- Email: [email protected]
The Holocene: An environmental history
622
BOOK REVIEWS
artefact fragmentation and microwear. Another age old problem is discussed here; the relationship between artefact form and function. R. Yerkes describes work conducted on assemblages from the Labras Lake site, Illinois, which involved microwear and refitting. This is an optimistic paper as he tries to draw inferences about the social status of different households by using microwear analysis to record the activities undertaken. Indeed both Ode11and Yerkes are very positive about the value of microwear in contrast to the disillusionment many archaeologists have recently felt about this technique. The final paper is by N. R. Coinman, G. A. Clark and M. L. Donaldson and describes preliminary work at detecting spatial patterning in a surface collected assemblage from an epipalaeolithic site in Jordan. All the papers in this volume are concerned with large lithic assemblages in which artefacts number in the lOs, if not, 100s of thousands. Frequently these derived from contract work, have poor chronological resolution and suffer from multiple unknown biases. That this is the case is one of the greatest assets of the volume since the authors, being aware of these problems, demonstrate how archaeologists can work constructively with such material to identify and explain patterning. They retreat neither into pure description of the assemblages nor into woolly theory but get down to work, confidently applying a range of analytical techiques. As such the volume is inspirational to those who are in the process of, or about to begin, the analysis of large lithic assemblages. There is of course an over-riding theoretical framework which almost all authors implicitly accept; a functionalist, cost-benefit economizing view of human behaviour. This is put to good use particularly in the second section when systematic patterning is demonstrated between reduction methods and distance from raw material sources. There is negligible discussion of the influence of social and symbolic factors on artefact and assemblage variability; it is indeed difficult to see how such issues could be explored with such data bases. The volume is rounded off by a summary of the conference discussions which followed each conference paper, including three that were withdrawn from publication (by B. E. Luedtke, B. Driskell and P. Mellars). In that this is kept quite concise it is useful to read some of the criticisms and comments of the papers that arose at the conference and some of the more general discussion that was generated. It is perhaps disturbing, however, that such a distinguished group of lithic specialists found such trouble in agreeing how to define terms such as “reduction sequence” and “cortex”. As a whole it is very rewarding to read each of the detailed case studies in this volume, though this does take a little perseverance. Some of the papers, particularly that by Sackett are rather long and discursive and one feels could have been written rather more concisely. They do provide a good overview of what can be achieved by lithic analysis within a functionalist cost-benefit framework. Hopefully the future volumes in this series of archaeological papers will continue to publish such high standards of fieldwork, analysis and editing. Steven Mithen Cambridge University The Holocene: An Environmental History. Edited by Neil Roberts. 1989. 227pp., 66 figures, 30 plates, 19 tables. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd. c42.50 (hardback) E12.95 (paperback). ISBN O-631-14575-3. Whilst there are many textbooks on the Pleistocene epoch, no real worldwide summaries of environmental change during the Holocene were available before the publication of this book. Texts on the Quaternary as a whole rarely treat the Holocene with anything like the detail in which they cover the (admittedly much longer) Pleistocene. It is clear from the blurb on the bookjacket that it has been written with an eye to a particular market or markets-undergraduates taking courses in geography, archaeology, environmental science and ecology. There is a real need for a general textbook on the Holocene in all of these areas, but I am writing this review from the point of view of teaching archaeology students. The difficulty facing both authors and teachers is the great diversity of backgrounds from which archaeology students come. These range from the purely arts to the highly scientific and in planning an environmental course it is usually impossible to assume any common level of prior knowledge in basic techniques or concepts. An intended undergraduate text such as this would be used as back-up reading for such a course. It will bejudged by most staff and students on the way in which it bridges the gaps in basic knowledge, gives an overall framework into which
BOOK REVIEWS
623
