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The HEXACO model of personality and video game preferences
Accepted Manuscript The HEXACO Model of Personality and Video Game Preferences Virgil Zeigler-Hill, Sean Monica PII: DOI: Reference:
S1875-9521(15)00010-5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.entcom.2015.08.001 ENTCOM 154
To appear in:
Entertainment Computing
Received Date: Revised Date: Accepted Date:
7 April 2015 17 July 2015 2 August 2015
Please cite this article as: V. Zeigler-Hill, S. Monica, The HEXACO Model of Personality and Video Game Preferences, Entertainment Computing (2015), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.entcom.2015.08.001
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1 The HEXACO Model of Personality and Video Game Preferences Virgil Zeigler-Hill Sean Monica Oakland University
Author Note Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Virgil Zeigler-Hill, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Oakland University, 212A Pryale Hall, Rochester, MI 48309. Email: [email protected] Abstract Personality dimensions are associated with preferences for various recreational activities. The present study examined whether personality dimensions differed in their associations with preferences for particular aspects of gaming experiences. We examined the unique associations that personality dimensions had with gaming preferences reported by 359 community members who were active gamers. The basic personality dimensions captured by the HEXACO model of personality were found to be associated with gaming preferences. For example, extraversion was found to have a moderate association with the socializer gaming preference (i.e., enjoyed interacting with others while playing) and a weak association with the daredevil gaming preference (i.e., enjoyed the thrill of taking risks in games). Discussion focuses on the implications of these results for understanding the connection between personality and preferences for gaming experiences. Keywords: Personality, HEXACO, video games, gaming
2 The HEXACO Model of Personality and Video Game Preferences
Introduction Playing video games (or “gaming”) is an extremely popular recreational activity in many parts of the world (Gentile & Anderson, 2003; Olson, 2010). Nearly 50% of households in the United States have at least one video game console (Entertainment Software Association, 2012). The earliest video games (e.g., Pong) often focused on a single principle of play and catered to a specific style of play which was due, at least in part, to the technological and creative limitations of the past. The sophistication of video games has increased dramatically during recent decades with improved graphics, innovations in interactivity, greater flexibility, and more compelling storylines that allow players to more easily immerse themselves in the games. In today’s marketplace, there are various types of video games that are intended to appeal to consumers with different kinds of preferences including first-person shooter games, strategy-based games, massive multiplayer online games, sports games, driving games, and adventure games. Each of these types of video games may contain elements that may be attractive to certain types of gamers. The goal of the present study was to examine whether basic personality dimensions were associated with gaming preferences. Personality dimensions play a vital role in shaping how individuals respond to various experiences including video games (e.g., Bean & Groth-Marnat, in press; Przybylski, Ryan, & Rigby, 2009; Teng, 2009; Yee, 2006). For example, gamers tend to report higher levels of extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness than non-gamers (Teng, 2008). In addition to personality differences between gamers and non-gamers, it is important to note that personality dimensions are associated with the extent and nature of play among gamers. Individuals who
3 report problematic video game playing patterns tend to possess higher levels of neuroticism and lower levels of agreeableness, conscientiousness, and extraversion (Collins, Freeman, & Chamarro-Premuzic, 2012; Huh & Bowman, 2008; Peters & Malesky, 2008). Bean and GrothMarnat (in press) found that personality dimensions were associated with the style of play that gamers preferred in a massive multiplayer online role-playing game (i.e., World of Warcraft). More specifically, gamers who preferred the Player vs. Player style reported higher levels of extraversion and emotional stability but lower levels of openness than gamers who preferred Player vs. Environment or Role-Playing styles. Chory and Goodboy (2011) found that individuals with higher levels of openness and lower levels of agreeableness played violent video games more frequently than other individuals. Taken together, these findings suggest that personality dimensions may be associated with preferences for particular types of gaming experiences. Individuals with a wide range of personality traits play video games but it is believed that they may do so for somewhat different reasons (e.g., Nacke, Bateman, & Mandryk, 2014). Previous studies have attempted to link personality dimensions with gaming preferences and satisfaction with gaming experiences but the results of those studies have been inconsistent (e.g., Bateman & Boon, 2005; Teng, 2009). A possible explanation for this inconsistency is that reports of personality dimensions in a gaming context may differ from those obtained in other contexts (Teng, 2009). As a result, it has been argued that studies concerning the links between personality and gaming preferences should focus on models that capture playing styles rather than trying to adapt psychological instruments for use in gaming contexts (e.g., Orji, Vassileva, & Mandryk, 2014). There have been a number of attempts to develop a taxonomy of gaming preferences that capture motivations for playing, expectations for games, and the kinds of
4 gaming dynamics and results that are enjoyable (e.g., Bartle, 1996, 2004; Nacke et al., 2014; Yee, 2006). A recent set of gaming preferences developed by Nacke et al. (2014) identifies seven types of preferences. Seekers report that they enjoy exploring things and discovering their surroundings. Survivors enjoy frightening scenes and the excitement that is associated with escaping from scary situations. Daredevils enjoy the thrill of taking risks in games. Masterminds enjoy solving puzzles, making decisions, and developing strategies. Conquerors enjoy struggling to overcome difficult challenges. Socializers enjoy interacting with others. Achievers enjoy completing tasks and achieving goals. Although it is unclear whether these are actual “types” in the classic sense (see Haslam & Kim, 2002, for an extended discussion of this basic issue), we believe that the gaming preferences identified by Nacke et al. (2014) have the potential to contribute to our understanding of the motivations that lead individuals to play video games despite the fact that research concerning these gaming preferences is still in its earliest stages. Overview and Predictions The goal of the present study was to examine the associations between basic personality dimensions and gaming preferences in order to develop a clearer understanding of what gamers enjoy about video games in general. We used the HEXACO model of personality (Ashton & Lee, 2009) to capture the basic dimensions of personality. The HEXACO is a six-factor model that includes variants of the Big Five dimensions of personality (e.g., Costa & McCrae, 1992; Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1993) as well as an honesty-humility dimension that captures the degree to which individuals exhibit fairness, sincerity, and modesty. In this model, emotionality captures the extent to which individuals are susceptible to negative emotional states (e.g., worry, anxiety). Extraversion reflects characteristics such as sociability, dominance, and talkativeness. Agreeableness includes traits such as friendliness, warmth, and cooperativeness.
