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The IEA study of reading literacy: Achievement and instruction in thirty-two school systems
BOOK REVIEWS view that the task of basic schooling is to build a general competence which will give students opportunities for later skills training in specific work contexts. The book raises but does not solve the problem of what, for the individual, constitutes the 'vocational' in terms of life-objectives, motivation, social insertion anti socialisation into a working environment, let alone what sub- or pre-skiils should be in the core curriculum. The conflict of personal student agendas with those of social and economic planners in a small island with minimal natural resources is not really addressed. The political agenda has changed as differing colonial powers have occupied the island as part of their political or trade strategy. Successive attempts have been made to institutionalise technical training within schooling to provide for specific needs - - administrative or dockyard workers for the colonial power - - or to facilitate emigration. Sultana omits the powerful factor of Maltese culture, language and identity in student motivation - - particularly demonstrated when the introduction of compulsory Arabic to foster links with Libya was defeated by refusal to learn. However, he does note that strategies emphasising classification from primary school onwards focus on examination success and make trade school and technical tracks second class. He sums up by adopting Psacharopoulos' (1987) four scenarios for vocational education: a single track system; a comprehensive, multi-track curriculum; a vocational track in secondary school; and vocational education as part of the core curriculum. This last, favoured by Sultana, would require student-centred organisation of learning, mixed ability classrooms and very versatile teachers. However, this leaves the real question of how the logic of theory and rhetoric of research can be brought into the consciousness of praxis of the learner, teacher and administrator. The book is especially useful in bringing together so much of this complex and diverse field. WILLIAM I. OZANNE
Birmingham, U.K.
Education in Modern China: Jing Lin. Praeger, Westport, CT, 1993, ISBN 0o275-94270-8, 131 pp., £35.95. In six chapters, the author discusses curriculum content, especially in political and civic education; rural education; urban education; reforms and problems in administration; the development of educational research; and issues that led to the student movement of 1989. The reason for choosing these areas is not given, but the focus is on 'changes and problems in the Chinese educational system since economic reform began in 1978' (p. xv). The central theme echoes Tsou's discussion of 'the retreat of politics as reflected in ideological discourse' (1986, p. 151). If one argues that political positions are no longer the sole source of ideological discourse, one can ask what the newly accepted positions are. In education, this requires examination of the dynamics of a system where political ideology is still important, though less so. How do social, economic, administrative and cultural factors affect the way education functions in China today? The chapter on educational research can serve as an example. Its introduction suggests that the major
97
characteristic of recent educational research has been to 'break away from the strict ideological constraints of the Cultural Revolution' (p. 87). Discussion of what the new intellectual positions are and how they have been established follows Tsou, b u t i n a more specific context. Jing then goes on to talk about development in various research areas. During the Cultural Revolution, education chiefly served as a political tool. Its new role necessitates a debate on the nature of education. This debate has clearly affected particular research areas. For example, research in the economics of education is clearly derived from the new view that education is a productive force. The same theme appears in almost every chapter, though it was not made sufficiently explicit. Areas of description are well-chosen, and researchers already acquainted with Chinese education may be able to work out the theme themselves, but for newcomers the lack of depth in discussing the theme makes the book mainly an introductory text on Chinese education. Finally, the treatment of the June Fourth student movement is questionable. First, the explanation is insufficient to account for the complexity of the movement. It is more about the changing relationship between the state and Chinese society in general during the 1980s than the momentum that led to student activism in 1989. Second, despite the importance of the topic, the chapter is quite unconnected to the reasoning of the rest of the book. REFERENCE Tsou, Tang (1986) The Cultural Revolution and PostMao Reforms: A Historical Perspective. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. KWOK WAH CHEUNG
University of Hong Kong
The lEA Study of Reading Literacy: Achievement and Instruction in Thirty-Two School Systems: Warwick B. Elley (ed.). Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1994, ISBN 0-09-041933X, 278 pp., $83, £52. International comparability is now a powerful argument in persuading politicians to invest more resources in education or to make radical policy changes. Much of the stimulus for educational reform in Britain in the 1980s was generated by international studies which highlighted shortcomings in the linguistic and mathematical achievement of children in England and Wales compared to their peers in other OECD countries. Literacy, in particular, has been singled out as a key indicator of social and economic progress; there is mounting concern nowadays, even in Western countries, at the growing number of students who fail to learn to read and write adequately by the time they leave school. It has been estimated that by the turn of the century over 900 million people throughout the world will be illiterate. Thus, the recent study of literacy by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (lEA) in 32 countries across five continents is both timely and significant. The IEA produced the first cross-national data on reading levels in the early 1970s, when 15 countries were surveyed. The recent survey, launched in 1988, was a far larger undertaking, involving some 210,000
98
BOOK REVIEWS
