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The history of establishment of the national park network in countries of the Asian-Pacific region
Geography and Natural Resources 29 (2008) 221–225
The history of establishment of the national park network in countries of the Asian-Pacific region P. F. Brovko a, * and N. I. Fomina b b
a Institute of Environmental Sciences, Far-Eastern University, Vladivostok Institute of Management and Business, Far-Eastern University, Vladivostok
Received 6 April 2007
Abstract The history of emergence and evolution of the network of national parks in countries of the Asian-Pacific region (APR) is outlined. An analysis is made of the purpose and primary objective of Russia’s national parks. The prospects of the establishment of national parks in the Far East, and the possibilities of promotion of ecotourism in them are considered. Keywords: national park, ecotourism, Asian-Pacific region, protected natural areas, rational nature management.
The history of establishment of first national parks As of 2003, there exist throughout the world 102 102 Protected Natural areas (PNA) with their surface area totaling 18.76 km2 [1]. According to the international analysis of the total number and total area of PNAs, national parks (NP) constitute one of the most popular categories of PNA. Nowadays there are 3881 NPs (3.8% of the total number of PNAs), and their area is 4.41 mil km2 (23.5% of the total area of the PNAs). The idea of setting up national park originated more than 130 years ago in the USA. In the 1870s, the question was raised as to the need for preservation of natural and historic recreation-specific resources in their native state. Within this context, in 1872 the US Congress passed a bill into law that created Yellowstone National Park. Thus the concept of a national park of a special type, PNT, was formulated for the first time. Later on, US Government put aside a part of public lands to establish NPs on them, so that the year 1900 saw four national parks, with their area totaling 15 thou km2: Yellowstone National Park (1872), Yosemite national Park (1890), Mount Rainier National Park (1899), and Sequoia National Park (1890) [2].
Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P. F. Brovko), [email protected] (N. I. Fomina) *
By the beginning of the 20th century, 14 NPs had been set up in the USA, and on 25 August 1916 the US Congress established instituted – within the framework of the Ministry of the Interior – the National park Service to administer the setting up and management of NPs and their utilization for recreational purposes. From the time of its establishment, this federal agency was endowed with impressive funds and exercised extensive rights focusing on the setting up of new parks [3]. Parks existed at that time only along the country’s western coast characterized by a relatively low population density and difficult of access. The visitation rate was low, and it was hard to anticipate that hundreds of millions of tourists a century and a half later would bring up the threat to nature protected in the parks. By the year 1929, the number of NPs increased to 21 and continued to grow in subsequent years, which is explained by the dramatically enhanced demand for recreational resources. At a later date, the US model for setting up special Special Protected Natural Areas (SPNA) was also used in other countries. Canada and Mexico were the first to follow the US example, followed by New Zealand, Australia and Indonesia. In Japan, for example, as early as 1873, i.e. one year after the establishment of Yellowstone National Park, there emerged so-called Koen parks (in Japanese, koen is park) [4]. Europe, Sweden (1909) and Switzerland (1914) were the first to establish NPs. At the same time the first NP was set up in South America (in Argentina) [5].
Copyright © 2008 IG SB, Siberian Branch of RAS. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved doi:10.1016/j.gnr.2008.09.003
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P. F. Brovko and N. I. Fomina / Geography and Natural Resources 29 (2008) 221–225
The 1940s saw un upsurge in the establishment of NPs, with more than 200 parks set up in 39 countries later in that decade. It was then obvious that the notion “national park” was interpreted different in different countries. While in the early 20th century parks were established in poorly developed areas, in the mid-20th century this term was applied to anthropogenically strongly affected areas with a large permanent population. Otherwise the term was used in reference to purely historic and worship areas and objects. To unify the NP concept and avoid variant reading, in 1969 the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) developed and adopted at its 10th General Assembly the resolution with a definition of the NP, and recommended that all governments use the term “national park” only in reference to areas meeting certain criteria. Thus the national park is a relatively large area in which one or several ecosystems did not undergo any serious changes as a result of human activity, where the species of plants and animals, their habitats and geomorphological sites are of scientific, educational or recreational interest or which is home to a natural landscape of exceptional beauty. Furthermore, the most competent authority of a relevant country must take measures in order to avoid or prevent at its earliest convenience the exploitation of the natural resources across the entire area as well as to effectively create respect toward ecological, geomorphological or aesthetic features, for the sake of which the park was established to permit visitations, under certain conditions, for educational, cultural and recreational purposes [6]. American experience in zoning efforts, with a categorization of organizational forms and modalities of protection, formed the basis for functional zoning as suggested by IUNC for an ideal NP model. It should be noted, however, that this concept is being modified in two respects. In some cases the focus is on recreation, with an enhancement of commercialization in the NP operation, which brings about some kinds of activity on their territory which are recognized as undesirable. On the other hand, the focus shifts toward the NP status of a reserve. These are