5 Conscientiousness is characterized by attributes such as carefulness, self-discipline, and reliability. Openness captures qualities such as curiosity, imaginativeness, and originality. Three of the HEXACO dimensions (i.e., extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness) closely resemble their Big Five counterparts, whereas emotionality (which is equivalent to “neuroticism” in the Big Five model) and agreeableness reflect slightly rotated versions of their Big Five counterparts (Ashton, Lee, & de Vries, 2014; Lee & Ashton, 2012). It is important to examine the connections between basic personality dimensions and the gaming preferences described by Nacke et al. (2014) because those preferences were developed using the Myers-Briggs typology (e.g., Myers & McCaulley, 1989) as a basis. The fundamental claim of the Myers-Briggs typology is that people can be divided into 16 personality types that are determined using four basic dimensions each of which consists of two opposing preferences (i.e., Extraversion vs. Introversion, Sensing vs. Intuition, Thinking vs. Feeling, Judgment vs. Perception). Although the Myers-Briggs typology is still quite popular in some areas (e.g., career counseling), there is a broad consensus among scholars that the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator fails to meet many of the basic standards expected of psychological tests including issues as basic as being a reliable and valid test (e.g., DeVito, 1985; Hicks, 1984; McCrae & Costa, 1989; Pittenger, 1993; Stricker & Ross, 1964a, 1964b). These serious concerns about the Myers-Briggs typology do not necessarily undermine the utility of the gaming preferences developed by Nacke et al. (2014) but these concerns suggest that it would be beneficial to examine whether there are connections between these gaming preferences and a model of personality – such as the HEXACO – that has a substantive research foundation. Thus, the present study may provide a bridge that links the immense literature concerning basic personality dimensions with the
6 recently developed BrainHex gaming preferences which has only received very limited empirical attention so far. We expected emotionality to be negatively associated with the daredevil preference. The rationale for this prediction was that individuals with high levels of emotionality may be uncomfortable with the sensation-seeking aspects of the daredevil preference (e.g., Glicksohn & Abulafia, 1998). We believed that extraversion would be positively associated with the daredevil and socializer preferences because extraversion is closely linked with sensation-seeking and sociability (e.g., Campbell & Heller, 1987; Glicksohn & Abulafia, 1998). We expected conscientiousness to be positively associated with the achiever preference because conscientiousness is often the most important predictor above and beyond cognitive variables in explaining individual differences in academic and occupational performance (e.g., Laidra, Pullmann, & Allik, 2007; Paunonen & Ashton, 2001). We thought openness to experience would be positively associated with the seeker preference because openness has been shown to be closely associated with curiosity and a desire to explore (e.g., Kashdan, Rose, & Fincham, 2004). We did not have specific predictions for honesty-humility or agreeableness but we included these personality dimensions for exploratory purposes and reportorial completeness. Method Participants and Procedure Participants were 359 community members from the United States who were recruited using online gaming forums (e.g., Origin, Steam, IGN). Participants (268 men, 84 women, 7 undisclosed) were asked to complete measures concerning basic personality dimensions and gaming preferences via a secure website. The mean age of the participants was 25.11 years (SD = 8.27) and their racial/ethnic composition was 79% White, 8% Asian, 4% Hispanic, 2% Black,
7 and 7% other. All of the participants were active gamers with 79% of the sample reporting that they played video games at least 9 hours per week. Further, the sample included a sizable number of participants who were extremely active in their gaming activities with 26% of the sample reporting playing video games more than 25 hours per week. Measures Personality Dimensions. The HEXACO-60 (Ashton & Lee, 2009) was used to assess basic personality dimensions. The HEXACO-60 is a 60-item measure designed to assess six basic dimensions of personality: honesty-humility (10 items; e.g., “I wouldn’t use flattery to get a raise or promotion at work, even if I thought it would succeed” [ = .73]), emotionality (10 items; e.g., “I sometimes can’t help worrying about little things” [ = .83]), extraversion (10 items; e.g., “In social situations, I’m usually the one who makes the first move” [ = .84]), agreeableness (10 items; e.g., “I rarely hold a grudge, even against people who have badly wronged me” [ = .82]), conscientiousness (10 items; e.g. “I often push myself very hard when trying to achieve a goal” [ = .77]), and openness to experience (10 items; e.g., “I would enjoy creating a work of art, such as a novel, a song, or a painting” [ = .77]). Participants were asked to rate their level of agreement for each item using scales that ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The HEXACO-60 has been found to possess adequate psychometric properties in previous studies (e.g., Ashton & Lee, 2009). Gaming Preferences. The BrainHex survey (Nacke et al., 2014) was used to assess gaming preferences. The BrainHex survey is a 21-item measure designed to assess seven basic dimensions of gaming preferences: seeker (3 items; e.g., “Exploring to see what you can find” [ = .67]), survivor (3 items; e.g., “Frantically escaping from a terrifying foe” [ = .56]), daredevil (3 items; e.g., “Responding quickly to an exciting situation” [ = .58]), mastermind (3 items;
8 e.g., “Working out how to crack a challenging puzzle” [ = .50]), conqueror (3 items; e.g. “Completing a punishing challenge after failing many times” [ = .54]), socializer (3 items; e.g., “Playing in a group, online or in the same room” [ = .76]), and achiever (3 items; e.g., “Getting 100% [completing everything in the game]” [ = .82]). Participants were asked to rate their level of agreement for each item using scales that ranged from 1 (I hate it!) to 5 (I love it!). We examined the scores of participants on each of the seven preferences rather than using their responses to classify participants into a dominant “gamer type.” Results The descriptive statistics and intercorrelations for the variables included in this study are presented in Table 1. It is important to note that sex differences emerged for a number of the variables that were examined in the present study. Men reported higher scores than women for extraversion (t[350] = 3.27, p = .001; MMen = 2.92, MWomen = 2.60), survivor preference (t[350] = 2.25, p = .03; MMen = 3.40, MWomen = 3.17), daredevil preference (t[350] = 3.46, p = .001; MMen = 3.65, MWomen = 3.34), conqueror preference (t[350] = 4.65, p < .001; MMen = 3.92, MWomen = 3.48), and socializer preference (t[350] = 3.33, p = .001; MMen = 3.72, MWomen = 3.35). Women reported higher scores than men for honesty-humility (t[350] = 2.12, p = .04; MMen = 3.43, MWomen = 3.61), emotionality (t[350] = 8.19, p < .001; MMen = 2.66, MWomen = 3.41), openness (t[350] = 2.29, p = .02; MMen = 3.50, MWomen = 3.71), seeker preference (t[350] = 3.04, p = .003; MMen = 3.82, MWomen = 4.10), and achiever preference (t[350] = 4.77, p < .001; MMen = 3.15, MWomen = 3.78). Despite the emergence of these sex differences, preliminary analyses that included sex as a moderator revealed that sex did not moderate any of the results that we report in later sections. As a result, sex will not be discussed further.
