The Impact of Fan Attitudes on Intentions to Watch Professional Basketball Teams on Television

70

Reflective Practice

Sport Management Review, 1999, 2, 43–66 © 1999 SMAANZ

may be seen as an active and deliberative cognitive process involving sequences of interconnected ideas which take account of underlying beliefs and knowledge. Reflective thinking generally addresses practical problems, allowing for doubt and perplexity before possible solutions are reached. Freire (1972), Habermas (1973) and Mezirow (1978) had all been writing about reflection before Schön’s work was published. Freire, for instance, discussed the relationship between reflection and action, and argued that congruence between the two are a form of praxis. There are certain similarities here to Argyris and Schön’s (1974) espoused theory and theory in use. Habermas (1973) had explored reflection in a variety of forms. He argued that self-reflection is a form of science. Mezirow (1978) was influenced by Habermas. He produced a typology of reflection with seven different levels. Yet it was Schön’s (1983) book, focusing as it does on professional practice, which attracted the most attention. In the organisation field, Lewin (1951) wrote of reflection as that which reinforces learned behaviour and leads to new or higher-level abstractions. Lewin posited reflection as one of five elements in a cycle of learning from experience. Reflective observation and abstract conceptualisation are two components of Kolb’s (1984, 1996) experiential learning theory. According to this theory, reflective observation entails understanding situations and their meaning through careful observation and description. There is an emphasis here on deliberation as opposed to action, on giving observations personal meaning. In short, reflective observation is knowledge of experience. Abstract conceptualisation involves formal hypotheticodeductive reasoning. The emphasis is on logic, ideas, and concepts – on thinking as opposed to feeling. In brief, abstract conceptualisation is knowledge about experience. Reflective observation and abstract conceptualisation are the perceptual and cognitive components of Kolb’s learning cycle. They enable a person to make sense of a prior experience and then form concepts and generalisations to guide future action. Nevertheless, Kolb’s theory says little about reflective observation and abstract conceptualisation beyond defining them and positioning them within the learning cycle. Mezirow (1991) tackles the problem from the standpoint of adult learning. For Mezirow, critical reflection is the crux of learning because it is the way one gives meaning to experiences. This requires surfacing and questioning that which is taken for granted. Such reflection can produce “transformational” learning, which involves the formation of new, more accurate mindsets that allow a more open, inclusive, discriminatory, and integrative understanding of one’s experiences. Although most learning is not of this type, Mezirow believes that ultimately this is the only learning that really matters. Argyris and his colleagues have written extensively on learning in organisations (e.g., Argyris, 1993; Argyris & Schön, 1978; Argyris, Putman, & Smith, 1985). Argyris has long held that experience is the ultimate teacher. Indeed, it is

The Impact of Fan Attitudes on Intentions to Watch Professional Basketball Teams on Television Daniel F. Mahony Anita M. Moorman University of Louisville

The purpose of this study was to examine conditions impacting fans’ preference for watching their most disliked team and their favourite team. Previous work found that National Football League fans clearly preferred watching the favourite team, but only preferred watching the disliked team when it was a threat to the favourite. Using the Psychological Commitment to Team (PCT) scale to segment National Basketball Association fans, the current study found both high and low PCT fans preferred watching the disliked team when it was a threat to the favourite team. However, only high PCT fans preferred watching the disliked team when it was likely to lose. Finally, high PCT fans were more likely to watch the favourite team regardless of the conditions, while low PCT fans were significantly less likely to watch the favourite team when it was likely to lose.

Attitudes and their impact on behaviour have been a major topic of interest for researchers in social psychology and marketing for many years. Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) defined an attitude as “a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object” (p. 6). The basic assumption in attitude research has been that “products that are negatively appraised will be rejected and those that are positively valuated will be given positive consideration” (Mahony & Howard, 1998, p. 96). Marketing managers have, therefore, focused on creating a positive attitude toward their product or service in an attempt to increase the number of purchases by consumers (a positive behaviour). The authors are with the Department of Health, Physical Education, and Sport Studies, 106 HPES/Studio Arts Building, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292 USA. E-mail for Daniel Mahony: [email protected]

Impact of Attitudes

44

In fact, the findings of Fazio, Powell, and Williams (1989) support such a strategy. These researchers measured attitudes towards a number of food products and then asked respondents to choose five food products from a set of ten items. Respondents were more likely to choose a product if they had a strong positive attitude toward the product and were less likely to choose a product if they had a strong negative attitude toward it.