the novice student can fit the vast range oftitbits ofevidence which she or he will receive, maintains a sense of direction and offers interesting possibilities for students to follow up. The book starts with a short introductory chapter, followed by chapter 2 “Reconstructing Holocene Environments”. This will be a key part of the book for those archaeology students who have no previous knowledge of Quaternary studies. It deals compactly with dating techniques (historical, radiometrical, dendrochronological and magnetic), with the use of pollen and other fossil remains in the reconstruction of past environments, with the study of sediments and of landforms. I think it is really too compact to act alone as an introduction for most archaeology students, dealing only briefly with huge areas of study, and it would be.necessary to recommend other general Quaternary texts to cover these basic aspects. This is one of the problems of writing a book for undergraduates. Publishers need to be able to sell the book at a profit, so they must limit its size and at the same time insist that it be written for as wide an audience as possible. Little can be assumed about the prior knowledge of readers and so some form of basic introduction is needed, but there is not enough room to make it detailed enough for those who need it, and it is a waste of space for those who do not. One interesting approach to the problem used in this book is to combine a glossary with the index. Words and phrases marked as bold in the text are very briefly explained in the index, along with the normal page references. This is very successful and could have been even more widely employed. Chapter 2 is also the first appearance of the “Technical Boxes” which appear at intervals through the book. Again, this is an interesting idea, allowing detailed treatment of subject matter that would be too heavy for the general text. It could be an effective way ofproviding basic introductions to those that need them, although more than the 10 spread through the text would really have been needed to do this. The main part of the book which follows considers four blocks of time: the final Pleistocene just before the start of the Holocene at 10,000 BP, the first half of the Holocene (lO,OOO-5000 BP), the bulk of the latter half (5000-500 BP) and the most recent 500 years. The origins of farming are treated separately in their own chapter. Whilst the book is about the Holocene some setting of the scene is clearly necessary, and is provided by chapter 3, “The Pleistocene Prelude”. It discusses Pleistocene inter-glacials in general, the glacial maximum of the last cold stage and the ensuing fmal phases of the Pleistocene. The British Isles is singled out for detailed treatment of the late interstadial/stadial sequence and there is a nice discussion of whether or not this represents a global phenomenon. Finally worldwide hominid colonization is discussed, along with the Late Pleistocene extinctions. On the whole, it sets the scene well. It is again brief and uses some terms not explained in either chapter 2 or in the glossary, but with one of the standard Quaternary texts by their side, archaeology students would find it easy enough to read. “Early Holocene Adaptations” in chapter 4 covers the geographical and climatic changes of the first half of the Holocene. Starting with reduction in global ice-sheets and the accompanying sealevel and coastline changes, it leads on to a treatment of human exploitation of changing coastlines. There is a large section on afforestation-Europe., Eastern North America, Mediterranean dry woodland, tropical woodland-and a short discussion of the environmental impact of Mesolithic colonization in Europe. Water level records in the closed basin lakes of northern Africa are providing a growing body of evidence that the first half of the Holocene had a very much wetter climate than either the preceding Late Pleistocene or ensuing Late Holocene. This evidence is briefly summarized and the likely environmental and human impact of such large climatic changes is discussed. Chapter 5 “The First Farmers” covers just what it says, the origins and spreads of agriculture. There are separate sections for the Near East, Mesoamerica, China and south-east Asia, and tropical areas. Further sections discuss the argument of indigenous evolution versus diffusion for agricultural origins, and possible relationship of environmental change in Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene to domestication, and the environmental impacts of early agriculture. “The Taming of Nature” (chapter 6) deals with the subsequent clearance of natural vegetation and the production of a “cultural landscape”. Evidence for climatic change during the latter half of the Holocene is considered, and the role of climatic as opposed to human agencies in environmental change are discussed. Particular topics in adaptation to different environments are dealt with in more detail, including irrigation agriculture in Mesopotamia, pastoral nomadism in Asia and Africa, and colonization of “The Periphery” in the Arctic and the Pacific islands. Ecological change in the Mediterranean basin and in the British Isles are also dealt with in some detail.