9 The present study used path analysis (Hoyle & Smith, 1994) to examine the unique associations that personality dimensions had with gaming preferences. Path analysis was used rather than multiple regression analyses because it has the ability to account for shared variance between outcome variables that are entered simultaneously and uses fewer inferential tests, which reduces the likelihood of committing a Type 1 error (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004). The path analysis was performed in AMOS (version 20; Arbuckle, 2010) and the model was justidentified (i.e., model estimates as many parameters as there are data points, resulting in a theoretical perfect fit) so all fit indices were held constant and are not reported (Kline, 2011). The model is displayed in Figure 1 and the standardized path coefficients are presented in Table 2. Seeker Emotionality (β = .20, p < .001) and openness (β = .34, p < .001) were positively associated with the seeker preference. Survivor Extraversion (β = .13, p = .02) and openness (β = .12, p = .03) were positively associated with the survivor preference, whereas conscientiousness was negatively associated with the survivor preference (β = -.11, p = .04). Daredevil Extraversion (β = .24, p < .001) was positively associated with the daredevil preference, whereas emotionality was negatively associated with the daredevil preference (β = -.17, p < .001). Mastermind
10 Conscientiousness (β = .12, p = .03) and openness (β = .16, p = .003) were positively associated with the mastermind preference, whereas emotionality was negatively associated with the mastermind preference (β = -.12, p = .03). Conqueror Extraversion was positively associated with the conqueror preference (β = .19, p < .001), whereas emotionality (β = -.11, p = .04) and openness (β = -.16, p = .003) were negatively associated with the conqueror preference. Socializer Extraversion (β = .33, p < .001) and agreeableness (β = .13, p = .01) were positively associated with the socializer preference, whereas openness was negatively associated with the socializer preference (β = -.10, p = .04). Achiever Emotionality (β = .28, p < .001), extraversion (β = .15, p = .01), and conscientiousness (β = .13, p = .01) were positively associated with the achiever preference. Discussion The present study examined the associations between basic personality dimensions and gaming preferences. This is important because the gaming preferences that we examined were developed using the Myers-Briggs typology which has consistently failed to meet basic standards for personality assessment (e.g., Stricker & Ross, 1964). Thus, the present work links these newly developed gaming preferences with an empirically supported model of personality. We found support for each of our hypotheses. Emotionality had a weak negative association with the daredevil gaming preference. We believe that individuals with high levels of emotionality may report relatively low levels of the daredevil preference because its sensation-seeking aspects may
11 be somewhat upsetting to them. It is also important to note that emotionality had weak negative associations with the mastermind and conqueror preferences as well as weak positive associations with the seeker and achiever preferences. The pattern of associations for emotionality suggest that individuals who are sensitive, nervous, or prone to negative emotional experiences may prefer gaming experiences that involve seeking and achieving rather than those involving excitement or competition. This is consistent with the results of previous studies showing that individuals who prefer Role-Playing games tend to have higher levels of emotionality than those who prefer Player vs. Player or Player vs. Environment games (e.g., Bean & Groth-Marnat, in press). It is interesting to note that individuals with high levels of emotionality are the most adversely affected by violent video games when their high levels of emotionality are accompanied by low levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness (Markey & Markey, 2010). Our predictions that extraversion would be associated with the socializer preference and the daredevil preference were supported such that extraversion had a moderate positive association with the socializer preference and a weak positive association with the daredevil preference. These results are consistent with previous research linking extraversion with sensation-seeking and sociability (e.g., Campbell & Heller, 1987; Glicksohn & Abulafia, 1998). Extraversion also had weak positive associations with the survivor, conqueror, and achiever gaming preferences. Taken together, these results suggest that individuals with high levels of extraversion prefer games that are exciting, competitive, and social. As a result, it is likely that individuals with high levels of extraversion may be drawn to experiences such as playing Call of Duty with their friends rather than playing a quiet game of computer solitaire by themselves. This is consistent with the idea that individuals with high levels of extraversion are energetic,
12 socially dominant, and outgoing. Unlike individuals with high levels of emotionality, individuals with high levels of extraversion prefer Player vs. Player or Player vs. Environment games over Role-Playing games (Bean & Groth-Marnat, in press). Conscientiousness had a weak positive association with the achiever preference. This is consistent with the view of individuals with high levels of conscientiousness as being efficient, organized, and task-focused (e.g., Minbashian, Wood, & Beckmann, 2010; Perry, Hunter, Witt, & Harris, 2010). Conscientiousness also had a weak positive association with the mastermind preference and a weak negative association with the survivor preference. This pattern suggests that individuals with high levels of conscientiousness may prefer games that are focused on accomplishing specific tasks or solving challenges rather than those that focus purely on excitement. We expected openness to experience to be positively associated with the seeker preference and this was supported by our results. This is consistent with previous results linking openness with qualities such as curiosity and a desire to explore (e.g., Kashdan et al., 2004). Openness also had weak positive associations with the survivor and mastermind preferences as well as weak negative associations with the conqueror and socializer preferences. This pattern suggests that individuals with high levels of openness may prefer games that involve satisfying their curiosity rather than connecting with others or dominating others in competition. We did not have hypotheses for honesty-humility or agreeableness but we included these personality dimensions for exploratory purposes. Honesty-humility was not associated with any of the gaming preferences but agreeableness was found to have a weak positive association with the socializer preference. This is consistent with the fact that agreeableness captures the extent to which individuals have a positive orientation toward others (Costa & McCrae, 1992). It is not
13 particularly surprising that individuals with high levels of agreeableness were found to endorse the socializer preference given their tendency to be trusting, cooperative, helpful, and sympathetic (Costa, McCrae, & Dembroski, 1989). The present findings suggest that personality is linked with preferences for particular aspects of gaming experiences. This is consistent with other recent work that has focused on the connections between personality features and recreational activities (e.g., Besser & Priel, 2006; Furnham, 2004; Noser, Zeigler-Hill, & Besser, 2014). This work is important because recreational activities are a vital part of life for many individuals and these activities are often found to be satisfying and pleasurable. Despite the importance of recreational activities such as playing video games, psychology has paid relatively little attention to this aspect of life until somewhat recently. The results of the present study suggest that personality features may play an important role in which aspects of gaming experiences individuals enjoy. These results may have implications for marketing strategies for video game manufacturers, the identification of target audiences for games that are being developed, and the development of recommendation algorithms to assist gamers with identifying new video games they may enjoy playing. For example, recommendation algorithms could be developed using a blend of personality traits, gaming preferences, and evaluations of previous games to direct consumers toward other games that they may enjoy (e.g., individuals who have provided positive evaluations for massively multiplayer online role-playing games [MMORPGs] in the past may be directed toward other MMORPGs that emphasize shared quests or adventures if they have high levels of extraversion or that focus on an elaborate system of classes and types if they have low levels of extraversion). The present work connects the BrainHex gaming preferences to the immense literature concerning basic personality dimensions which may stimulate further research in this area. For