Sport Fan Research Mahony and Howard (1998) suggested that attitude-behaviour relationships for sport team fans are more complex than the traditional relationship observed by Fazio et al. (1989). Consistent with the traditional attitude-behaviour relationship in marketing, they first hypothesised that fans would indicate they would be more likely to watch games featuring their favourite National Football League (NFL) team than games featuring teams that were not their favourite. However, Mahony and Howard also hypothesised that fans would indicate they would be more likely to watch a game featuring a team toward which they had a strong, negative attitude, as opposed to a game featuring teams toward which they had a neutral attitude. In this case, a negative attitude would lead to a positive intention to watch. These expectations are consistent with prior research on sport spectators.

Disposition Theory of Sports Spectatorship Zillman, Bryant and Sapolsky’s (1989) Disposition Theory of Sports Spectatorship suggests that sport spectators may derive enjoyment both from watching their favourite team perform well and from watching a disliked team fail. Consistent with this theory, Zillman et al. found that when viewing a game, spectators preferred plays when their favoured team did well and plays when a disliked team performed poorly. When spectators watched a team toward which they had a neutral attitude, they expressed less enjoyment with regard to successful plays as compared to successful plays by a team toward which they had a positive attitude. Respondents also expressed less enjoyment with regard to unsuccessful plays by a team about which they felt neutral as opposed to unsuccessful plays by a team about which they felt negative. Zillman et al.’s results suggest that spectators’ attitudes affected their perception and, therefore, their enjoyment of the games. Since one would expect spectators to prefer watching games when the possibility for enjoyment is highest, games featuring strongly liked teams and games featuring strongly disliked teams would each be more appealing to sport fans. Games featuring teams toward which

Edwards

69

person wishing to encourage reflection must begin by specifying clearly what is intended by the use of the term. There seems to be wide agreement that reflection is a special form of thought (McNamara, 1990). With regard to reflection and problem solving, while there is some consensus that reflection is centrally concerned with finding solutions to real problems (Adler, 1991; Wellington & Austin, 1996), questions can be raised about whether solving problems should be considered an inherent characteristic of reflection. Some proponents suggest that the essential nature of reflection is thinking about action. The term critical reflection, like reflection itself, appears to be used loosely, some taking it to mean no more than constructive self-criticism. It can be argued, however, that the concept of critical reflection implies the acceptance of a critical ideology, along with its accompanying assumptions and epistemology (McNamara, 1990; Zeichner & Liston, 1987). Taken together, these form a particular theoretical framework for reflection. Critiques of reflection (e.g., Gore, 1987) often make use of the hierarchy outlined by Van Manen (1977), who proposed three levels derived from Habermas (1973). The first level, technical reflection, is concerned with the efficiency and effectiveness of means to achieve certain ends, which themselves are not open to criticism or modification. The second, practical reflection, allows for open examination not only of means, but also of goals, the assumptions upon which these are based, and the actual outcomes. This kind of reflecting, in contrast to the technical form, recognises that meanings are not absolute, but are embedded in, and negotiated through, language. The third level, critical reflection, calls for considerations involving moral and ethical criteria – making judgments about whether professional activity is equitable, just, and respectful of persons. Critical reflection requires the analyst to locate personal action within wider socio-historical and politico-cultural contexts (Zeichner & Liston, 1987).

Origins of Reflection Research Ever since the popularisation of Schön’s (1983) seminal book, reflective practice has been a constant theme among some groups of professionals. Yet reflection was no new idea when Schön wrote his book. Historically, Dewey (1933), who himself drew on the ideas of many earlier educators such as Plato, Aristotle and Confucius, is acknowledged as a key originator in the twentieth century of the concept of reflection. He considered it to be a special form of problem solving – thinking to resolve an issue which involved active chaining, a careful ordering of ideas linking each with its predecessors. His basic ideas are seminal, and indicate that reflection