only two extreme variants out of the entire spectrum of interpreting the NP concept and developing their network in different countries. The current US system of NPs includes 24 categories of parks which are divided into three classes: natural, historic, and recreational. According to recent data, in the USA there exist 58 national parks [7]. It is quite predictable that the history of the establishment of NPs in various countries across the globe and their characteristics differ from a classical American variant. For instance, the first protected area in Canada was set up in 1885, and Banff National Park was established on its basis in 1987. The historical and economic factors led to emergence of national parks of a new type, focusing on development of the territory in order to create comfort condition for recreation. There are three types of NP in Canada: protected natural pristine landscapes; protected recreational resources near cities which render maximum possible recreational resources, and protected habitats of species and communities,
and natural monuments. The entire system of national parks includes 42 units and occupies 224.47 thou km2, exclusive of the numerous provincial parks [7]. History of the system of national parks in the AsianPacific region The establishment of NPs in countries of the Asian-Pacific Region (APR) is characterized by a different scenario. In Japan, for example, such parks are called Koen Parks, and they were set up as early as 1873 under governmental protection. Traditionally, these areas were open for general visitation in the spring time, at the time of sakura blossoming, and in autumn, at the time of the fall of the leaves. Hence is the famous aesthetic “hunt for the autumn leaves”, when people, following the traditions of the King’s family, used to arrange picnics in a forested locality to enjoy the grandeur of the autumnal scenery. In 1929, in the country there emerged the National Parks Association of Japan whose membership included eminent writers, scientists and business men. The year 1931 saw the passing of the first law about national parks. In 1931, upon a careful study and examination, 12 areas were selected for setting up the first NPs. Even at that stage, demands were put forward for the establishment of a larger number of parks in order to cover the whole of geological and seasonal diversity of the Japanese Islands. Therefore, immediately after the Second World War, new NPs started to be set up in the country, and by the mid-1950s their number reached 18. Furthermore, the territory of many pre-existing parks was enlarged. In accordance with the Law about natural parks (1937) and the Nature Conservation Law (1972) [4], all parks of Japan are divided into three groups: 1) national parks – special protected areas with maximum possible prohibitive restrictions of economic utilization encompassing the most scenic landscapes of a national value, as well as the species of plants and animals whose habitats are of particular scientific, educational or recreational interest; 2) quasi-national (secondary) parks – special regions where the location of production facilities and industries is limited, and 3) prefectural parks – protected areas used for recreation and representing the most characteristic landscapes at a local level. According to recent data, Japan has 29 national parks occupying 20.48 thou km2, or 5.4% of the country’s total area, and 56 quasi-national parks occupying 13.33 thou km2 [5]. A regards zoning of the Japanese parks, it should be noted that three categories of lands are identified in them, namely, simple park areas, special areas, and areas of special protection areas. Within many national parks, there are preserves, reserves, and maritime parks. Some kinds of economic activities are prohibited in these areas, which are potentially harmful to landscape. All activities in the parks is under the control of a Prefecture Governor. In New Zealand, the first national park, Tongariro National Park, was established as early as 1897 in the central North Island. In 1952, the National Parks Authority was established,
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and the National Parks Act 1980 provides for the public to have freedom of entry and access to the parks, though this is subject to such conditions and restrictions as are necessary for the preservation of native plants and animals or for the welfare of the parks in general. There are 14 national parks covering more than 25 thou km2. Their status is in full agreement with international policies and practices [5]. In Australia, characterized with a large autonomy of its states, the system of protected areas has some distinctive properties. According to the Constitution, each state forming part of the Commonwealth of Australia, sets up and manages NPs independently. The General National parks and Wildlife Act was passed in 1975. Australia has eight systems of national parks and reserves: one system has a national status, and the others are regional ones. Many states include a huge number of protected areas of different categories: NPs, nature conservation parks, and varied reserves. National parks constitute 295 territories; unlike the parks of New Zealand, however, they do not meet international criteria [7]. In Korea, the first national park was established in December 1967. It is Chirisan national Park, located in the southern part of the country (at the junction of the North and South Cholla provinces) and remains the largest among the country’s surface national parks – its surface area is 440 km2. As is the case with most of the other Korea’s national parks, Chirisan lies in the mountains. Korea has 20 national parks to date [15]. Their establishment had proceeded at a high pace in the 1970s, whereas not a single national park was set up after 1988. The reason behind this is that all wildlife areas in Korea were under Government control then. The total area of Korea’s national parks is 3 824 km2 of surface land (or 3.8%), and 2 648 km2 of its territorial waters (or 2.5%). In addition to the national parks under the Government control, Korea boasts parks with a les district modality of protection, namely, so-called provincial and district parks which are distinguished by their smaller surfaces areas and occupy only 0.7% of the territory.