14 example, extraversion facilitates the initiation and maintenance of social relationships (e.g., Ashton & Lee, 2007) which may be beneficial for playing MMORPGs because individuals with high levels of extraversion may be able to form new alliances and friendships quite easily. However, extraversion also has costs that may be relevant to gaming contexts such as the tendency to engage in potentially costly competition with rivals (e.g., Lund, Tamnes, Mouestue, Buss, & Vollrath, 2007). All personality traits involve trade-offs that may have implications for various aspects of gaming experiences (e.g., preferences for particular styles of games, amount of time spent gaming). The connection between the BrainHex gaming preferences and the HEXACO dimensions of basic personality may eventually lead to the development of an even richer representation of gaming preferences that draws upon contemporary psychological science. Limitations and Future Directions The present study extends what is known about the associations between basic personality dimensions and gaming preferences among active gamers. Although the present study had a number of strengths (e.g., large sample of active gamers), there are several potential limitations that should also be considered. Given the correlational nature of the present study, the direction of causality between basic personality dimensions and gaming preferences cannot be determined. The underlying process model of the present study was that basic personality dimension influence the development of gaming preferences. However, this causal sequence cannot be clearly established using the data from the present study. One possible alternative is that gaming preferences may exert some influence over basic personality dimensions. Although this is an unlikely explanation for the present results, previous studies have shown that exposure to violent video games increases aggressive behavior in part through changes in personality
15 connected with desensitization (Bartholow, Sestir, & Davis, 2005). Another potential limitation of the present research was our strategy for capturing gaming preferences. We chose to employ the BrainHex survey which is a relatively new instrument. Although the BrainHex survey has a great deal of potential for capturing gaming preferences, it was initially intended by its developers to serve as an indicator of gaming “types” which is problematic because it is unclear whether it actually captures unique categories of gaming preferences into which individuals can be reliably sorted. This is why we treated the scores for each gaming preference in a manner that is more consistent with psychological traits than psychological types. Further, some dimensions of the BrainHex survey had relatively low levels of internal consistency in the present study. Future researchers may want to continue refining the BrainHex survey to improve its psychometric properties. Conclusion The results of the present study demonstrate that basic personality dimensions are associated with gaming preferences among active gamers. That is, individuals with certain personality dimensions differed in their gaming preferences. For example, individuals with high levels of extraversion were more likely to endorse the daredevil and socializer preferences. This suggests that individuals who scored higher on extraversion prefer to play video games that are exciting and that allow them to interact with others.
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20 Noser, A. E., Zeigler-Hill, V., & Besser, A. (2014). Stress and affective experiences: The importance of dark personality features. Journal of Research in Personality, 53, 158-164. Olson, C. K. (2010). Children’s motivations for video game play in the context of normal development. Review of General Psychology, 14, 180-187. Orji, R., Vassileva, J., & Mandryk, R. L. (2014). Modeling the efficacy of persuasive strategies for different gamer types in serious games for health. User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction, 24, 453-498. Paunonen, S. V., & Ashton, M. C. (2001). Big five predictors of academic achievement. Journal of Research in Personality, 35, 78-90. Perry, S. J., Hunter, E. M., Witt, L. A., & Harris, K. J. (2010). P = ƒ (conscientiousness × ability): Examining the facets of conscientiousness. Human Performance, 23, 343-360. Peters, C. S. & Malesky, L. A. (2008). Problematic usage among highly-engaged players of massively multiplayer online role playing games. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11, 481484. Pittenger, D. J. (1993). The utility of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Review of Educational Research, 63, 467-488. Przybylski, A. K., Ryan, R. M., & Rigby, C. S. (2009). The motivating role of violence in video games. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 243-259. Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner’s guide to structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis. Stricker, L. J., & Ross, J. (1964a) An assessment of some structural properties of the Jungian personality typology Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68, 62-71. Stricker, L. J., & Ross, J. (1964b) Some correlates of a Jungian personality inventory
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22 Table 1 Intercorrelations and Descriptive Statistics 1 2 1. Honesty-Humility — 2. Emotionality .00 — 3. Extraversion -.01 -.28*** 4. Agreeableness .24*** -.09 5. Conscientiousness .14** -.17*** 6. Openness .19*** .01 7. Seeker .07 .19*** 8. Survivor -.08 .04 9. Daredevil -.10 -.23*** 10. Mastermind .02 -.15** 11. Conqueror -.10 -.16** 12. Socializer -.06 -.14** 13. Achiever -.03 .21*** M 3.48 SD 0.68 * ** *** p < .05; p < .01; p < .001.
2.85 0.80
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
— .18*** .28*** .09 .04 .11* .27*** .12* .19*** .34*** .12*
— .09 — .17*** .12* .08 .01 .08 -.08 .03 .05 .02 .16** .01 -.01 .16** .04 .05 .13*
— .35*** .11* -.03 .16** -.16** -.07 .06
— .33*** .21*** .31*** .06 .01 .35***
— .37*** .34*** .33*** .20*** .18***
— .30*** .42*** .41*** .11*
— .40*** .06 .18***
— .32*** .13*
— .02
—
2.84 0.79
3.16 0.64
3.56 0.72
3.90 0.75
3.35 0.84
3.58 0.74
3.88 0.67
3.80 0.80
3.62 0.90
3.30 1.10
3.39 0.65
23 Table 2 Standardized Path Coefficients Seeker Honesty-Humility .00 Emotionality .20*** Extraversion .06 Agreeableness .03 Conscientiousness -.01 Openness .34*** * p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
Survivor -.10 .07 .13* .07 -.11* .12*
Daredevil -.09 -.17*** .24*** .00 -.03 -.03
Mastermind -.02 -.12* .04 -.03 .12* .16**
Conqueror -.06 -.11* .19*** .02 -.06 -.16**
Socializer -.07 -.05 .33*** .13* -.05 -.10*
Achiever -.06 .28*** .15** .04 .13* .03
24
Figure 1. Path model of the associations that personality dimensions had with video game preferences. Note: Rectangles indicate measured variables and circles indicate disturbance terms. The significant associations are indicated by solid black arrows and nonsignificant associations are indicates by dashed grey arrows. The significant correlations among the predictor variables (i.e., personality dimensions) and outcome variables (i.e., video game preferences) are indicated by solid curved bidirectional arrows and nonsignificant correlations are represented by dashed curved bidirectional arrows.