Reflective Practice

68

Leadership’s research (Bunker & Webb 1992; Lombardo, 1988). These researchers endorse the use of job experiences for developmental purposes. Nevertheless, there is an element of frustration in this work. As McCall, Lombardo and Morrison (1988) put it, “It is staggering to think how much experience is wasted simply because managers aren’t allowed, or forced, to stop and make sense of what happened” (p. 188). The frustration is two-fold: (1) many opportunities for real-time learning are missed, and (2) managers fail to examine what happens to them. Specific data on managers of business organisations demonstrate their inclination toward action over reflection. Mintzberg (1973) found this to be the case due to the fragmented, varied, and unrelenting pace of managerial work. Kolb’s (1984, 1996) work on learning styles discovered that managers show a preference for more active styles. Robinson and Wick (1992) demonstrated that the bottomline orientation of most business organisations does not encourage reflection. Corporate management development programs that include reflection as one of their objectives provide an emerging source of data on reflection in management. These programs illustrate the emerging significance of reflection as a core management skill. One survey of best practices in executive development at 77 American companies concluded that executives need to be encouraged to approach learning opportunities in a more conscious and reflective way (Mann & Staudermier, 1991). Management development programs are now emerging that include conscious reflection as an explicit objective (e.g., de Geus, 1996; Marsick, 1991; Robinson & Wick, 1992). If theory, research, and practice all recognise the importance of reflection to managers’ learning from experience, then why has it not received more attention by sport management researchers? For example, if technology gives an advantage to a few competitors, if doping imposes an inequality before an event starts, if the ranking and financial viability of teams depends on the financial investments of sponsors, if corruption exists among officials, then a number of fundamental constraints are placed upon the sport manager. Research suggests that the manager’s ability to cope with (or perhaps even to rise above) constraints like these will be fostered by reflective practice.

Definitions of Reflection Adler (1991) identifies three definitions of reflection. It can be taken to mean the ability to analyse one’s own practice, the common-sense view. Alternatively, it can be defined as a process incorporating a problem setting approach and learning by doing. Finally, it can be defined as critical enquiry, which extends beyond technical expertise and focuses upon objectives, situational context and ethical issues. All incorporate ideas of critical enquiry but each possesses unique features. Thus, any

Mahony and Moorman

45

the spectator has a neutral attitude would have the lowest appeal because neither successful nor unsuccessful plays have the potential for increased enjoyment. The question that emerges from the Disposition Theory of Sport Spectatorship is: Why do fans enjoy seeing a favourite team succeed and a disliked team fail? Based on prior research, Mahony and Howard (1998) suggested that both of these outcomes have the potential to positively impact public image and self-esteem and to create enjoyable stress, or eustress.

Public Image and Self-Esteem Cialdini, Borden, Thorne, Walker, Freeman, and Sloan (1976) hypothesised that fans, in an effort to enhance their public image, attempt to increase their association with successful teams. Cialdini and his colleagues labelled this behaviour as Basking in Reflected Glory or BIRGing. The results of their research indicated university students wore school merchandise more when the university football team was successful and were more likely to use “we” when discussing the results of a game their team won. Since this tendency increased after poor performance on a trivia quiz threatened the respondents’ self-esteem and public image (respondents were randomly told they either did well or poorly on five trivia questions), Cialdini et al. concluded that respondents seemed to be trying to use their relationship with the team to improve their self-esteem and/or public image. In fact, two scales have identified either self-esteem or vicarious achievement as one of the major factors motivating sport fans (Madrigal & Howard, 1995; Wann, 1995). The desire for an improved public image or enhanced self-esteem would help explain why fans are motivated to watch and support their favourite team. However, the relationship with the favourite team does not always have a positive impact on the fan’s public image and self-esteem. While Hirt, Zillman, Erickson, and Kennedy (1992) found fans’ feelings about themselves were improved when the favourite team was successful, they also found that self-esteem decreased when the favourite team was unsuccessful. This would be consistent with prior research that suggested fans are more likely to identify successful teams as their favourite (Branscombe & Wann, 1991; Smith, Patterson, Williams, & Hogg, 1981). In fact, a 1998 Harris & Associates poll indicated that the two best teams in Major League Baseball, the Atlanta Braves and the New York Yankees, were also the two most popular teams in the United States (“Braves most popular,” 1998). If fans are more likely to watch a game when the favourite team is likely to succeed, it also seems likely that fans will be less likely to watch the favourite team when its chances for success are more limited. The tendency to distance oneself from a poorly performing group, referred to as Cutting Off Reflected Failure or CORFing (Snyder,