students, 10,000 teachers and more than 20 different languages. Two grade levels were chosen to locate the majority of 9- and 14-year-olds. The primary aim of the project was to describe the achievement levels in reading literacy - - defined as the ability to understand and use those written language forms required by society and/or valued by the individual - - of comparable samples of students in a wide variety of education systems. Warwick Elley, Professor of Education at the University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand, edited the findings and made a major contribution to five of the eight chapters in the book. The introduction outlines the background to the study and the format adopted. Then follows an analysis of the international differences in achievement levels. In absolute terms, Finnish students showed the highest achievement in reading at both grade levels, despite the fact that they had fewer years in school than their counterparts in most other countries. Students from Sweden, France and New Zealand also performed well at both levels, while students from the U.S.A. and Italy did well at the lower grade level. However, great caution must be exercised in commenting on the results because of the specific circumstances relating to each country. Chapter 3, which is devoted to voluntary reading activities, highlights gender differences and the preferred subject matter of children at different ages. As might be expected, in most countries frequent readers are generally better readers. The positive correlations between a rich home environment and well-resourced schools and student literacy are explored in Chapters 4 and 5, respectively, while Chapter 6 deals with the various ways of teaching reading and the influence of teachers on student outcomes. The penultimate chapter presents multivariate analyses of data on the younger age grade. Finally, the editor draws together the findings and suggests implications for future policy-making. Does enhanced financial investment in schooling result in significant gains in student achievement? Is access to large stocks of books a prerequisite for good reading comprehension? What impact does a strong literacy tradition in a country have on student literacy? Is there a strong link between the age at which children start formal schooling and levels of literacy? What role, if any, do parents and schools play in facilitating literacy? How important is leisure reading? Is there a positive link between class size and literacy? What arc the characteristics of teachers who are successful in teaching children to read? Do schools which encourage children to enjoy reading achieve better results than schools which place a stronger emphasis on acquiring reading skills at the expense of interest? These are some of the leading questions addressed. The editor warns that cross-sectional surveys rarely produce findings with definitive recommendations for educators, but they can provide a knowledge base for policy-makers and confirm or reject common beliefs about what is effective and what is irrelevant to raising educational achievement. Such is the nature of the IEA survey. Literacy is a complex subject, and it is not surprising that the study reveals few relationships that were stable and consistent across all countries. Ultimately, unique circumstances in each country may be equally, if not more, significant in determining literacy levels than factors common across all countries. This is a study written primarily for the expert rather
than the lay public. It abounds with tables and diagrams and one complete chapter is devoted to multivariate analyses using Rasch techniques. In a technical sense, it is a mine of information and a valuable addition to the field. However, if the IEA wishes its findings to be widely understood and appreciated, especially by classroom teachers, there should be a brief summary chapter written for popular consumption. CLIVE WHITEHEAD
University of Western Australia
Teachers in Developing Countries: Improving Effectiveness and Managing Costs: Joseph P. Farrell and Joao B. Oliveira (eds.). World Bank, Washington, 1993, 224 pp., $11.95. ISBN 0-8213-1792-x. This collection of essays reviews the options policy-makers in developing countries face in increasing teacher effectiveness within the boundaries of existing or shrinking financial resources for education. It focuses on teacher remuneration, incentives, organisation and management, increased professionalisation and innovation in teacher education. The underlying dilemma that ties the essays together is the well-known one that while teachers' salaries take up an overwhelming share of developing countries' education budgets, with few exceptions, teachers are underpaid. It is hard to attract or retain qualified and motivated personnel which, in combination with other minimal resources, leads to low teacher effectiveness and student achievement. The 15 papers stem from a 1987 World Bank Economic Development Institute seminar at which academics, practitioners, decision-makers and union leaders from developed and developing countries discussed policies to encourage quality teaching. The intent is to provide a range of analytical tools, practical information and collective experience which can be used to inform the decisions of those who shape educational policies in times of scarce economic resources. After reviewing the major policy options and trade-offs in teacher remuneration and pay scales, authors examine policies which could encourage aware and reflective professionals. It is in addressing the application to developing countries of ideas of teacher empowerment, collaboration, leadership and reflection (notions that are largely absent in this context) that the book is most innovative. Throughout the book, the link between the analysis of teacher effectiveness and general policy alternatives is strong, but the link between these and real programs is sometimes weak. In addition, there is insufficient caution on the cultural and political appropriateness of these "international lessons" when applied to very diverse settings. Accepting powerful utterances from the World Bank may be dangerous to local educational health. Oliveira and Farrell's opening chapter explores what an effective teacher might be; subsequent chapters discuss how to encourage and reward this quality, Effectiveness is seen as highly complex, multi-faceted and largely unreachable by conventional evaluation methods. Standardised texts do not effectively evaluate the quality of either teaching or learning. Connelly reviews and criticises the teacher effectiveness literature, primarily
Birmingham, U.K.