25 Highlights Emotionality was negatively associated with daredevil preference. Extraversion was positively associated with daredevil and socializer preferences. Conscientiousness was positively associated with the achiever preference.
S1875-9521(15)00010-5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.entcom.2015.08.001 ENTCOM 154
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Entertainment Computing
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7 April 2015 17 July 2015 2 August 2015
Please cite this article as: V. Zeigler-Hill, S. Monica, The HEXACO Model of Personality and Video Game Preferences, Entertainment Computing (2015), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.entcom.2015.08.001
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1 The HEXACO Model of Personality and Video Game Preferences Virgil Zeigler-Hill Sean Monica Oakland University
Author Note Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Virgil Zeigler-Hill, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Oakland University, 212A Pryale Hall, Rochester, MI 48309. Email: [email protected] Abstract Personality dimensions are associated with preferences for various recreational activities. The present study examined whether personality dimensions differed in their associations with preferences for particular aspects of gaming experiences. We examined the unique associations that personality dimensions had with gaming preferences reported by 359 community members who were active gamers. The basic personality dimensions captured by the HEXACO model of personality were found to be associated with gaming preferences. For example, extraversion was found to have a moderate association with the socializer gaming preference (i.e., enjoyed interacting with others while playing) and a weak association with the daredevil gaming preference (i.e., enjoyed the thrill of taking risks in games). Discussion focuses on the implications of these results for understanding the connection between personality and preferences for gaming experiences. Keywords: Personality, HEXACO, video games, gaming
2 The HEXACO Model of Personality and Video Game Preferences
Introduction Playing video games (or “gaming”) is an extremely popular recreational activity in many parts of the world (Gentile & Anderson, 2003; Olson, 2010). Nearly 50% of households in the United States have at least one video game console (Entertainment Software Association, 2012). The earliest video games (e.g., Pong) often focused on a single principle of play and catered to a specific style of play which was due, at least in part, to the technological and creative limitations of the past. The sophistication of video games has increased dramatically during recent decades with improved graphics, innovations in interactivity, greater flexibility, and more compelling storylines that allow players to more easily immerse themselves in the games. In today’s marketplace, there are various types of video games that are intended to appeal to consumers with different kinds of preferences including first-person shooter games, strategy-based games, massive multiplayer online games, sports games, driving games, and adventure games. Each of these types of video games may contain elements that may be attractive to certain types of gamers. The goal of the present study was to examine whether basic personality dimensions were associated with gaming preferences. Personality dimensions play a vital role in shaping how individuals respond to various experiences including video games (e.g., Bean & Groth-Marnat, in press; Przybylski, Ryan, & Rigby, 2009; Teng, 2009; Yee, 2006). For example, gamers tend to report higher levels of extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness than non-gamers (Teng, 2008). In addition to personality differences between gamers and non-gamers, it is important to note that personality dimensions are associated with the extent and nature of play among gamers. Individuals who
3 report problematic video game playing patterns tend to possess higher levels of neuroticism and lower levels of agreeableness, conscientiousness, and extraversion (Collins, Freeman, & Chamarro-Premuzic, 2012; Huh & Bowman, 2008; Peters & Malesky, 2008). Bean and GrothMarnat (in press) found that personality dimensions were associated with the style of play that gamers preferred in a massive multiplayer online role-playing game (i.e., World of Warcraft). More specifically, gamers who preferred the Player vs. Player style reported higher levels of extraversion and emotional stability but lower levels of openness than gamers who preferred Player vs. Environment or Role-Playing styles. Chory and Goodboy (2011) found that individuals with higher levels of openness and lower levels of agreeableness played violent video games more frequently than other individuals. Taken together, these findings suggest that personality dimensions may be associated with preferences for particular types of gaming experiences. Individuals with a wide range of personality traits play video games but it is believed that they may do so for somewhat different reasons (e.g., Nacke, Bateman, & Mandryk, 2014). Previous studies have attempted to link personality dimensions with gaming preferences and satisfaction with gaming experiences but the results of those studies have been inconsistent (e.g., Bateman & Boon, 2005; Teng, 2009). A possible explanation for this inconsistency is that reports of personality dimensions in a gaming context may differ from those obtained in other contexts (Teng, 2009). As a result, it has been argued that studies concerning the links between personality and gaming preferences should focus on models that capture playing styles rather than trying to adapt psychological instruments for use in gaming contexts (e.g., Orji, Vassileva, & Mandryk, 2014). There have been a number of attempts to develop a taxonomy of gaming preferences that capture motivations for playing, expectations for games, and the kinds of
4 gaming dynamics and results that are enjoyable (e.g., Bartle, 1996, 2004; Nacke et al., 2014; Yee, 2006). A recent set of gaming preferences developed by Nacke et al. (2014) identifies seven types of preferences. Seekers report that they enjoy exploring things and discovering their surroundings. Survivors enjoy frightening scenes and the excitement that is associated with escaping from scary situations. Daredevils enjoy the thrill of taking risks in games. Masterminds enjoy solving puzzles, making decisions, and developing strategies. Conquerors enjoy struggling to overcome difficult challenges. Socializers enjoy interacting with others. Achievers enjoy completing tasks and achieving goals. Although it is unclear whether these are actual “types” in the classic sense (see Haslam & Kim, 2002, for an extended discussion of this basic issue), we believe that the gaming preferences identified by Nacke et al. (2014) have the potential to contribute to our understanding of the motivations that lead individuals to play video games despite the fact that research concerning these gaming preferences is still in its earliest stages. Overview and Predictions The goal of the present study was to examine the associations between basic personality dimensions and gaming preferences in order to develop a clearer understanding of what gamers enjoy about video games in general. We used the HEXACO model of personality (Ashton & Lee, 2009) to capture the basic dimensions of personality. The HEXACO is a six-factor model that includes variants of the Big Five dimensions of personality (e.g., Costa & McCrae, 1992; Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1993) as well as an honesty-humility dimension that captures the degree to which individuals exhibit fairness, sincerity, and modesty. In this model, emotionality captures the extent to which individuals are susceptible to negative emotional states (e.g., worry, anxiety). Extraversion reflects characteristics such as sociability, dominance, and talkativeness. Agreeableness includes traits such as friendliness, warmth, and cooperativeness.