46

Impact of Attitudes

Sport Management Review, 1999, 2, 67–81

Edwards

© 1999 SMAANZ

Higgins, & Stucky, 1983), has been found in both studies within sport (Becker & Suls, 1983; Burger, 1985; Kimble & Cooper, 1992) and outside of sport (Snyder, Lassegard, & Ford, 1986). In addition, evidence suggests that outgroup derogation, criticising another group or individual, can also have a positive impact on public image and self-esteem. In Cialdini and Richardson (1980), Arizona State University students were more likely to engage in outgroup derogation (“BLASTing”) toward the University of Arizona when their self-esteem and public image are threatened due to a poor performance on a trivia quiz. Branscombe and Wann (1992) found that respondents who were highly identified with the United States were also most likely to “BLAST” the fictitious Russian fighter Ivan Drago in the movie Rocky IV. Since “BLASTing” also appears to be beneficial to self-esteem and public image, it would follow that fans would prefer to watch a disliked team as opposed to a team towards which the fan is indifferent, where there would be no potential impact on self-esteem or public image regardless of the outcome. However, the potential for a positive impact from the game would appear highest when the disliked team is likely to lose. Therefore, it is also likely that fans’ preference for watching the disliked team would be highest when this team is likely to lose.

Stress and Stimulation Researchers have suggested that another motive for watching sport is the desire for stress and stimulation (Klausner, 1968; Sloan, 1989). Klausner (1968) believed individuals often seek fun and enjoyable stress, referred to as “euphoric stress” or “eustress,” in their lives. Sport provides one socially acceptable source of stress. In fact, two recent sport fan motivation measurement scales have suggested that “euphoric stress” is among the major factors motivating fans (Madrigal & Howard, 1995; Wann, 1995). It seems logical, therefore, that many fans would want to watch games featuring a team toward which they have strong feelings. Eustress is more likely to exist when there is greater risk (Sloan, 1989), which is most likely to occur when fans care about the outcome of the game and when their self-esteem and public image may be impacted. Although eustress would probably be the greatest during a game featuring the fan’s favourite team, a game featuring a strongly disliked team would also appear likely to create “eustress” and would be another logical choice for fans seeking this type of experience. In contrast, games featuring a neutral team would seem unlikely to produce much eustress, providing little incentive to watch these games. Although little research has been done on fans watching disliked teams, Pavelchak, Antil, and Munch (1988) found emotional arousal was higher for football fans watching the local favourite as opposed to fans who were from a neutral city.

Reflective Practice in Sport Management Allan Edwards Griffith University

Reflective practice has come to be recognised as a core element of professional expertise. Reflective practice can refer to the ability to analyse one’s own practice, the incorporation of problem solving into learning by doing, or application of critical theory to the examination of professional practice. Each of these forms of reflective practice raises a number of significant issues for sport management practitioners, particularly in terms of the way they view their practice. This article explores the concept of reflection and considers its potential contributions to the management of sport. The paper identifies four focal dimensions: (1) the definition and theoretical traditions of reflection, (2) notions of reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action, (3) principles that ought to underpin reflective practice in sport management, and (4) methodological issues requiring further research and examination. It is argued that all forms of reflection are vital to skilful sport management practice. It is suggested that critical reflection provides unique opportunities to understand the practitioner’s world, and, in so doing, to provide opportunities for emancipatory practice.

