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The human element in environmental protection
Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 29, Nos 6-12, pp. 375-377, 1994
~
Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Great Britain 0025-326X/94 $7.00+ 0.00
0025-326X(95)00214-2
Pergamon
The Human Element in Environmental Protection TOR-CHRISTIAN MATHIESEN Det Norske Veritas, Veritasveien 1, 1322 Hovik, Norway
The shipping industry accounts for only a small portion of the overall pollution of the seas and the industry has substantially reduced accidental and operational discharges. Efforts are continuing to achieve further improvements. The most cost-efficient way to further enhance safety and environmental protection is to focus on the human element through education, motivation and training, particularly for those entering the profession. The implementation of the International Safety Management Code will be an important vehicle in improving operational standards with the objective of enhancing environmental protection.
The focus of this paper is on international oil transportation as this is the area of shipping where the volume is high, in number of transports, and where accidents have the potential to damage the environment. Experience has shown the importance of the human clement in the chain of events leading to almost any accident. The public often perceives oil transportation as unsafe and any accident or major mishap immediately attracts world-wide media attention. Shipping in general is a high profile business where larger accidents often have led to new and tougher statutory rules in spite of the fact that many accidents are caused by non-compliance with existing rules and regulations. Comparison with other modes of transportation such as road and rail, however, shows that oil transportation at sea is relatively safe, with almost all transports being successfully carried out. Despite this, accidents should be prevented. Discharges to the environment from tankers include exhaust gases and cargo vapours--two areas where there is most to gain from improvements (Table 1). Discharge of pollutants world-wide from ballast water, for instance, is now only 10% of levels 10 years ago. Compared with industrial waste, the shipping industry, either through operational discharges or through accidents, accounts for TABLE 1 Estimatedglobalemissionsof exhaust gasesfrom ships in international trade.
Global emission from ships (Mt) Percentage of total global emissions
SO.
NO.
CO
HC
CO2
6.4
6.0
0.15
0.25
370
4.0
7.0
0.05
0.4
1.4
less than one-quarter of all oil discharges to the sea (Table 2). The improvements in limiting accidental oil pollution from tankers over the last 20 years have been substantial, in spite of the growth in volume and an increase in the average age of oil tankers (Fig. 1). TABLE 2 Annual global oil discharges to the sea. Source: UN Environmental Programme 1990. Source Industrial waste Refineries, terminals Offshore production Tankers: operational Tankers: accidental Other shipping* Natural sources Total
Amount (Mt) 1.48 0.03 0.05 0.114 0.16 0.35 0.025 2.434
*Non-tanker accidents,bilgewasteand fueloil, dry docking.
T h e H u m a n F a c t o r in Accidents and M i s h a p s The common feature when discussing the shortcomings of the human element and protection of the environment is that such shortcomings are not only influenced by, but also controlled more or less exclusively by, management. As much as 80% of all accidents and mishaps can be attributed to human failure. This may be greater depending on the terms of reference in collating the statistics. The statistics for accident cause presented by major protection and indemnity clubs are as follows: crew, pilots and shore personnel, 65 %; mechanical and equipment failure, 15 %; and others, 20%. The casualty categories indicate the causes within the world fleet (Table 3). TABLE 3 Casualty categories (1992,distribution for world fleet > 100 GRT). Source:LLP Casualty Week. Cause of casualty
Mechanical damage Stranding Hull damage Founding/missing Fire/explosion Collision/contact Other
Percentage of total*
30 18 7 4 14 25 2
*Total number 920.
375
Marine Pollution Bulletin
Number of Spills
12°/'
~~=
'
100 1-~
/ ~
7-700 tonnes A b o v e 700 tonnes
80
60 40
70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 Fig. 1 World-wide accidental oil pollution from tankers. Source: Intertanko.