5 Conscientiousness is characterized by attributes such as carefulness, self-discipline, and reliability. Openness captures qualities such as curiosity, imaginativeness, and originality. Three of the HEXACO dimensions (i.e., extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness) closely resemble their Big Five counterparts, whereas emotionality (which is equivalent to “neuroticism” in the Big Five model) and agreeableness reflect slightly rotated versions of their Big Five counterparts (Ashton, Lee, & de Vries, 2014; Lee & Ashton, 2012). It is important to examine the connections between basic personality dimensions and the gaming preferences described by Nacke et al. (2014) because those preferences were developed using the Myers-Briggs typology (e.g., Myers & McCaulley, 1989) as a basis. The fundamental claim of the Myers-Briggs typology is that people can be divided into 16 personality types that are determined using four basic dimensions each of which consists of two opposing preferences (i.e., Extraversion vs. Introversion, Sensing vs. Intuition, Thinking vs. Feeling, Judgment vs. Perception). Although the Myers-Briggs typology is still quite popular in some areas (e.g., career counseling), there is a broad consensus among scholars that the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator fails to meet many of the basic standards expected of psychological tests including issues as basic as being a reliable and valid test (e.g., DeVito, 1985; Hicks, 1984; McCrae & Costa, 1989; Pittenger, 1993; Stricker & Ross, 1964a, 1964b). These serious concerns about the Myers-Briggs typology do not necessarily undermine the utility of the gaming preferences developed by Nacke et al. (2014) but these concerns suggest that it would be beneficial to examine whether there are connections between these gaming preferences and a model of personality – such as the HEXACO – that has a substantive research foundation. Thus, the present study may provide a bridge that links the immense literature concerning basic personality dimensions with the
6 recently developed BrainHex gaming preferences which has only received very limited empirical attention so far. We expected emotionality to be negatively associated with the daredevil preference. The rationale for this prediction was that individuals with high levels of emotionality may be uncomfortable with the sensation-seeking aspects of the daredevil preference (e.g., Glicksohn & Abulafia, 1998). We believed that extraversion would be positively associated with the daredevil and socializer preferences because extraversion is closely linked with sensation-seeking and sociability (e.g., Campbell & Heller, 1987; Glicksohn & Abulafia, 1998). We expected conscientiousness to be positively associated with the achiever preference because conscientiousness is often the most important predictor above and beyond cognitive variables in explaining individual differences in academic and occupational performance (e.g., Laidra, Pullmann, & Allik, 2007; Paunonen & Ashton, 2001). We thought openness to experience would be positively associated with the seeker preference because openness has been shown to be closely associated with curiosity and a desire to explore (e.g., Kashdan, Rose, & Fincham, 2004). We did not have specific predictions for honesty-humility or agreeableness but we included these personality dimensions for exploratory purposes and reportorial completeness. Method Participants and Procedure Participants were 359 community members from the United States who were recruited using online gaming forums (e.g., Origin, Steam, IGN). Participants (268 men, 84 women, 7 undisclosed) were asked to complete measures concerning basic personality dimensions and gaming preferences via a secure website. The mean age of the participants was 25.11 years (SD = 8.27) and their racial/ethnic composition was 79% White, 8% Asian, 4% Hispanic, 2% Black,
7 and 7% other. All of the participants were active gamers with 79% of the sample reporting that they played video games at least 9 hours per week. Further, the sample included a sizable number of participants who were extremely active in their gaming activities with 26% of the sample reporting playing video games more than 25 hours per week. Measures Personality Dimensions. The HEXACO-60 (Ashton & Lee, 2009) was used to assess basic personality dimensions. The HEXACO-60 is a 60-item measure designed to assess six basic dimensions of personality: honesty-humility (10 items; e.g., “I wouldn’t use flattery to get a raise or promotion at work, even if I thought it would succeed” [ = .73]), emotionality (10 items; e.g., “I sometimes can’t help worrying about little things” [ = .83]), extraversion (10 items; e.g., “In social situations, I’m usually the one who makes the first move” [ = .84]), agreeableness (10 items; e.g., “I rarely hold a grudge, even against people who have badly wronged me” [ = .82]), conscientiousness (10 items; e.g. “I often push myself very hard when trying to achieve a goal” [ = .77]), and openness to experience (10 items; e.g., “I would enjoy creating a work of art, such as a novel, a song, or a painting” [ = .77]). Participants were asked to rate their level of agreement for each item using scales that ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The HEXACO-60 has been found to possess adequate psychometric properties in previous studies (e.g., Ashton & Lee, 2009). Gaming Preferences. The BrainHex survey (Nacke et al., 2014) was used to assess gaming preferences. The BrainHex survey is a 21-item measure designed to assess seven basic dimensions of gaming preferences: seeker (3 items; e.g., “Exploring to see what you can find” [ = .67]), survivor (3 items; e.g., “Frantically escaping from a terrifying foe” [ = .56]), daredevil (3 items; e.g., “Responding quickly to an exciting situation” [ = .58]), mastermind (3 items;
8 e.g., “Working out how to crack a challenging puzzle” [ = .50]), conqueror (3 items; e.g. “Completing a punishing challenge after failing many times” [ = .54]), socializer (3 items; e.g., “Playing in a group, online or in the same room” [ = .76]), and achiever (3 items; e.g., “Getting 100% [completing everything in the game]” [ = .82]). Participants were asked to rate their level of agreement for each item using scales that ranged from 1 (I hate it!) to 5 (I love it!). We examined the scores of participants on each of the seven preferences rather than using their responses to classify participants into a dominant “gamer type.” Results The descriptive statistics and intercorrelations for the variables included in this study are presented in Table 1. It is important to note that sex differences emerged for a number of the variables that were examined in the present study. Men reported higher scores than women for extraversion (t[350] = 3.27, p = .001; MMen = 2.92, MWomen = 2.60), survivor preference (t[350] = 2.25, p = .03; MMen = 3.40, MWomen = 3.17), daredevil preference (t[350] = 3.46, p = .001; MMen = 3.65, MWomen = 3.34), conqueror preference (t[350] = 4.65, p < .001; MMen = 3.92, MWomen = 3.48), and socializer preference (t[350] = 3.33, p = .001; MMen = 3.72, MWomen = 3.35). Women reported higher scores than men for honesty-humility (t[350] = 2.12, p = .04; MMen = 3.43, MWomen = 3.61), emotionality (t[350] = 8.19, p < .001; MMen = 2.66, MWomen = 3.41), openness (t[350] = 2.29, p = .02; MMen = 3.50, MWomen = 3.71), seeker preference (t[350] = 3.04, p = .003; MMen = 3.82, MWomen = 4.10), and achiever preference (t[350] = 4.77, p < .001; MMen = 3.15, MWomen = 3.78). Despite the emergence of these sex differences, preliminary analyses that included sex as a moderator revealed that sex did not moderate any of the results that we report in later sections. As a result, sex will not be discussed further.