In recent years, there has been considerable interest in the notions of reflection and reflective practice in a number of professions such as nursing (e.g., Clarke, James, & Kelly, 1996), teaching (e.g., Tsangaridou & Siedentop, 1995; Wellington & Austin, 1996), and management (e.g., Choo, 1998; Kolb, 1996; Robinson & Wick, 1992). The literature on the topic often traces the roots of those ideas to the work of Schön (1983), although other commentators have influenced its development (for example Dewey, 1933; Habermas, 1973; Mintzberg, 1973). The belief that reflection is a prerequisite to learning from experience is also a conclusion of the Center for Creative The author is with the School of Education and Professional Studies, Griffith University, PMB 50 Gold Coast Mail Centre, Queensland 9726. E-mail: [email protected]

66

Impact of Attitudes

Sloan, L. R., Bates, S., Davis, W., & Schwieger, P. K. (1987). Are sports’ appeal and sports’ consequences derived from the same fan motives? Support for the achievement seeking needs. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, IL. Smith, G. J., Patterson, B., Williams, T., & Hogg, J. (1981). A profile of the deeply committed male sports fans. Arena Review, 5, 26-44. Snyder, C. R., Higgins, R. L., & Stucky, R. J. (1983). Excuses: Masquerades in search of grace. New York: Wiley-Interscience. Snyder, C. R., Lassegard, M. A., & Ford, C. E. (1986). Distancing after group success and failure: Basking in reflected glory and cutting off reflected failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 382-388. Snyder, M., & Simpson, J. A. (1984). Self-monitoring and dating relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1281-1291. Tice, D. (1998, September 21-27). What counts is how you watch the game. Street & Smith’s Sports Business Journal, pp. 36-37. Vitale, D., & Weiss, D. (1995). Holding court: Reflections on the game I love. Indianapolis, IN: Masters Press. Wann, D. L. (1995). Preliminary validation of the sport fan motivation scale. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 19, 377-396. Wenner, L. A., & Gantz, W. (1989). The audience experience with sport on television. In L. A. Wenner (Ed.), Media, sports, and society (pp. 241-269). Newberry Park, CA: Sage. Zillman, D., Bryant, J., & Sapolsky, B. J. (1989). Enjoyment from sport spectatorship. In J. D. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, games, and play: Social and psychosocial viewpoints (2nd ed., pp. 241-278). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Mahony and Moorman

47

However, there is the possibility that games featuring the favourite team or the most disliked team could become so stressful that the eustress could become an unenjoyable form of stress, or distress. Distress would appear to be more likely than eustress when the games are predictable in a direction which is unfavourable from the fan’s perspective. In fact, both Hirt et al. (1992) and Pavelchak et al. (1988) found that respondents’ moods decreased when the favourite team lost, suggesting the stress the game created was not enjoyable. Therefore, fans would be expected to prefer games when the potential for eustress would be higher and avoid games when distress is more likely.

Relationships Between Attitudes and Behavioural Intentions in Professional Football Based on the research on the Disposition Theory of Sports Spectatorship (Zillman, et al., 1989), eustress (Klausner, 1968; Madrigal & Howard, 1995; Sloan, 1989; Wann, 1995), self-esteem, public image, and outgroup derogation (Branscombe & Wann, 1992; Cialdini et al., 1976; Cialdini & Richardson, 1980), Mahony and Howard (1998) hypothesised that National Football League (NFL) fans would prefer watching games featuring their favourite team and games featuring their most disliked team as opposed to games featuring two teams toward which the respondent was neutral. They further suggested the desire to watch a disliked team would increase when the team was a threat to the favourite team’s chances for success, or when this team was likely to lose. The former hypothesis was based on research by Sivacek and Crano (1982) which suggested individuals are more likely to act if they have a vested interest related to the behaviour. The results of Mahony and Howard (1998) supported the contention that fans would prefer watching a game featuring their favourite team as opposed to a game featuring two teams toward which the fan felt indifferent. However, respondents only preferred the game featuring the most disliked team as opposed to a game featuring two neutral attitude teams when the disliked team was a threat to the favourite team’s chances for success. When the disliked team was not a threat, there were no significant differences in preference between these two games. Moreover, although there was a significant difference when the disliked team was a threat to the favourite team, the mean intention to watch the game was below neutral (M=3.29 on a scale of 1-7). Finally, the respondents appeared to be unaffected by the chances the disliked team would fail. Team records had no impact on fans’ intentions to watch a game featuring the most disliked team. Overall, Mahony and Howard provided only mild support for the theory that the presence of a disliked team can increase intentions to watch a game.