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All NPs are under the control of the Korean National Park Service set up in 1987. Originally, it formed part, as a department, of the Ministry of Construction, and later of the Ministry of the Interior, and since 1998 it is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Environment. An interesting characteristic of the Korean national parks is that they concentrate not only natural monuments but also monuments of culture, primarily Buddhist temples. Temples had been established for a long time in the most picturesque areas of Korea, i.e. in the mountains. The entry to the national parks is chargeable. Construction projects in them are prohibited, as well as driving automobiles (cars are to be left at the entrance, with all profits gained by parking lots received by the National park Service), smoking is permitted in special places only, and relatively large areas within the parks are simply closed for tourists. The national parks of Korea are kept in excellent order. As of today, China has 187 parks [5]. The system of Chinese national parks has been organized in several stages, starting in 982. During the first stage (1982), 44 parks were set up, the second stage (1988) – 40, the third stage (1994) – 35, the fourth stage (2002) – 32, the fifth stage (2004) – 26, and during the sixth stage (2005) – 10 parks. According to the definition adopted in Thailand, a national park is the area occupying at least 10 km2, featuring natural resources of significant ecological importance and of unique beauty or the flora and fauna of special importance. The first NP was established in 1961. Currently Thailand has 104 national parks, including 21 maritime parks [5]. Furthermore, a further 34 national parks (including maritime parks) are under development, and they have been included on all official lists of the country’s operating parks. To date, 55 NPs in the northern part of the country, 24 in the northwestern part, 15 in the central part, and 20 in the south have been set up, and the total number of maritime national parks is 24. A current classification of national park includes three types of parks [8]. The first type is a classic type (the North
Total number and total area of national parks for the regions across the globe (compiled according to [1]) Region
Total number of NPs in the region
Share of NPs in the total number of SPNTs in the region, %
NP area, km2
Share of total area of SPNTs in the region, %
North America Central America South America and Brazil Caribbean Basin countries Europe Ex-USSR countries North Africa and Near East Southeastern Asia Northeastern Asia South Asia Australia and New Zealand Island nations of Oceania East and South Africa West and Central Africa
1 362 88 393 88 273 195 72 254 99 139 640 20 217 94
10.2 11.5 14.3 11.5 0.6 1.1 6.4 9.6 4.7 9.4 7.3 6.2 4.5 3.6
1 670 465 28 595 694 917 27 101 98 165 126 989 215 852 2 123 698 107 127 68 840 294 937 5 536 504 692 357 754
36.7 19.7 17.5 39.0 13.1 7.0 17.0 28.1 10.4 22.3 24.8 27.0 25.7 31.8
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American model). This model incorporates parks with a large area, a significant part of which being under their jurisdiction, and they are established in areas with unique landscapes. Next, the European type. This model includes parks with a small area, and lands allotted to a national park are owned by several users, while the landscapes in the NP area are modified. The third type is a reserve park (the African model). National parks of this type occupy huge territories with habitats of exotic animals and plants. In summarizing, it can be said that national parks to date constitute one of the most widespread forms of PNA. A particularly rapid explosion of their network corresponds to 19721982 – 426 parks were set up during that time interval, which bears witness to an impressive international recognition of the modern concept of the national park (see the table). Experience in establishing national parks in Russia However, the modern international concept is not a dogma. It continues to be enriched with experience gained from practical implementation of national parks in various countries worldwide and reflects changes in the requirements of society for material and spiritual resources, because such requirements now include recreation in an intact natural environment, and nature conservation education. Historically, the concept of the creation of SPNT that is adopted in Russia differs fundamentally from the concepts used in foreign countries, as the framework for the Russian system of SPNT came to be the reserves (zapovedniks), strictly protected nature reserves that refer to the first category according to a classification of PNA adopted by the IUPN. The difference of the Russian NP model is due to the specific character of its purpose. As pointed out above, Russia’s national parks were established in the presence of the then existing system of state-managed nature reserves performing very important nature conservation functions. This creates the preconditions for the fact that the Russian NPs, being multi-functional institutions where the principles of rational nature management are first of all realized, attached much attention to the promotion of ecological education and tourism, the preservation of the cultural heritage as well as to maintenance of favorable conditions for the life of the local population [9, 10]. A key task facing the administration of any Russian national park is that of creating the conditions for regulated tourism and recreation as well as to establish the sphere of recreation services to a region’s population. By the creation of the conditions for regulated tourism and recreation is meant the development and implementation (by a national park) of a system of managerial and economic measures aimed at the attraction to a national park, of tourists, travel companies, and investors, and at the creation (mainly near its boundaries) of an efficient tourist infrastructure facilitating the integration of a national park into the socio-economic structure of a region. The purpose of the NPs and their recreational potential provide a means of promoting various
kinds of tourism in general and ecotourism in particular, both within the parks themselves as on neighboring territories. Nowadays Russia is faced with a crisis of the system of state management of nature reserves and national parks, with an ever increasing tendency for revision of their status, areas, boundaries and modalities. To resolve this problem, it is possible to draw on experience in effective state management of PNAs in other countries. In our view, the approach to imitating experience must be a geographical one. Of interest for Russia is experience accumulated by territorially large states, having networks of nature reserves existing for several decades and enjoying a nationwide status in accordance with national legal rules. This applies to North America, East and South Africa, Australia, and some other regions across the globe. It follows from their experiences that management of the federal system of nature reserves is exercised by specialized state-governed National Park Services (in the USA, Canada, and SAR) which are endowed with sufficient staff of experts able to effectively supervise the operation of the respective NPs and other PNAs nationwide. On the other hand, these services provide unified and detailed methodological guidance, are engaged in the realization of financial policies and practices, and provide informational and