624
BOOK REVIEWS
Chapter 7 “The Impact of Modern Times” sets out a background of the most recent climatic changes of the Holocene, and then goes on to discuss issues such as landuse, soil erosion and pollution. Finally, chapter 8 considers a number of environmental themes for the future. The book as a whole is an enjoyable read. It gives an overview with a global perspective which is most refreshing both in archaeology and environmental studies. Archaeological and environmental issues are discussed together in a lively way. Whilst the references are comprehensive and up-to-date for the subjects covered, it is not really designed as a detailed reference book. Instead, archaeology students will find that it provides them with a useful framework and interesting examples that inspire further study. I will be recommending it to my students. Simon Hillson University College London
The Human Revolution: Behavioural and Biological Perspectiveson the Origins of Modern Humans. Edited by P. Mellars and C. Stringer. 1989. 8OOpp., Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press. Price not stated. ISBN O-85224-596-3. In the aftermath of the cant and confusion of the now infamous 1986Southampton “World ArchaeologicalCongress”,mostof thoseinvited to contribute to a symposiumon “The Originsand Dispersalof Modern Humans”assembled insteadin Cambridgein the springof 1987.This volume containsthe moreovertly biologicalpaperspresentedat that meeting,with the morearchaeological papersbeingpublishedin a companionvolume.As it is,this volumerunsto 35papersandnearly 800 pages.To dojusticeto solargea volumein soshorta spaceisalmostimpossible,whileto singleout a handful of contributionsfrom amongthe many excellentchapterswould beinvidious. I cando no more than give a flavour of the contents. Inevitably, perhaps,mostof the papersfocusin one way or another on the conflict betweenthe “Out of Africa” and the“Regional Continuity” hypotheses.The 17papersof the first sectionmostly addressthis issueexplicitly. Stoneking& Cann,Wainscoatet al., Lucotte & Rouhini, for example, ail draw on different sourcesof geneticdata in support of the Out of Africa model,while Brauer, StringerandGrovesadduceanatomicalevidencein its favour. Some(e.g.Arensburgand Habgood) areinclinedto hedgetheir bets,but only Wolpoff and Smithet al., comedown uncompromisinglyin favour of RegionalContinuity. The secondsectionof eight papersfocuseslesson the disputesabout humanorigins than on the ecologicaland socialchangesthat must have occurredacrossthe transition from archaic to anatomically modernHomo sapiens and the associated changesthat gaveriseto the secondgreatwave of expansioninto Australia and the New World during the Upper Palaeolithic.Mellars and White arguefor a markedchangein artifact stylewith the advent of the Upper Palaeolithic,andinfer from that an associatedshift in cognitive abilities.Both Chaseand Whallon, in a pair of excellentpapers, insist that there is little evidenceto suggesta major changein subsistence ecology acrossthis transition, arguingthat it waschangesin socialorganization that werelargely responsiblefor the newextensionof the species’ rangethat occurredat this time. Liebermansummarizes hisarguments againsttheNeanderthalshavinglanguage,whileAlexanderattemptsan (at timesrambling)analysis of the evolution of the humanpsyche.And whereAlexander’spaperhasthe merit of beingpacked with ideas,Gellner’sattempt to defendthe uniqueness of cultural Man seemsintent on sayingno morethan that humansarecomplexorganisms. The final sectioncontainsnine papersthat review the evidencefor humanevolution in specific regions(Klein and Deaconon southernAfrica, Bar-Yosef and Sheaon the Levantine, Harrold on Western Europe, Soffer on the Russianregion and Joneson Australia). What wasinevitably the maintalking point in the meetingreturnsin Clark & Lindley’sspiriteddefenceof regionalcontinuity in the biological and cultural transitionson the Eur-Asian borderlands,while Clark reviewsthe African evidencefor the “Out of Africa” hypothesis. All in all, it isclearthat this wasanunusuallyexciting meetingheldat a timewhennewideasabout the originsof modern Man werebeinglaunched.The book that hasemergedfrom it providesan excellentsummaryof the main positions,as well asmuch of the relevant evidence,even at this removein time. Highly recommended. Robin Dunbar University College London
BOOK REVIEWS