48

Impact of Attitudes

In order to extend the Mahony and Howard (1998) study, the current study examined National Basketball Association (NBA) fans during the last weeks of the NBA regular season. One of the potential weakness of the Mahony and Howard (1998) study was that it was conducted several months after the NFL season had ended. Attitudes may have been less accessible and therefore weaker during this time (Fazio & Williams, 1986). The attitudes of the respondents in the current study should be stronger and more accessible because the study is conducted during the season. In fact, the presence of stronger attitudes during the season is consistent with other research in leisure (e.g., Brunson, Shelby, & Johnson, 1991; Havitz & Howard, 1996). In addition, the current study aided respondents by indicating that the most disliked team was a threat to the favourite team, or the disliked team was likely to lose. Mahony and Howard (1998) relied on respondents to recall which disliked teams were threats to the favourite team and which disliked teams were likely to lose, which may have rendered those contextual factors inaccessible. Moreover, the current study examined NBA fans so that a comparison could be made with Mahony and Howard’s examination of NFL fans. Although the relationship between attitude toward a team and intention to watch that team in a game is expected to be the same in both leagues, some popular literature suggests there may be some differences. Many college officials have claimed that college basketball is about the name on the front of the jersey (the team), while professional basketball is all about the name on the back of the jersey (the player) (Vitale & Weiss, 1995). In fact, professional basketball has traditionally focused more on marketing players than on marketing teams. One indication of the NBA’s concentration on players can be seen in product endorsements. During 1996, three NBA players were among the top athletes in product endorsements (Lane & Spiegel, 1996). Conversely, the NFL, like college basketball, has traditionally been more focused on marketing teams. When the Cleveland Browns left for Baltimore, the citizens of Cleveland were more concerned about keeping the team name than any of the players (James & Kolbe, 1998). Unlike the NBA, NFL players are “typically ignored by marketers” (King, 1998, p. 28) and none was among the top 15 athletes in product endorsements in 1996 (Lane & Spiegel, 1996). Therefore, it is possible that attitude toward teams will have a more limited impact when examining the NBA. Finally, the current study wanted to examine the impact of fans’ commitment to their favourite team on their preference for watching the favourite and most disliked teams under various conditions. Mahony, Madrigal, and Howard (1998) found their Psychological Commitment to Team (PCT) Scale was very useful in predicting fan behaviour related to their favourite team, including game attendance. In the current study it is expected that fans who are higher in psychological commitment will indicate a greater intention to watch games on television featuring the favourite

Mahony and Moorman

65

Hugh-Jones, S. (1992, July 25). A survey of sports businesses. The Economist, pp. S3-S17. James, J., & Kolbe, R. (1998, May). Fan loyalty: Understanding the construct from the fan perspective. Paper presented at the meeting of the North American Society for Sport Management, Buffalo, NY. Kennedy, J. J., & Bush, A. J. (1985). An introduction to the design and analysis of experiments in behavioral research. Lantham, MD: University Press of America. Kimble, C. E., & Cooper, B. P. (1992). Association by dissociation by football fans. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75, 303-309. King, B. (1998, July 20-26). MLB players thrown endorsement curve: Major leaguers make less than stars in other sports. Street & Smith’s Sports Business Journal, pp. 1, 28-29. Klausner, S. Z. (1968). Empirical analysis of stress seekers. In S. Z. Klausner (Ed.), Why man takes chances (pp. 137-168). Garden City, NY: Doubleday/Anchor. Kraus, S. J. (1995). Attitudes and the prediction of behavior: A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 58-75. Kurkjian, T. (1992). Baseball. In J. Papanck (Ed.), The Sports Illustrated 1992 Sports Almanac and Record Book (pp. 25-89). Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. Lane, R., & Spiegel, P. (1996, December 16). The year of the Michaels. Forbes, pp. 244-254. Madrigal, R., & Howard, D. R. (1995, May). The development of the FANDIM scale and its potential application to understanding sport spectators. Paper presented at the meeting of the North American Society for Sport Management, Athens, GA. Mahony, D. F., & Howard, D. R. (1998). The impact of attitudes on the behavioral intentions of sport spectators. International Sports Journal, 2(2), 96-110. Mahony, D. F., Madrigal, R., & Howard, D. R. (1998). Using the psychological commitment to team (PCT) scale to segment customers based on loyalty. Manuscript submitted for publication. McDaniel, S.R., & Sullivan, C.B. (1998). Extending the sports experience: Mediations in cyberspace. In L.A. Wenner (Ed.), MediaSport (pp. 266-281). London: Routledge. Mihoces, G. (1995, May 23). Fans fight post-strike hangover. USA Today, pp. 1C-2C. Nosanchuk, T. A. (1972). The vignette as an experimental approach to the study of social status: An exploratory study. Social Science Research, 1, 107-120. Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Pavelchak, M. A., Antil, J. H., & Munch, J. M. (1988). The Super Bowl: An investigation into the relationship among program context, emotional experience, and ad recall. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 360-367. Sivacek, J., & Crano, W. D. (1982). Vested interest as a moderator of attitude-behavior consistency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 210-221. Sloan, L. R. (1989). The motives of sports fans. In J. D. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, games, and play: Social and psychosocial viewpoints (2nd ed., pp. 175-240). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