advertising support. These services incorporate special centers to provide training to staff members of the parks and other PNAs, and they have their offices not only in the center but also at sites. Taking into consideration these practices would facilitate the transition to an effective state-of-the-art SPNT management model in Russia – this is particularly true in regard to the system of reserves and national parks. Furthermore, to develop further the existing national network of NPs and establish new parks, the focus is to be on unique and the most valuable objects having a nationwide or international significance. It is important to keep in mind that the uniqueness of a territory can be determined not only by the presence of natural phenomena but also of particularly valuable cultural heritage sites. Planning of the expansion of the network of Russian parks must be based on using the principle of representativeness, or natural-landscape representativeness, which implies coverage by parks of the maximum possible number of ecoregions. However, the primary objective is not only to achieve this but also to have in NPs the maximum possible number of varied types of landscapes, natural zones, etc. It is necessary to identify and support tight spatial and functional links between NPs and other SPNTs established at a regional and local level. It becomes evident that it is advisable to establish a unified nationwide network of parks stage by stage by implementing first of all the most currently important proposals. The advisability of setting up a new NP is determined by the rank of value of the natural object, the actual threat to loose it, accessibility, the presence and level of the preexisting protection status of the territory and, finally, by the degree of public support of the idea to establish a park. Nowadays, Russia has 40 national parks with the total area over 70 thou km2, or 0.4% of the country’s area. They
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are located on the territory of 36 federal entities of the RF [11]. The existing NP network of Russia encompasses 7 physical-geographical regions, 11 oblasts, and 29 provinces, with the main proportion of national parks corresponding to the country’s European-Ural part. Siberia’s regions are home only to six national parks (“Shorsky”, “Shushensky bor”, “Tunkinsky”, “Pribaikalsky”, “Zabaikalsky”, and “Alkhanai”). There were no operating NPs in the Far East before 2006, in spite of the abundance and uniqueness of biodiversity of some regions. The territory of Primorski Krai, for example, is distinguished by a huge umber of natural sites of high value, a high contrast of outstanding natural objects, and by a particular species diversity of the flora and fauna. In 2006, two national parks were set up on the territory of Primorski Krai (“Primorie”): Sredne-Ussuriisky National Park (“”Udegeiskaya legenda”), and Verkhne-Ussuriisky National Park (“Zov tigra”) [12]. The “Zov tigra” National Park is located at the junction of three districts: Olginsky, Lazovsky and Chuguyevsky, and includes the watershed portion of the Sikhote-Alin Range with the Sestra mountain, the Oblachnaya-Snezhnaya mountain massif as well as the adjoining upper parts of the Ussuri and Milogradovka river basins. This territory gained wide recognition in hiking tourism in Primorki Krai as early as the mid-20th century; therefore, a further development of services will take care primarily of providing support form hiking, skiing, equestrian and combined routes of different lengths and duration. The natural and cultural-historic conditions of this territory permit the varied excursion-educational activities to be intensified in the “Zov tigra” NP. The “Udegeiskaya legenda” National Park is located in the Krasnoarmeisky district. It is planned to promote water tourism on its territory, because the Armu river boasts the highest visitation rate. Excursion-educational activities would include primarily the arrangement of archeologicalhistoric and ethnographic expositions on the basis of the numerous monuments of history and culture. On Sakhalin, the establishment of the “Tunaichinsky” National Park in the Korsakovsky district is the most promising [13]. Its territory is home to the natural monuments: “Lake Tunaicha”, “Busse Lagoon”, “Velikan Cape”, “Chaika Bay” which fit in nicely with the planned national park. A combination of the mountain massifs with coastal-maritime plains, an exceptionally beautiful coast with waterfalls, the presence of water-bog areas and rivers with spawning-grounds open up favorable vistas for the promotion of ecological tourism. Conclusion Experience gained from establishing the network of national parks in Russia and the character of their operation
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suggest the conclusion that in spite of the public support in the establishment of national parks in Russia, the role they play in the preservation of the natural and cultural heritage, in ecological outreach, and in the organization and promotion of tourism is universally underrated. For the most part the Russian parks are in the making, and a further development of the network of NPs involves bringing up to date the normative-methodological base, integrating into the socio-economic life of the regions, attracting the attention of regional and local authorities, the public, and scientific and nature conservancy organizations to the challenging faced by the NPs, and seeking additional sources of funds. Such changes would necessarily require perfecting the structure of management of national parks as well as calls for higher skills and expertise of related personnel. Considering international experience in establishing and operating this category of SPNTs, Russia holds considerable promise for establishing the NP network comparable with the networks and systems of national parks existing in developed countries. References 1. Chape S., Blyth S., Fish L. et al. United Nations List of Protected Areas. Cambridge, UK, 2003, 44 p. 2. Borisov V. A., Belousova L. S. and Vinokurov A. A. Protected Natural Areas of the World: National Parks, Protected Woodlands, Reserves. Moscow: Agropromizdat, 1985, 310 p. 3. Mitchell J. G. Our National Parks. Legacy at Risk. The National Geographic Magazine, 1994, vol. 186, No. 4, pp. 20-55. 4. Sutherland M. and Britton D. National Parks of Japan. Tokyo, 1980, 148 p. 5. List of National parks. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_parks 6. United Nations List of National parks and Protected Areas. Gland, Swiss, IUCN, 1982, 154 p. 7. World National Parks. http://www.world-national-parks.net 8. Pozdeyev V. B. Protected Natural territories: Role and Place in Regional Development: A Textbook. Smolensk: Izd-vo Smol. ped. un-ta, 2001, 116 p. 9. The Management Strategy of National Parks of Russia. Moscow: Department of Environmental Protection and Ecological Safety of the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia and Center of Wildlife Conservation, 2002, 36 p. 10. Travkina M. Yu. Regulated Tourism in National Parks. Moscow: Wildlife Conservation Publisher, 2002, 43 p. 11. RF Ministry of Natural Resources . http://www.mnr.gov.ru 12. Bersenev Yu. I., Tsoi B. V. and Yavnova N. V. The Specially Protected Natural Territories of Primorski Krai. Vladivostok: World Wildlife Foundation Publisher, 2006, 64 p. 13. Bogomolova E. K. and Brovko P. F. On the establishment of national and natural marks on Sakhalin. In: The Promotion of Foreign and Domestic Tourism in the Far East. Vladivostok, 2000, pp. 69-70.