artefact fragmentation and microwear. Another age old problem is discussed here; the relationship between artefact form and function. R. Yerkes describes work conducted on assemblages from the Labras Lake site, Illinois, which involved microwear and refitting. This is an optimistic paper as he tries to draw inferences about the social status of different households by using microwear analysis to record the activities undertaken. Indeed both Ode11and Yerkes are very positive about the value of microwear in contrast to the disillusionment many archaeologists have recently felt about this technique. The final paper is by N. R. Coinman, G. A. Clark and M. L. Donaldson and describes preliminary work at detecting spatial patterning in a surface collected assemblage from an epipalaeolithic site in Jordan. All the papers in this volume are concerned with large lithic assemblages in which artefacts number in the lOs, if not, 100s of thousands. Frequently these derived from contract work, have poor chronological resolution and suffer from multiple unknown biases. That this is the case is one of the greatest assets of the volume since the authors, being aware of these problems, demonstrate how archaeologists can work constructively with such material to identify and explain patterning. They retreat neither into pure description of the assemblages nor into woolly theory but get down to work, confidently applying a range of analytical techiques. As such the volume is inspirational to those who are in the process of, or about to begin, the analysis of large lithic assemblages. There is of course an over-riding theoretical framework which almost all authors implicitly accept; a functionalist, cost-benefit economizing view of human behaviour. This is put to good use particularly in the second section when systematic patterning is demonstrated between reduction methods and distance from raw material sources. There is negligible discussion of the influence of social and symbolic factors on artefact and assemblage variability; it is indeed difficult to see how such issues could be explored with such data bases. The volume is rounded off by a summary of the conference discussions which followed each conference paper, including three that were withdrawn from publication (by B. E. Luedtke, B. Driskell and P. Mellars). In that this is kept quite concise it is useful to read some of the criticisms and comments of the papers that arose at the conference and some of the more general discussion that was generated. It is perhaps disturbing, however, that such a distinguished group of lithic specialists found such trouble in agreeing how to define terms such as “reduction sequence” and “cortex”. As a whole it is very rewarding to read each of the detailed case studies in this volume, though this does take a little perseverance. Some of the papers, particularly that by Sackett are rather long and discursive and one feels could have been written rather more concisely. They do provide a good overview of what can be achieved by lithic analysis within a functionalist cost-benefit framework. Hopefully the future volumes in this series of archaeological papers will continue to publish such high standards of fieldwork, analysis and editing. Steven Mithen Cambridge University The Holocene: An Environmental History. Edited by Neil Roberts. 1989. 227pp., 66 figures, 30 plates, 19 tables. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd. c42.50 (hardback) E12.95 (paperback). ISBN O-631-14575-3. Whilst there are many textbooks on the Pleistocene epoch, no real worldwide summaries of environmental change during the Holocene were available before the publication of this book. Texts on the Quaternary as a whole rarely treat the Holocene with anything like the detail in which they cover the (admittedly much longer) Pleistocene. It is clear from the blurb on the bookjacket that it has been written with an eye to a particular market or markets-undergraduates taking courses in geography, archaeology, environmental science and ecology. There is a real need for a general textbook on the Holocene in all of these areas, but I am writing this review from the point of view of teaching archaeology students. The difficulty facing both authors and teachers is the great diversity of backgrounds from which archaeology students come. These range from the purely arts to the highly scientific and in planning an environmental course it is usually impossible to assume any common level of prior knowledge in basic techniques or concepts. An intended undergraduate text such as this would be used as back-up reading for such a course. It will bejudged by most staff and students on the way in which it bridges the gaps in basic knowledge, gives an overall framework into which
BOOK REVIEWS
623