9 The present study used path analysis (Hoyle & Smith, 1994) to examine the unique associations that personality dimensions had with gaming preferences. Path analysis was used rather than multiple regression analyses because it has the ability to account for shared variance between outcome variables that are entered simultaneously and uses fewer inferential tests, which reduces the likelihood of committing a Type 1 error (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004). The path analysis was performed in AMOS (version 20; Arbuckle, 2010) and the model was justidentified (i.e., model estimates as many parameters as there are data points, resulting in a theoretical perfect fit) so all fit indices were held constant and are not reported (Kline, 2011). The model is displayed in Figure 1 and the standardized path coefficients are presented in Table 2. Seeker Emotionality (β = .20, p < .001) and openness (β = .34, p < .001) were positively associated with the seeker preference. Survivor Extraversion (β = .13, p = .02) and openness (β = .12, p = .03) were positively associated with the survivor preference, whereas conscientiousness was negatively associated with the survivor preference (β = -.11, p = .04). Daredevil Extraversion (β = .24, p < .001) was positively associated with the daredevil preference, whereas emotionality was negatively associated with the daredevil preference (β = -.17, p < .001). Mastermind
10 Conscientiousness (β = .12, p = .03) and openness (β = .16, p = .003) were positively associated with the mastermind preference, whereas emotionality was negatively associated with the mastermind preference (β = -.12, p = .03). Conqueror Extraversion was positively associated with the conqueror preference (β = .19, p < .001), whereas emotionality (β = -.11, p = .04) and openness (β = -.16, p = .003) were negatively associated with the conqueror preference. Socializer Extraversion (β = .33, p < .001) and agreeableness (β = .13, p = .01) were positively associated with the socializer preference, whereas openness was negatively associated with the socializer preference (β = -.10, p = .04). Achiever Emotionality (β = .28, p < .001), extraversion (β = .15, p = .01), and conscientiousness (β = .13, p = .01) were positively associated with the achiever preference. Discussion The present study examined the associations between basic personality dimensions and gaming preferences. This is important because the gaming preferences that we examined were developed using the Myers-Briggs typology which has consistently failed to meet basic standards for personality assessment (e.g., Stricker & Ross, 1964). Thus, the present work links these newly developed gaming preferences with an empirically supported model of personality. We found support for each of our hypotheses. Emotionality had a weak negative association with the daredevil gaming preference. We believe that individuals with high levels of emotionality may report relatively low levels of the daredevil preference because its sensation-seeking aspects may
11 be somewhat upsetting to them. It is also important to note that emotionality had weak negative associations with the mastermind and conqueror preferences as well as weak positive associations with the seeker and achiever preferences. The pattern of associations for emotionality suggest that individuals who are sensitive, nervous, or prone to negative emotional experiences may prefer gaming experiences that involve seeking and achieving rather than those involving excitement or competition. This is consistent with the results of previous studies showing that individuals who prefer Role-Playing games tend to have higher levels of emotionality than those who prefer Player vs. Player or Player vs. Environment games (e.g., Bean & Groth-Marnat, in press). It is interesting to note that individuals with high levels of emotionality are the most adversely affected by violent video games when their high levels of emotionality are accompanied by low levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness (Markey & Markey, 2010). Our predictions that extraversion would be associated with the socializer preference and the daredevil preference were supported such that extraversion had a moderate positive association with the socializer preference and a weak positive association with the daredevil preference. These results are consistent with previous research linking extraversion with sensation-seeking and sociability (e.g., Campbell & Heller, 1987; Glicksohn & Abulafia, 1998). Extraversion also had weak positive associations with the survivor, conqueror, and achiever gaming preferences. Taken together, these results suggest that individuals with high levels of extraversion prefer games that are exciting, competitive, and social. As a result, it is likely that individuals with high levels of extraversion may be drawn to experiences such as playing Call of Duty with their friends rather than playing a quiet game of computer solitaire by themselves. This is consistent with the idea that individuals with high levels of extraversion are energetic,
12 socially dominant, and outgoing. Unlike individuals with high levels of emotionality, individuals with high levels of extraversion prefer Player vs. Player or Player vs. Environment games over Role-Playing games (Bean & Groth-Marnat, in press). Conscientiousness had a weak positive association with the achiever preference. This is consistent with the view of individuals with high levels of conscientiousness as being efficient, organized, and task-focused (e.g., Minbashian, Wood, & Beckmann, 2010; Perry, Hunter, Witt, & Harris, 2010). Conscientiousness also had a weak positive association with the mastermind preference and a weak negative association with the survivor preference. This pattern suggests that individuals with high levels of conscientiousness may prefer games that are focused on accomplishing specific tasks or solving challenges rather than those that focus purely on excitement. We expected openness to experience to be positively associated with the seeker preference and this was supported by our results. This is consistent with previous results linking openness with qualities such as curiosity and a desire to explore (e.g., Kashdan et al., 2004). Openness also had weak positive associations with the survivor and mastermind preferences as well as weak negative associations with the conqueror and socializer preferences. This pattern suggests that individuals with high levels of openness may prefer games that involve satisfying their curiosity rather than connecting with others or dominating others in competition. We did not have hypotheses for honesty-humility or agreeableness but we included these personality dimensions for exploratory purposes. Honesty-humility was not associated with any of the gaming preferences but agreeableness was found to have a weak positive association with the socializer preference. This is consistent with the fact that agreeableness captures the extent to which individuals have a positive orientation toward others (Costa & McCrae, 1992). It is not