The history of establishment of the national park network in countries of the Asian-Pacific region P. F. Brovko a, * and N. I. Fomina b b
a Institute of Environmental Sciences, Far-Eastern University, Vladivostok Institute of Management and Business, Far-Eastern University, Vladivostok
Received 6 April 2007
Abstract The history of emergence and evolution of the network of national parks in countries of the Asian-Pacific region (APR) is outlined. An analysis is made of the purpose and primary objective of Russia’s national parks. The prospects of the establishment of national parks in the Far East, and the possibilities of promotion of ecotourism in them are considered. Keywords: national park, ecotourism, Asian-Pacific region, protected natural areas, rational nature management.
The history of establishment of first national parks As of 2003, there exist throughout the world 102 102 Protected Natural areas (PNA) with their surface area totaling 18.76 km2 [1]. According to the international analysis of the total number and total area of PNAs, national parks (NP) constitute one of the most popular categories of PNA. Nowadays there are 3881 NPs (3.8% of the total number of PNAs), and their area is 4.41 mil km2 (23.5% of the total area of the PNAs). The idea of setting up national park originated more than 130 years ago in the USA. In the 1870s, the question was raised as to the need for preservation of natural and historic recreation-specific resources in their native state. Within this context, in 1872 the US Congress passed a bill into law that created Yellowstone National Park. Thus the concept of a national park of a special type, PNT, was formulated for the first time. Later on, US Government put aside a part of public lands to establish NPs on them, so that the year 1900 saw four national parks, with their area totaling 15 thou km2: Yellowstone National Park (1872), Yosemite national Park (1890), Mount Rainier National Park (1899), and Sequoia National Park (1890) [2].
Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P. F. Brovko), [email protected] (N. I. Fomina) *
By the beginning of the 20th century, 14 NPs had been set up in the USA, and on 25 August 1916 the US Congress established instituted – within the framework of the Ministry of the Interior – the National park Service to administer the setting up and management of NPs and their utilization for recreational purposes. From the time of its establishment, this federal agency was endowed with impressive funds and exercised extensive rights focusing on the setting up of new parks [3]. Parks existed at that time only along the country’s western coast characterized by a relatively low population density and difficult of access. The visitation rate was low, and it was hard to anticipate that hundreds of millions of tourists a century and a half later would bring up the threat to nature protected in the parks. By the year 1929, the number of NPs increased to 21 and continued to grow in subsequent years, which is explained by the dramatically enhanced demand for recreational resources. At a later date, the US model for setting up special Special Protected Natural Areas (SPNA) was also used in other countries. Canada and Mexico were the first to follow the US example, followed by New Zealand, Australia and Indonesia. In Japan, for example, as early as 1873, i.e. one year after the establishment of Yellowstone National Park, there emerged so-called Koen parks (in Japanese, koen is park) [4]. Europe, Sweden (1909) and Switzerland (1914) were the first to establish NPs. At the same time the first NP was set up in South America (in Argentina) [5].
Copyright © 2008 IG SB, Siberian Branch of RAS. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved doi:10.1016/j.gnr.2008.09.003
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The 1940s saw un upsurge in the establishment of NPs, with more than 200 parks set up in 39 countries later in that decade. It was then obvious that the notion “national park” was interpreted different in different countries. While in the early 20th century parks were established in poorly developed areas, in the mid-20th century this term was applied to anthropogenically strongly affected areas with a large permanent population. Otherwise the term was used in reference to purely historic and worship areas and objects. To unify the NP concept and avoid variant reading, in 1969 the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) developed and adopted at its 10th General Assembly the resolution with a definition of the NP, and recommended that all governments use the term “national park” only in reference to areas meeting certain criteria. Thus the national park is a relatively large area in which one or several ecosystems did not undergo any serious changes as a result of human activity, where the species of plants and animals, their habitats and geomorphological sites are of scientific, educational or recreational interest or which is home to a natural landscape of exceptional beauty. Furthermore, the most competent authority of a relevant country must take measures in order to avoid or prevent at its earliest convenience the exploitation of the natural resources across the entire area as well as to effectively create respect toward ecological, geomorphological or aesthetic features, for the sake of which the park was established to permit visitations, under certain conditions, for educational, cultural and recreational purposes [6]. American experience in zoning efforts, with a categorization of organizational forms and modalities of protection, formed the basis for functional zoning as suggested by IUNC for an ideal NP model. It should be noted, however, that this concept is being modified in two respects. In some cases the focus is on recreation, with an enhancement of commercialization in the NP operation, which brings about some kinds of activity on their territory which are recognized as undesirable. On the other hand, the focus shifts toward the NP status of a reserve. These are only two extreme variants out of the entire spectrum of interpreting the NP concept and developing their network in different countries. The current US system of NPs includes 24 categories of parks which are divided into three classes: natural, historic, and recreational. According to recent data, in the USA there exist 58 national parks [7]. It is quite predictable that the history of the establishment of NPs in various countries across the globe and their characteristics differ from a classical American variant. For instance, the first protected area in Canada was set up in 1885, and Banff National Park was established on its basis in 1987. The historical and economic factors led to emergence of national parks of a new type, focusing on development of the territory in order to create comfort condition for recreation. There are three types of NP in Canada: protected natural pristine landscapes; protected recreational resources near cities which render maximum possible recreational resources, and protected habitats of species and communities,