Most accidents and incidents could have been avoided if all the rules and regulations were followed. That is why Det Norske Veritas is now increasingly addressing the human element in shipping through its own Safety Management Certification, a scheme which considers all operational aspects of shipping, from the boardroom to the bridge and deck. The Complete
Organization
The reasons for human failure include: a lack of or wrong procedures for important operations; a lack of or incomplete contingency arrangements and training; insufficiently qualified ship personnel; a lack of or incomplete inspection and preventive maintenance; and design flaws. 'Human failure' can in most instances be due to poor management or to an organizational matter. The key to safe ship operation lies with the quality of management of the company, both ashore and on-board. More than half of all accidents can be directly linked to the human element (Table 4). Mechanical, equipment and structural failures are also in many ways linked to human errors in the design, planning and construction periods as well as a lack of maintenance. Safety can be vastly enhanced--and here lies the biggest potential for increasing safety at sea--through more focus and attention on the human element. The idea of the complete organization is that all operational aspects are considered, such as: business policies; organizational structure; responsibilities; and procedures. In addition, TABLE 4 Main causes of shipping accidents. Cause of accident Officer error Crew error Structural failure Equipment failure Mechanical failure Shore error Pilot error Engineering officer error Other Under investigation
376
Percentage of total 32 20 13 11 6 6 4 2 5 1
special focus is placed on the people in the organization in terms of: qualifications/competence; training/procedures; language/communication; and attitudes/motivation. Attention should be directed towards the area of attitudes and motivation: care for the environment through responsible and safe operation. One of the biggest challenges for the future shipping industry will be to raise the level of training and education through nautical schools and through formal requirements such as the revised Standards for Training, Certification and Watchkeeping Convention. ( H e l l e n i c M a r i n e Environment Protection Association): An Example from HELMEPA
Greek Shipping Along these lines the Greek shipping community (controlling the largest fleet in the world), through its organization HELMEPA, has taken an important initiative to secure safer shipping and cleaner seas. A first priority has been to address the human element to influence attitudes and create motivation through information and education. HELMEPA has produced awareness programmes for the public and schoolchildren as well as initiating an action programme in the Mediterranean to protect the coastlines and the sea. HELMEPA is also backing the development of training programmes for seafarers, both onshore and on-board, and the development of safety manuals.
Safety Management The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has introduced the IMO International Safety Management Code (ISM), which addresses the human element. The code will be a voluntary instrument at first, but will start to become a mandatory regulatory instrument from 1998 and onwards, first for passenger and tanker vessels. The Code has been developed with the objective of ensuring compliance with rules and regulations and safe practices. It addresses such important factors as organizational structure, responsibilities, resources, procedures and instructions to ensure safe ship conditions, safer
Volume29/Numbers6-12 operational practices and preparation for an emergency. Contrary to the industrial standards commonly used for land-based industries, the new ISM Code has been devised especially for the shipping industry, including setting standards and measurable demands on ship operations.
DNV Solutions to Safety Management In 1990 DNV introduced a new classification service called Safety Management Certification (SMC), which
was the first step towards a 'total safety' concept. The SMC concept fully meets all the requirements of the new ISM Code. The principles behind SMC are: assessment of the company's safety and environmental policy and management system, including shipboard systems; review of implementation and periodic audits; and to eliminate random or subjective evaluations, the rules focus on criteria for assessment and audits. Safety and environmental protection are the main objectives. The company may, however, establish specific objectives in addition to those covered by the rules and the classification may be used to verify that these are met.
377
~
Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Great Britain 0025-326X/94 $7.00+ 0.00
0025-326X(95)00214-2
Pergamon
The Human Element in Environmental Protection TOR-CHRISTIAN MATHIESEN Det Norske Veritas, Veritasveien 1, 1322 Hovik, Norway
The shipping industry accounts for only a small portion of the overall pollution of the seas and the industry has substantially reduced accidental and operational discharges. Efforts are continuing to achieve further improvements. The most cost-efficient way to further enhance safety and environmental protection is to focus on the human element through education, motivation and training, particularly for those entering the profession. The implementation of the International Safety Management Code will be an important vehicle in improving operational standards with the objective of enhancing environmental protection.
The focus of this paper is on international oil transportation as this is the area of shipping where the volume is high, in number of transports, and where accidents have the potential to damage the environment. Experience has shown the importance of the human clement in the chain of events leading to almost any accident. The public often perceives oil transportation as unsafe and any accident or major mishap immediately attracts world-wide media attention. Shipping in general is a high profile business where larger accidents often have led to new and tougher statutory rules in spite of the fact that many accidents are caused by non-compliance with existing rules and regulations. Comparison with other modes of transportation such as road and rail, however, shows that oil transportation at sea is relatively safe, with almost all transports being successfully carried out. Despite this, accidents should be prevented. Discharges to the environment from tankers include exhaust gases and cargo vapours--two areas where there is most to gain from improvements (Table 1). Discharge of pollutants world-wide from ballast water, for instance, is now only 10% of levels 10 years ago. Compared with industrial waste, the shipping industry, either through operational discharges or through accidents, accounts for TABLE 1 Estimatedglobalemissionsof exhaust gasesfrom ships in international trade.
Global emission from ships (Mt) Percentage of total global emissions
SO.
NO.
CO
HC
CO2
6.4
6.0
0.15
0.25
370
4.0
7.0
0.05
0.4
1.4
less than one-quarter of all oil discharges to the sea (Table 2). The improvements in limiting accidental oil pollution from tankers over the last 20 years have been substantial, in spite of the growth in volume and an increase in the average age of oil tankers (Fig. 1). TABLE 2 Annual global oil discharges to the sea. Source: UN Environmental Programme 1990. Source Industrial waste Refineries, terminals Offshore production Tankers: operational Tankers: accidental Other shipping* Natural sources Total
Amount (Mt) 1.48 0.03 0.05 0.114 0.16 0.35 0.025 2.434
*Non-tanker accidents,bilgewasteand fueloil, dry docking.