Education in Modern China: Jing Lin. Praeger, Westport, CT, 1993, ISBN 0o275-94270-8, 131 pp., £35.95. In six chapters, the author discusses curriculum content, especially in political and civic education; rural education; urban education; reforms and problems in administration; the development of educational research; and issues that led to the student movement of 1989. The reason for choosing these areas is not given, but the focus is on 'changes and problems in the Chinese educational system since economic reform began in 1978' (p. xv). The central theme echoes Tsou's discussion of 'the retreat of politics as reflected in ideological discourse' (1986, p. 151). If one argues that political positions are no longer the sole source of ideological discourse, one can ask what the newly accepted positions are. In education, this requires examination of the dynamics of a system where political ideology is still important, though less so. How do social, economic, administrative and cultural factors affect the way education functions in China today? The chapter on educational research can serve as an example. Its introduction suggests that the major
97
characteristic of recent educational research has been to 'break away from the strict ideological constraints of the Cultural Revolution' (p. 87). Discussion of what the new intellectual positions are and how they have been established follows Tsou, b u t i n a more specific context. Jing then goes on to talk about development in various research areas. During the Cultural Revolution, education chiefly served as a political tool. Its new role necessitates a debate on the nature of education. This debate has clearly affected particular research areas. For example, research in the economics of education is clearly derived from the new view that education is a productive force. The same theme appears in almost every chapter, though it was not made sufficiently explicit. Areas of description are well-chosen, and researchers already acquainted with Chinese education may be able to work out the theme themselves, but for newcomers the lack of depth in discussing the theme makes the book mainly an introductory text on Chinese education. Finally, the treatment of the June Fourth student movement is questionable. First, the explanation is insufficient to account for the complexity of the movement. It is more about the changing relationship between the state and Chinese society in general during the 1980s than the momentum that led to student activism in 1989. Second, despite the importance of the topic, the chapter is quite unconnected to the reasoning of the rest of the book. REFERENCE Tsou, Tang (1986) The Cultural Revolution and PostMao Reforms: A Historical Perspective. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. KWOK WAH CHEUNG
University of Hong Kong
The lEA Study of Reading Literacy: Achievement and Instruction in Thirty-Two School Systems: Warwick B. Elley (ed.). Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1994, ISBN 0-09-041933X, 278 pp., $83, £52. International comparability is now a powerful argument in persuading politicians to invest more resources in education or to make radical policy changes. Much of the stimulus for educational reform in Britain in the 1980s was generated by international studies which highlighted shortcomings in the linguistic and mathematical achievement of children in England and Wales compared to their peers in other OECD countries. Literacy, in particular, has been singled out as a key indicator of social and economic progress; there is mounting concern nowadays, even in Western countries, at the growing number of students who fail to learn to read and write adequately by the time they leave school. It has been estimated that by the turn of the century over 900 million people throughout the world will be illiterate. Thus, the recent study of literacy by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (lEA) in 32 countries across five continents is both timely and significant. The IEA produced the first cross-national data on reading levels in the early 1970s, when 15 countries were surveyed. The recent survey, launched in 1988, was a far larger undertaking, involving some 210,000
98
BOOK REVIEWS
students, 10,000 teachers and more than 20 different languages. Two grade levels were chosen to locate the majority of 9- and 14-year-olds. The primary aim of the project was to describe the achievement levels in reading literacy - - defined as the ability to understand and use those written language forms required by society and/or valued by the individual - - of comparable samples of students in a wide variety of education systems. Warwick Elley, Professor of Education at the University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand, edited the findings and made a major contribution to five of the eight chapters in the book. The introduction outlines the background to the study and the format adopted. Then follows an analysis of the international differences in achievement levels. In absolute terms, Finnish students showed the highest achievement in reading at both grade levels, despite the fact that they had fewer years in school than their counterparts in most other countries. Students from Sweden, France and New Zealand also performed well at both levels, while students from the U.S.A. and Italy did well at the lower grade level. However, great caution must be exercised in commenting