and natural monuments. The entire system of national parks includes 42 units and occupies 224.47 thou km2, exclusive of the numerous provincial parks [7]. History of the system of national parks in the AsianPacific region The establishment of NPs in countries of the Asian-Pacific Region (APR) is characterized by a different scenario. In Japan, for example, such parks are called Koen Parks, and they were set up as early as 1873 under governmental protection. Traditionally, these areas were open for general visitation in the spring time, at the time of sakura blossoming, and in autumn, at the time of the fall of the leaves. Hence is the famous aesthetic “hunt for the autumn leaves”, when people, following the traditions of the King’s family, used to arrange picnics in a forested locality to enjoy the grandeur of the autumnal scenery. In 1929, in the country there emerged the National Parks Association of Japan whose membership included eminent writers, scientists and business men. The year 1931 saw the passing of the first law about national parks. In 1931, upon a careful study and examination, 12 areas were selected for setting up the first NPs. Even at that stage, demands were put forward for the establishment of a larger number of parks in order to cover the whole of geological and seasonal diversity of the Japanese Islands. Therefore, immediately after the Second World War, new NPs started to be set up in the country, and by the mid-1950s their number reached 18. Furthermore, the territory of many pre-existing parks was enlarged. In accordance with the Law about natural parks (1937) and the Nature Conservation Law (1972) [4], all parks of Japan are divided into three groups: 1) national parks – special protected areas with maximum possible prohibitive restrictions of economic utilization encompassing the most scenic landscapes of a national value, as well as the species of plants and animals whose habitats are of particular scientific, educational or recreational interest; 2) quasi-national (secondary) parks – special regions where the location of production facilities and industries is limited, and 3) prefectural parks – protected areas used for recreation and representing the most characteristic landscapes at a local level. According to recent data, Japan has 29 national parks occupying 20.48 thou km2, or 5.4% of the country’s total area, and 56 quasi-national parks occupying 13.33 thou km2 [5]. A regards zoning of the Japanese parks, it should be noted that three categories of lands are identified in them, namely, simple park areas, special areas, and areas of special protection areas. Within many national parks, there are preserves, reserves, and maritime parks. Some kinds of economic activities are prohibited in these areas, which are potentially harmful to landscape. All activities in the parks is under the control of a Prefecture Governor. In New Zealand, the first national park, Tongariro National Park, was established as early as 1897 in the central North Island. In 1952, the National Parks Authority was established,
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and the National Parks Act 1980 provides for the public to have freedom of entry and access to the parks, though this is subject to such conditions and restrictions as are necessary for the preservation of native plants and animals or for the welfare of the parks in general. There are 14 national parks covering more than 25 thou km2. Their status is in full agreement with international policies and practices [5]. In Australia, characterized with a large autonomy of its states, the system of protected areas has some distinctive properties. According to the Constitution, each state forming part of the Commonwealth of Australia, sets up and manages NPs independently. The General National parks and Wildlife Act was passed in 1975. Australia has eight systems of national parks and reserves: one system has a national status, and the others are regional ones. Many states include a huge number of protected areas of different categories: NPs, nature conservation parks, and varied reserves. National parks constitute 295 territories; unlike the parks of New Zealand, however, they do not meet international criteria [7]. In Korea, the first national park was established in December 1967. It is Chirisan national Park, located in the southern part of the country (at the junction of the North and South Cholla provinces) and remains the largest among the country’s surface national parks – its surface area is 440 km2. As is the case with most of the other Korea’s national parks, Chirisan lies in the mountains. Korea has 20 national parks to date [15]. Their establishment had proceeded at a high pace in the 1970s, whereas not a single national park was set up after 1988. The reason behind this is that all wildlife areas in Korea were under Government control then. The total area of Korea’s national parks is 3 824 km2 of surface land (or 3.8%), and 2 648 km2 of its territorial waters (or 2.5%). In addition to the national parks under the Government control, Korea boasts parks with a les district modality of protection, namely, so-called provincial and district parks which are distinguished by their smaller surfaces areas and occupy only 0.7% of the territory.