T h e H u m a n F a c t o r in Accidents and M i s h a p s The common feature when discussing the shortcomings of the human element and protection of the environment is that such shortcomings are not only influenced by, but also controlled more or less exclusively by, management. As much as 80% of all accidents and mishaps can be attributed to human failure. This may be greater depending on the terms of reference in collating the statistics. The statistics for accident cause presented by major protection and indemnity clubs are as follows: crew, pilots and shore personnel, 65 %; mechanical and equipment failure, 15 %; and others, 20%. The casualty categories indicate the causes within the world fleet (Table 3). TABLE 3 Casualty categories (1992,distribution for world fleet > 100 GRT). Source:LLP Casualty Week. Cause of casualty
Mechanical damage Stranding Hull damage Founding/missing Fire/explosion Collision/contact Other
Percentage of total*
30 18 7 4 14 25 2
*Total number 920.
375
Marine Pollution Bulletin
Number of Spills
12°/'
~~=
'
100 1-~
/ ~
7-700 tonnes A b o v e 700 tonnes
80
60 40
70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 Fig. 1 World-wide accidental oil pollution from tankers. Source: Intertanko.
Most accidents and incidents could have been avoided if all the rules and regulations were followed. That is why Det Norske Veritas is now increasingly addressing the human element in shipping through its own Safety Management Certification, a scheme which considers all operational aspects of shipping, from the boardroom to the bridge and deck. The Complete
Organization
The reasons for human failure include: a lack of or wrong procedures for important operations; a lack of or incomplete contingency arrangements and training; insufficiently qualified ship personnel; a lack of or incomplete inspection and preventive maintenance; and design flaws. 'Human failure' can in most instances be due to poor management or to an organizational matter. The key to safe ship operation lies with the quality of management of the company, both ashore and on-board. More than half of all accidents can be directly linked to the human element (Table 4). Mechanical, equipment and structural failures are also in many ways linked to human errors in the design, planning and construction periods as well as a lack of maintenance. Safety can be vastly enhanced--and here lies the biggest potential for increasing safety at sea--through more focus and attention on the human element. The idea of the complete organization is that all operational aspects are considered, such as: business policies; organizational structure; responsibilities; and procedures. In addition, TABLE 4 Main causes of shipping accidents. Cause of accident Officer error Crew error Structural failure Equipment failure Mechanical failure Shore error Pilot error Engineering officer error Other Under investigation
376
Percentage of total 32 20 13 11 6 6 4 2 5 1
special focus is placed on the people in the organization in terms of: qualifications/competence; training/procedures; language/communication; and attitudes/motivation. Attention should be directed towards the area of attitudes and motivation: care for the environment through responsible and safe operation. One of the biggest challenges for the future shipping industry will be to raise the level of training and education through nautical schools and through formal requirements such as the revised Standards for Training, Certification and Watchkeeping Convention. ( H e l l e n i c M a r i n e Environment Protection Association): An Example from HELMEPA
Greek Shipping Along these lines the Greek shipping community (controlling the largest fleet in the world), through its organization HELMEPA, has taken an important initiative to secure safer shipping and cleaner seas. A first priority has been to address the human element to influence attitudes and create motivation through information and education. HELMEPA has produced awareness programmes for the public and schoolchildren as well as initiating an action programme in the Mediterranean to protect the coastlines and the sea. HELMEPA is also backing the development of training programmes for seafarers, both onshore and on-board, and the development of safety manuals.
Safety Management The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has introduced the IMO International Safety Management Code (ISM), which addresses the human element. The code will be a voluntary instrument at first, but will start to become a mandatory regulatory instrument from 1998 and onwards, first for passenger and tanker vessels. The Code has been developed with the objective of ensuring compliance with rules and regulations and safe practices. It addresses such important factors as organizational structure, responsibilities, resources, procedures and instructions to ensure safe ship conditions, safer
Volume29/Numbers6-12 operational practices and preparation for an emergency. Contrary to the industrial standards commonly used for land-based industries, the new ISM Code has been devised especially for the shipping industry, including setting standards and measurable demands on ship operations.
DNV Solutions to Safety Management In 1990 DNV introduced a new classification service called Safety Management Certification (SMC), which
was the first step towards a 'total safety' concept. The SMC concept fully meets all the requirements of the new ISM Code. The principles behind SMC are: assessment of the company's safety and environmental policy and management system, including shipboard systems; review of implementation and periodic audits; and to eliminate random or subjective evaluations, the rules focus on criteria for assessment and audits. Safety and environmental protection are the main objectives. The company may, however, establish specific objectives in addition to those covered by the rules and the classification may be used to verify that these are met.
377