13 particularly surprising that individuals with high levels of agreeableness were found to endorse the socializer preference given their tendency to be trusting, cooperative, helpful, and sympathetic (Costa, McCrae, & Dembroski, 1989). The present findings suggest that personality is linked with preferences for particular aspects of gaming experiences. This is consistent with other recent work that has focused on the connections between personality features and recreational activities (e.g., Besser & Priel, 2006; Furnham, 2004; Noser, Zeigler-Hill, & Besser, 2014). This work is important because recreational activities are a vital part of life for many individuals and these activities are often found to be satisfying and pleasurable. Despite the importance of recreational activities such as playing video games, psychology has paid relatively little attention to this aspect of life until somewhat recently. The results of the present study suggest that personality features may play an important role in which aspects of gaming experiences individuals enjoy. These results may have implications for marketing strategies for video game manufacturers, the identification of target audiences for games that are being developed, and the development of recommendation algorithms to assist gamers with identifying new video games they may enjoy playing. For example, recommendation algorithms could be developed using a blend of personality traits, gaming preferences, and evaluations of previous games to direct consumers toward other games that they may enjoy (e.g., individuals who have provided positive evaluations for massively multiplayer online role-playing games [MMORPGs] in the past may be directed toward other MMORPGs that emphasize shared quests or adventures if they have high levels of extraversion or that focus on an elaborate system of classes and types if they have low levels of extraversion). The present work connects the BrainHex gaming preferences to the immense literature concerning basic personality dimensions which may stimulate further research in this area. For
14 example, extraversion facilitates the initiation and maintenance of social relationships (e.g., Ashton & Lee, 2007) which may be beneficial for playing MMORPGs because individuals with high levels of extraversion may be able to form new alliances and friendships quite easily. However, extraversion also has costs that may be relevant to gaming contexts such as the tendency to engage in potentially costly competition with rivals (e.g., Lund, Tamnes, Mouestue, Buss, & Vollrath, 2007). All personality traits involve trade-offs that may have implications for various aspects of gaming experiences (e.g., preferences for particular styles of games, amount of time spent gaming). The connection between the BrainHex gaming preferences and the HEXACO dimensions of basic personality may eventually lead to the development of an even richer representation of gaming preferences that draws upon contemporary psychological science. Limitations and Future Directions The present study extends what is known about the associations between basic personality dimensions and gaming preferences among active gamers. Although the present study had a number of strengths (e.g., large sample of active gamers), there are several potential limitations that should also be considered. Given the correlational nature of the present study, the direction of causality between basic personality dimensions and gaming preferences cannot be determined. The underlying process model of the present study was that basic personality dimension influence the development of gaming preferences. However, this causal sequence cannot be clearly established using the data from the present study. One possible alternative is that gaming preferences may exert some influence over basic personality dimensions. Although this is an unlikely explanation for the present results, previous studies have shown that exposure to violent video games increases aggressive behavior in part through changes in personality
15 connected with desensitization (Bartholow, Sestir, & Davis, 2005). Another potential limitation of the present research was our strategy for capturing gaming preferences. We chose to employ the BrainHex survey which is a relatively new instrument. Although the BrainHex survey has a great deal of potential for capturing gaming preferences, it was initially intended by its developers to serve as an indicator of gaming “types” which is problematic because it is unclear whether it actually captures unique categories of gaming preferences into which individuals can be reliably sorted. This is why we treated the scores for each gaming preference in a manner that is more consistent with psychological traits than psychological types. Further, some dimensions of the BrainHex survey had relatively low levels of internal consistency in the present study. Future researchers may want to continue refining the BrainHex survey to improve its psychometric properties. Conclusion The results of the present study demonstrate that basic personality dimensions are associated with gaming preferences among active gamers. That is, individuals with certain personality dimensions differed in their gaming preferences. For example, individuals with high levels of extraversion were more likely to endorse the daredevil and socializer preferences. This suggests that individuals who scored higher on extraversion prefer to play video games that are exciting and that allow them to interact with others.
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22 Table 1 Intercorrelations and Descriptive Statistics 1 2 1. Honesty-Humility — 2. Emotionality .00 — 3. Extraversion -.01 -.28*** 4. Agreeableness .24*** -.09 5. Conscientiousness .14** -.17*** 6. Openness .19*** .01 7. Seeker .07 .19*** 8. Survivor -.08 .04 9. Daredevil -.10 -.23*** 10. Mastermind .02 -.15** 11. Conqueror -.10 -.16** 12. Socializer -.06 -.14** 13. Achiever -.03 .21*** M 3.48 SD 0.68 * ** *** p < .05; p < .01; p < .001.
2.85 0.80
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
— .18*** .28*** .09 .04 .11* .27*** .12* .19*** .34*** .12*
— .09 — .17*** .12* .08 .01 .08 -.08 .03 .05 .02 .16** .01 -.01 .16** .04 .05 .13*
— .35*** .11* -.03 .16** -.16** -.07 .06
— .33*** .21*** .31*** .06 .01 .35***
— .37*** .34*** .33*** .20*** .18***
— .30*** .42*** .41*** .11*
— .40*** .06 .18***
— .32*** .13*
— .02
—
2.84 0.79
3.16 0.64
3.56 0.72
3.90 0.75
3.35 0.84
3.58 0.74
3.88 0.67
3.80 0.80
3.62 0.90
3.30 1.10
3.39 0.65
23 Table 2 Standardized Path Coefficients Seeker Honesty-Humility .00 Emotionality .20*** Extraversion .06 Agreeableness .03 Conscientiousness -.01 Openness .34*** * p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
Survivor -.10 .07 .13* .07 -.11* .12*
Daredevil -.09 -.17*** .24*** .00 -.03 -.03
Mastermind -.02 -.12* .04 -.03 .12* .16**
Conqueror -.06 -.11* .19*** .02 -.06 -.16**
Socializer -.07 -.05 .33*** .13* -.05 -.10*
Achiever -.06 .28*** .15** .04 .13* .03
24
Figure 1. Path model of the associations that personality dimensions had with video game preferences. Note: Rectangles indicate measured variables and circles indicate disturbance terms. The significant associations are indicated by solid black arrows and nonsignificant associations are indicates by dashed grey arrows. The significant correlations among the predictor variables (i.e., personality dimensions) and outcome variables (i.e., video game preferences) are indicated by solid curved bidirectional arrows and nonsignificant correlations are represented by dashed curved bidirectional arrows.
25 Highlights Emotionality was negatively associated with daredevil preference. Extraversion was positively associated with daredevil and socializer preferences. Conscientiousness was positively associated with the achiever preference.