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All NPs are under the control of the Korean National Park Service set up in 1987. Originally, it formed part, as a department, of the Ministry of Construction, and later of the Ministry of the Interior, and since 1998 it is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Environment. An interesting characteristic of the Korean national parks is that they concentrate not only natural monuments but also monuments of culture, primarily Buddhist temples. Temples had been established for a long time in the most picturesque areas of Korea, i.e. in the mountains. The entry to the national parks is chargeable. Construction projects in them are prohibited, as well as driving automobiles (cars are to be left at the entrance, with all profits gained by parking lots received by the National park Service), smoking is permitted in special places only, and relatively large areas within the parks are simply closed for tourists. The national parks of Korea are kept in excellent order. As of today, China has 187 parks [5]. The system of Chinese national parks has been organized in several stages, starting in 982. During the first stage (1982), 44 parks were set up, the second stage (1988) – 40, the third stage (1994) – 35, the fourth stage (2002) – 32, the fifth stage (2004) – 26, and during the sixth stage (2005) – 10 parks. According to the definition adopted in Thailand, a national park is the area occupying at least 10 km2, featuring natural resources of significant ecological importance and of unique beauty or the flora and fauna of special importance. The first NP was established in 1961. Currently Thailand has 104 national parks, including 21 maritime parks [5]. Furthermore, a further 34 national parks (including maritime parks) are under development, and they have been included on all official lists of the country’s operating parks. To date, 55 NPs in the northern part of the country, 24 in the northwestern part, 15 in the central part, and 20 in the south have been set up, and the total number of maritime national parks is 24. A current classification of national park includes three types of parks [8]. The first type is a classic type (the North
Total number and total area of national parks for the regions across the globe (compiled according to [1]) Region
Total number of NPs in the region
Share of NPs in the total number of SPNTs in the region, %
NP area, km2
Share of total area of SPNTs in the region, %
North America Central America South America and Brazil Caribbean Basin countries Europe Ex-USSR countries North Africa and Near East Southeastern Asia Northeastern Asia South Asia Australia and New Zealand Island nations of Oceania East and South Africa West and Central Africa
1 362 88 393 88 273 195 72 254 99 139 640 20 217 94
10.2 11.5 14.3 11.5 0.6 1.1 6.4 9.6 4.7 9.4 7.3 6.2 4.5 3.6
1 670 465 28 595 694 917 27 101 98 165 126 989 215 852 2 123 698 107 127 68 840 294 937 5 536 504 692 357 754
36.7 19.7 17.5 39.0 13.1 7.0 17.0 28.1 10.4 22.3 24.8 27.0 25.7 31.8
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American model). This model incorporates parks with a large area, a significant part of which being under their jurisdiction, and they are established in areas with unique landscapes. Next, the European type. This model includes parks with a small area, and lands allotted to a national park are owned by several users, while the landscapes in the NP area are modified. The third type is a reserve park (the African model). National parks of this type occupy huge territories with habitats of exotic animals and plants. In summarizing, it can be said that national parks to date constitute one of the most widespread forms of PNA. A particularly rapid explosion of their network corresponds to 19721982 – 426 parks were set up during that time interval, which bears witness to an impressive international recognition of the modern concept of the national park (see the table). Experience in establishing national parks in Russia However, the modern international concept is not a dogma. It continues to be enriched with experience gained from practical implementation of national parks in various countries worldwide and reflects changes in the requirements of society for material and spiritual resources, because such requirements now include recreation in an intact natural environment, and nature conservation education. Historically, the concept of the creation of SPNT that is adopted in Russia differs fundamentally from the concepts used in foreign countries, as the framework for the Russian system of SPNT came to be the reserves (zapovedniks), strictly protected nature reserves that refer to the first category according to a classification of PNA adopted by the IUPN. The difference of the Russian NP model is due to the specific character of its purpose. As pointed out above, Russia’s national parks were established in the presence of the then existing system of state-managed nature reserves performing very important nature conservation functions. This creates the preconditions for the fact that the Russian NPs, being multi-functional institutions where the principles of rational nature management are first of all realized, attached much attention to the promotion of ecological education and tourism, the preservation of the cultural heritage as well as to maintenance of favorable conditions for the life of the local population [9, 10]. A key task facing the administration of any Russian national park is that of creating the conditions for regulated tourism and recreation as well as to establish the sphere of recreation services to a region’s population. By the creation of the conditions for regulated tourism and recreation is meant the development and implementation (by a national park) of a system of managerial and economic measures aimed at the attraction to a national park, of tourists, travel companies, and investors, and at the creation (mainly near its boundaries) of an efficient tourist infrastructure facilitating the integration of a national park into the socio-economic structure of a region. The purpose of the NPs and their recreational potential provide a means of promoting various
kinds of tourism in general and ecotourism in particular, both within the parks themselves as on neighboring territories. Nowadays Russia is faced with a crisis of the system of state management of nature reserves and national parks, with an ever increasing tendency for revision of their status, areas, boundaries and modalities. To resolve this problem, it is possible to draw on experience in effective state management of PNAs in other countries. In our view, the approach to imitating experience must be a geographical one. Of interest for Russia is experience accumulated by territorially large states, having networks of nature reserves existing for several decades and enjoying a nationwide status in accordance with national legal rules. This applies to North America, East and South Africa, Australia, and some other regions across the globe. It follows from their experiences that management of the federal system of nature reserves is exercised by specialized state-governed National Park Services (in the USA, Canada, and SAR) which are endowed with sufficient staff of experts able to effectively supervise the operation of the respective NPs and other PNAs nationwide. On the other hand, these services provide unified and detailed methodological guidance, are engaged in the realization of financial policies and practices, and provide informational and