on the results because of the specific circumstances relating to each country. Chapter 3, which is devoted to voluntary reading activities, highlights gender differences and the preferred subject matter of children at different ages. As might be expected, in most countries frequent readers are generally better readers. The positive correlations between a rich home environment and well-resourced schools and student literacy are explored in Chapters 4 and 5, respectively, while Chapter 6 deals with the various ways of teaching reading and the influence of teachers on student outcomes. The penultimate chapter presents multivariate analyses of data on the younger age grade. Finally, the editor draws together the findings and suggests implications for future policy-making. Does enhanced financial investment in schooling result in significant gains in student achievement? Is access to large stocks of books a prerequisite for good reading comprehension? What impact does a strong literacy tradition in a country have on student literacy? Is there a strong link between the age at which children start formal schooling and levels of literacy? What role, if any, do parents and schools play in facilitating literacy? How important is leisure reading? Is there a positive link between class size and literacy? What arc the characteristics of teachers who are successful in teaching children to read? Do schools which encourage children to enjoy reading achieve better results than schools which place a stronger emphasis on acquiring reading skills at the expense of interest? These are some of the leading questions addressed. The editor warns that cross-sectional surveys rarely produce findings with definitive recommendations for educators, but they can provide a knowledge base for policy-makers and confirm or reject common beliefs about what is effective and what is irrelevant to raising educational achievement. Such is the nature of the IEA survey. Literacy is a complex subject, and it is not surprising that the study reveals few relationships that were stable and consistent across all countries. Ultimately, unique circumstances in each country may be equally, if not more, significant in determining literacy levels than factors common across all countries. This is a study written primarily for the expert rather
than the lay public. It abounds with tables and diagrams and one complete chapter is devoted to multivariate analyses using Rasch techniques. In a technical sense, it is a mine of information and a valuable addition to the field. However, if the IEA wishes its findings to be widely understood and appreciated, especially by classroom teachers, there should be a brief summary chapter written for popular consumption. CLIVE WHITEHEAD
University of Western Australia
Teachers in Developing Countries: Improving Effectiveness and Managing Costs: Joseph P. Farrell and Joao B. Oliveira (eds.). World Bank, Washington, 1993, 224 pp., $11.95. ISBN 0-8213-1792-x. This collection of essays reviews the options policy-makers in developing countries face in increasing teacher effectiveness within the boundaries of existing or shrinking financial resources for education. It focuses on teacher remuneration, incentives, organisation and management, increased professionalisation and innovation in teacher education. The underlying dilemma that ties the essays together is the well-known one that while teachers' salaries take up an overwhelming share of developing countries' education budgets, with few exceptions, teachers are underpaid. It is hard to attract or retain qualified and motivated personnel which, in combination with other minimal resources, leads to low teacher effectiveness and student achievement. The 15 papers stem from a 1987 World Bank Economic Development Institute seminar at which academics, practitioners, decision-makers and union leaders from developed and developing countries discussed policies to encourage quality teaching. The intent is to provide a range of analytical tools, practical information and collective experience which can be used to inform the decisions of those who shape educational policies in times of scarce economic resources. After reviewing the major policy options and trade-offs in teacher remuneration and pay scales, authors examine policies which could encourage aware and reflective professionals. It is in addressing the application to developing countries of ideas of teacher empowerment, collaboration, leadership and reflection (notions that are largely absent in this context) that the book is most innovative. Throughout the book, the link between the analysis of teacher effectiveness and general policy alternatives is strong, but the link between these and real programs is sometimes weak. In addition, there is insufficient caution on the cultural and political appropriateness of these "international lessons" when applied to very diverse settings. Accepting powerful utterances from the World Bank may be dangerous to local educational health. Oliveira and Farrell's opening chapter explores what an effective teacher might be; subsequent chapters discuss how to encourage and reward this quality, Effectiveness is seen as highly complex, multi-faceted and largely unreachable by conventional evaluation methods. Standardised texts do not effectively evaluate the quality of either teaching or learning. Connelly reviews and criticises the teacher effectiveness literature, primarily