels, and traces of red lacquer from the chariot’s walls (Guilhem, 2007: 71–73; Desroches, 2007: ¿g. 13). In the territory of modern China, yao che chariots were recorded at many Han sites (see, e.g., (Liu Yonghua, 2002:
67
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Fig. 16. Reconstruction of a light Han chariot (after (Liu Yonghua, 2002: 133)).
Fig. 17. Reconstruction of chariot No. 1 from Han tomb No. 1 at Shuangrushan Hill (after (Cui Dayong, 1997: 24)).
Fig. 18. Reduced chariot replica from Han burial No. 48 at Wuwei, Gansu Province (after (Liu Yonghua, 2002: 105, ¿g. 127)).
133; Cui Dayong, 1997: 24)). Wheels of the chariot from a Han burial at Shuangrushan Hill ((Shandong Province) were approx. 144 cm in diameter and presumably had 30 spokes. Thirty mushroom-shaped gilded bronze tips of umbrella ribs (5.6 cm long) were found in this burial. The diameter of the umbrella was 160 cm. Traces of silk cloth were preserved on the ribs. The chariot body was poorly preserved. Numerous copper parts of the chariot were encrusted with silver and evidence highly developed Han artistic traditions (Cui Dayong, 1997: 19– 21). Although the chariot was only partially preserved (most wooden parts were decayed, and metal components were disordered), Chinese archaeologists made an attempt to reconstruct its appearance on the base of wooden and bronze sculptures of carriages from Han burials, artifacts from the tomb of Emperor Qing Shihuang, written records, and numerous depictions of Han chariots. Parts of chariot No. 1 from tomb No. 1 at Shuangrushan Hill (Fig. 17) correspond completely to components of a carriage found at the Mancheng burial (Hebei Province) and to those of a reduced chariot replica from Han burial No. 48 at Wuwei (Fig. 18). The similarities evidence that these carriages are attributable to a single type which in written records is referred to as a “light military chariot”* (Ibid.: 22). In his Dispute about Salt and Iron, one of the most important sources of information on the Western Han culture, Huan Kuan, censuring the mores of his time, described this type of chariots with umbrellas thus: “At the present, rich plebeians [decorate their carriages] with silver and gold, and the ornaments include golden Àowers with stalks curved like claws, fastened on tips of the arches of which the frame of the tent is made; [also, they] attach tassels to poles and wrap the Àagpoles in brocade; the middle class inlay bits with gold, paint [parts of carriages] scarlet, decorate banners with jade, and [equip carriages with] ‘Àying wooden grilles’” (Huan Kuan, 2001: 85–86). Interestingly, according to an act issued by Tsin-di (144 BC), dignitaries receiving 2000 measures of shi, were entitled to paint both side doors of their carriages with cinnabar, and of¿cials receiving 1000 to 600 shi were allowed to paint only the left door likewise (Ibid.: 356–357). Chariots belonging to the so-called ¿ve baits of the Chinese court, were meant to subdue the Hunnu (Hu barbarians) and urge them to fall to *Translated from the Chinese by A.N. Chistyakova.
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the feet of the emperor. “We will entice them, we will attract their ears, we will attract their eyes, we will attract their mouths, we will attract their stomachs, and so they will be attracted in four manners,” a high-ranking of¿cial reported to the emperor, “And we will attract their hearts. Won’t we be able to subdue the Hu barbarians, won’t we make them fall prone before us? These are the ¿ve baits” (quoted after (Ermakov, 2005: 375)). For the ¿rst bait, it was recommended to give Hsiung-nu clan elders luxurious items; among those were ¿ve chariots ornamented with silver. The fourth bait, destined to demonstrate generosity toward the high-ranking Hsiungnu who had defected to the Chinese, included a combat chariot as a personal donation (Ibid.). This, apparently, was the way the chariots reached the steppe. Certain Hunnu burials of that period contained chariots of other types as well. Thus, at Tsaram Mound 7, Buriatia, a Han chariot was found (Minyayev, Sakharovskaya, 2007). Judging by the reconstruction suggested by the excavators, its type differed from that of the chariot from Noin Ula mound 20 (Ibid.: ¿g. 3, 5). Conclusions The chariot discovered at Noin Ula mound 20 was of a pleasure type (yao che); however, it could as well be used as a combat or a hunting vehicle. All its wooden parts were lacquered, and its bronze details were gilded. The umbrella was ornamented with scarlet silk ribbons tied to each sixth rib. The intact chariot was placed in the grave, and only the wheels were removed. It was transported to the graves by way of a dromos. The tradition of placing one or several chariots in the grave was a part of the ancient Chinese funerary rite. Members of the Han elite were sometimes buried with several dozen chariots of various types. They were placed at the entrance to the grave, above the burial chamber or next to it. The presence of a chariot at Noin Ula mound 20 evidences the buried person’s high status, and indicates that the funeral was arranged according to Han traditions. According to Chinese written sources, chariots along with other luxurious items were presented to members of the Hunnu elite by the Chinese emperor’s court, and were buried together with high-ranking Hunnu. However, chariots may have been trophies, which were always far more abundant than were voluntary donations received by the Hunnu from the Han.
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