advertising support. These services incorporate special centers to provide training to staff members of the parks and other PNAs, and they have their offices not only in the center but also at sites. Taking into consideration these practices would facilitate the transition to an effective state-of-the-art SPNT management model in Russia – this is particularly true in regard to the system of reserves and national parks. Furthermore, to develop further the existing national network of NPs and establish new parks, the focus is to be on unique and the most valuable objects having a nationwide or international significance. It is important to keep in mind that the uniqueness of a territory can be determined not only by the presence of natural phenomena but also of particularly valuable cultural heritage sites. Planning of the expansion of the network of Russian parks must be based on using the principle of representativeness, or natural-landscape representativeness, which implies coverage by parks of the maximum possible number of ecoregions. However, the primary objective is not only to achieve this but also to have in NPs the maximum possible number of varied types of landscapes, natural zones, etc. It is necessary to identify and support tight spatial and functional links between NPs and other SPNTs established at a regional and local level. It becomes evident that it is advisable to establish a unified nationwide network of parks stage by stage by implementing first of all the most currently important proposals. The advisability of setting up a new NP is determined by the rank of value of the natural object, the actual threat to loose it, accessibility, the presence and level of the preexisting protection status of the territory and, finally, by the degree of public support of the idea to establish a park. Nowadays, Russia has 40 national parks with the total area over 70 thou km2, or 0.4% of the country’s area. They
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are located on the territory of 36 federal entities of the RF [11]. The existing NP network of Russia encompasses 7 physical-geographical regions, 11 oblasts, and 29 provinces, with the main proportion of national parks corresponding to the country’s European-Ural part. Siberia’s regions are home only to six national parks (“Shorsky”, “Shushensky bor”, “Tunkinsky”, “Pribaikalsky”, “Zabaikalsky”, and “Alkhanai”). There were no operating NPs in the Far East before 2006, in spite of the abundance and uniqueness of biodiversity of some regions. The territory of Primorski Krai, for example, is distinguished by a huge umber of natural sites of high value, a high contrast of outstanding natural objects, and by a particular species diversity of the flora and fauna. In 2006, two national parks were set up on the territory of Primorski Krai (“Primorie”): Sredne-Ussuriisky National Park (“”Udegeiskaya legenda”), and Verkhne-Ussuriisky National Park (“Zov tigra”) [12]. The “Zov tigra” National Park is located at the junction of three districts: Olginsky, Lazovsky and Chuguyevsky, and includes the watershed portion of the Sikhote-Alin Range with the Sestra mountain, the Oblachnaya-Snezhnaya mountain massif as well as the adjoining upper parts of the Ussuri and Milogradovka river basins. This territory gained wide recognition in hiking tourism in Primorki Krai as early as the mid-20th century; therefore, a further development of services will take care primarily of providing support form hiking, skiing, equestrian and combined routes of different lengths and duration. The natural and cultural-historic conditions of this territory permit the varied excursion-educational activities to be intensified in the “Zov tigra” NP. The “Udegeiskaya legenda” National Park is located in the Krasnoarmeisky district. It is planned to promote water tourism on its territory, because the Armu river boasts the highest visitation rate. Excursion-educational activities would include primarily the arrangement of archeologicalhistoric and ethnographic expositions on the basis of the numerous monuments of history and culture. On Sakhalin, the establishment of the “Tunaichinsky” National Park in the Korsakovsky district is the most promising [13]. Its territory is home to the natural monuments: “Lake Tunaicha”, “Busse Lagoon”, “Velikan Cape”, “Chaika Bay” which fit in nicely with the planned national park. A combination of the mountain massifs with coastal-maritime plains, an exceptionally beautiful coast with waterfalls, the presence of water-bog areas and rivers with spawning-grounds open up favorable vistas for the promotion of ecological tourism. Conclusion Experience gained from establishing the network of national parks in Russia and the character of their operation
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suggest the conclusion that in spite of the public support in the establishment of national parks in Russia, the role they play in the preservation of the natural and cultural heritage, in ecological outreach, and in the organization and promotion of tourism is universally underrated. For the most part the Russian parks are in the making, and a further development of the network of NPs involves bringing up to date the normative-methodological base, integrating into the socio-economic life of the regions, attracting the attention of regional and local authorities, the public, and scientific and nature conservancy organizations to the challenging faced by the NPs, and seeking additional sources of funds. Such changes would necessarily require perfecting the structure of management of national parks as well as calls for higher skills and expertise of related personnel. Considering international experience in establishing and operating this category of SPNTs, Russia holds considerable promise for establishing the NP network comparable with the networks and systems of national parks existing in developed countries. References 1. Chape S., Blyth S., Fish L. et al. United Nations List of Protected Areas. Cambridge, UK, 2003, 44 p. 2. Borisov V. A., Belousova L. S. and Vinokurov A. A. Protected Natural Areas of the World: National Parks, Protected Woodlands, Reserves. Moscow: Agropromizdat, 1985, 310 p. 3. Mitchell J. G. Our National Parks. Legacy at Risk. The National Geographic Magazine, 1994, vol. 186, No. 4, pp. 20-55. 4. Sutherland M. and Britton D. National Parks of Japan. Tokyo, 1980, 148 p. 5. List of National parks. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_parks 6. United Nations List of National parks and Protected Areas. Gland, Swiss, IUCN, 1982, 154 p. 7. World National Parks. http://www.world-national-parks.net 8. Pozdeyev V. B. Protected Natural territories: Role and Place in Regional Development: A Textbook. Smolensk: Izd-vo Smol. ped. un-ta, 2001, 116 p. 9. The Management Strategy of National Parks of Russia. Moscow: Department of Environmental Protection and Ecological Safety of the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia and Center of Wildlife Conservation, 2002, 36 p. 10. Travkina M. Yu. Regulated Tourism in National Parks. Moscow: Wildlife Conservation Publisher, 2002, 43 p. 11. RF Ministry of Natural Resources . http://www.mnr.gov.ru 12. Bersenev Yu. I., Tsoi B. V. and Yavnova N. V. The Specially Protected Natural Territories of Primorski Krai. Vladivostok: World Wildlife Foundation Publisher, 2006, 64 p. 13. Bogomolova E. K. and Brovko P. F. On the establishment of national and natural marks on Sakhalin. In: The Promotion of Foreign and Domestic Tourism in the Far East. Vladivostok, 2000, pp. 69-70.