the novice student can fit the vast range oftitbits ofevidence which she or he will receive, maintains a sense of direction and offers interesting possibilities for students to follow up. The book starts with a short introductory chapter, followed by chapter 2 “Reconstructing Holocene Environments”. This will be a key part of the book for those archaeology students who have no previous knowledge of Quaternary studies. It deals compactly with dating techniques (historical, radiometrical, dendrochronological and magnetic), with the use of pollen and other fossil remains in the reconstruction of past environments, with the study of sediments and of landforms. I think it is really too compact to act alone as an introduction for most archaeology students, dealing only briefly with huge areas of study, and it would be.necessary to recommend other general Quaternary texts to cover these basic aspects. This is one of the problems of writing a book for undergraduates. Publishers need to be able to sell the book at a profit, so they must limit its size and at the same time insist that it be written for as wide an audience as possible. Little can be assumed about the prior knowledge of readers and so some form of basic introduction is needed, but there is not enough room to make it detailed enough for those who need it, and it is a waste of space for those who do not. One interesting approach to the problem used in this book is to combine a glossary with the index. Words and phrases marked as bold in the text are very briefly explained in the index, along with the normal page references. This is very successful and could have been even more widely employed. Chapter 2 is also the first appearance of the “Technical Boxes” which appear at intervals through the book. Again, this is an interesting idea, allowing detailed treatment of subject matter that would be too heavy for the general text. It could be an effective way ofproviding basic introductions to those that need them, although more than the 10 spread through the text would really have been needed to do this. The main part of the book which follows considers four blocks of time: the final Pleistocene just before the start of the Holocene at 10,000 BP, the first half of the Holocene (lO,OOO-5000 BP), the bulk of the latter half (5000-500 BP) and the most recent 500 years. The origins of farming are treated separately in their own chapter. Whilst the book is about the Holocene some setting of the scene is clearly necessary, and is provided by chapter 3, “The Pleistocene Prelude”. It discusses Pleistocene inter-glacials in general, the glacial maximum of the last cold stage and the ensuing fmal phases of the Pleistocene. The British Isles is singled out for detailed treatment of the late interstadial/stadial sequence and there is a nice discussion of whether or not this represents a global phenomenon. Finally worldwide hominid colonization is discussed, along with the Late Pleistocene extinctions. On the whole, it sets the scene well. It is again brief and uses some terms not explained in either chapter 2 or in the glossary, but with one of the standard Quaternary texts by their side, archaeology students would find it easy enough to read. “Early Holocene Adaptations” in chapter 4 covers the geographical and climatic changes of the first half of the Holocene. Starting with reduction in global ice-sheets and the accompanying sealevel and coastline changes, it leads on to a treatment of human exploitation of changing coastlines. There is a large section on afforestation-Europe., Eastern North America, Mediterranean dry woodland, tropical woodland-and a short discussion of the environmental impact of Mesolithic colonization in Europe. Water level records in the closed basin lakes of northern Africa are providing a growing body of evidence that the first half of the Holocene had a very much wetter climate than either the preceding Late Pleistocene or ensuing Late Holocene. This evidence is briefly summarized and the likely environmental and human impact of such large climatic changes is discussed. Chapter 5 “The First Farmers” covers just what it says, the origins and spreads of agriculture. There are separate sections for the Near East, Mesoamerica, China and south-east Asia, and tropical areas. Further sections discuss the argument of indigenous evolution versus diffusion for agricultural origins, and possible relationship of environmental change in Late Pleistocene/Early Holocene to domestication, and the environmental impacts of early agriculture. “The Taming of Nature” (chapter 6) deals with the subsequent clearance of natural vegetation and the production of a “cultural landscape”. Evidence for climatic change during the latter half of the Holocene is considered, and the role of climatic as opposed to human agencies in environmental change are discussed. Particular topics in adaptation to different environments are dealt with in more detail, including irrigation agriculture in Mesopotamia, pastoral nomadism in Asia and Africa, and colonization of “The Periphery” in the Arctic and the Pacific islands. Ecological change in the Mediterranean basin and in the British Isles are also dealt with in some detail.
624
BOOK REVIEWS
Chapter 7 “The Impact of Modern Times” sets out a background of the most recent climatic changes of the Holocene, and then goes on to discuss issues such as landuse, soil erosion and pollution. Finally, chapter 8 considers a number of environmental themes for the future. The book as a whole is an enjoyable read. It gives an overview with a global perspective which is most refreshing both in archaeology and environmental studies. Archaeological and environmental issues are discussed together in a lively way. Whilst the references are comprehensive and up-to-date for the subjects covered, it is not really designed as a detailed reference book. Instead, archaeology students will find that it provides them with a useful framework and interesting examples that inspire further study. I will be recommending it to my students. Simon Hillson University College London
The Human Revolution: Behavioural and Biological Perspectiveson the Origins of Modern Humans. Edited by P. Mellars and C. Stringer. 1989. 8OOpp., Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press. Price not stated. ISBN O-85224-596-3. In the aftermath of the cant and confusion of the now infamous 1986Southampton “World ArchaeologicalCongress”,mostof thoseinvited to contribute to a symposiumon “The Originsand Dispersalof Modern Humans”assembled insteadin Cambridgein the springof 1987.This volume containsthe moreovertly biologicalpaperspresentedat that meeting,with the morearchaeological papersbeingpublishedin a companionvolume.As it is,this volumerunsto 35papersandnearly 800 pages.To dojusticeto solargea volumein soshorta spaceisalmostimpossible,whileto singleout a handful of contributionsfrom amongthe many excellentchapterswould beinvidious. I cando no more than give a flavour of the contents. Inevitably, perhaps,mostof the papersfocusin one way or another on the conflict betweenthe “Out of Africa” and the“Regional Continuity” hypotheses.The 17papersof the first sectionmostly addressthis issueexplicitly. Stoneking& Cann,Wainscoatet al., Lucotte & Rouhini, for example, ail draw on different sourcesof geneticdata in support of the Out of Africa model,while Brauer, StringerandGrovesadduceanatomicalevidencein its favour. Some(e.g.Arensburgand Habgood) areinclinedto hedgetheir bets,but only Wolpoff and Smithet al., comedown uncompromisinglyin favour of RegionalContinuity. The secondsectionof eight papersfocuseslesson the disputesabout humanorigins than on the ecologicaland socialchangesthat must have occurredacrossthe transition from archaic to anatomically modernHomo sapiens and the associated changesthat gaveriseto the secondgreatwave of expansioninto Australia and the New World during the Upper Palaeolithic.Mellars and White arguefor a markedchangein artifact stylewith the advent of the Upper Palaeolithic,andinfer from that an associatedshift in cognitive abilities.Both Chaseand Whallon, in a pair of excellentpapers, insist that there is little evidenceto suggesta major changein subsistence ecology acrossthis transition, arguingthat it waschangesin socialorganization that werelargely responsiblefor the newextensionof the species’ rangethat occurredat this time. Liebermansummarizes hisarguments againsttheNeanderthalshavinglanguage,whileAlexanderattemptsan (at timesrambling)analysis of the evolution of the humanpsyche.And whereAlexander’spaperhasthe merit of beingpacked with ideas,Gellner’sattempt to defendthe uniqueness of cultural Man seemsintent on sayingno morethan that humansarecomplexorganisms. The final sectioncontainsnine papersthat review the evidencefor humanevolution in specific regions(Klein and Deaconon southernAfrica, Bar-Yosef and Sheaon the Levantine, Harrold on Western Europe, Soffer on the Russianregion and Joneson Australia). What wasinevitably the maintalking point in the meetingreturnsin Clark & Lindley’sspiriteddefenceof regionalcontinuity in the biological and cultural transitionson the Eur-Asian borderlands,while Clark reviewsthe African evidencefor the “Out of Africa” hypothesis. All in all, it isclearthat this wasanunusuallyexciting meetingheldat a timewhennewideasabout the originsof modern Man werebeinglaunched.The book that hasemergedfrom it providesan excellentsummaryof the main positions,as well asmuch of the relevant evidence,even at this removein time. Highly recommended. Robin Dunbar University College London