64

Impact of Attitudes

Branscombe, N. R., & Wann, D. L. (1992). Physiological arousal and reactions to outgroup members during competitions that implicate an important social identity. Aggressive Behavior, 18, 85-93. Braves most popular. (1998, June 15). The Courier Journal, p. E5. Brunson, M. W., Shelby, B., & Johnson, R. L. (1991). Recreational commitment and seasonal changes among whitewater boaters. In C. Sylvester & L. Caldwell (Eds.), Abstracts from the 1991 NRPA symposium for leisure research (p. 14). Alexandria, VA: National Recreation and Park Association. Burger, J. M. (1985). Temporal effects on attributions for academic performances and reflected-glory basking. Social Psychology Quarterly, 48, 330-336. Calder, B. J., Phillips, L. W., & Tybout A. M. (1981). Designing research for application. Journal of Consumer Research, 8, 197-207. Christ, W. G., Thorson, E., & Caywood, C. (1994). Do attitudes toward political advertising affect information processing of televised political commercials? Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 38, 251-270. Cialdini, R. B., Borden, B. J., Thorne, A., Walker, M. R., Freeman, S., & Sloan, L. R. (1976). Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 366-375. Cialdini, R. B., & Richardson, K. D. (1980). Two indirect tactics of impression management: Basking and blasting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 406-415. Darley, W. K., & Lim, J. (1992). The effect of consumers’ emotional reactions on behavioral intentions: The moderating role of personal relevance and selfmonitoring. Psychology & Marketing, 9, 329-346. Demmert, H. G. (1973). The economics of professional team sports. Lexington, MA: D. C. Health. Fazio, R. H., Powell, M. C., & Williams, C. J. (1989). The role of attitude accessibility in the attitude-to-behavior process. Journal of Consumer Behavior, 16, 280-288. Fazio, R. H., & Williams, C. J. (1986). Attitude accessibility as a moderator of the attitude-perception and attitude-behavior relationship: An investigation of the 1984 presidential election. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 505-514. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Beliefs, attitudes, intentions and behavior: An introduction to theoretical research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Haugtvedt, C. P., Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1992). Need for cognition and advertising: Understanding the role of personality variables in consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 1, 239-260. Havitz, M. E., & Howard, D. R. (1996). How enduring is enduring involvement? A seasonal examination of three recreational activities. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 4, 255-276. Hirt, E. R., Zillman, D., Erickson, G. A., & Kennedy, C. (1992). Costs and benefits of allegiance: Changes in fans’ self-ascribed competencies after team victory versus defeat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 724-738. Holman. P. A. (1956). Validation of an attitude scale as a device for predicting behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 40, 347-349.

Mahony and Moorman

49

team and to watch games featuring the most disliked team under a variety of conditions. When psychological commitment to the favourite team is highest, the impact on self-esteem and public image of games featuring either the favourite team or the most disliked team (often a rival of the favourite team) will be the highest. Moreover, games featuring these teams will also be expected to create more eustress when the respondent’s score on the PCT scale is higher.

Hypotheses Although fans are expected to prefer games featuring the favourite team, it is possible their intentions to watch a game featuring this team will decrease when the team is likely to lose. In this case, the benefits derived from watching the game will decrease. A loss by the favourite team is likely to have a negative impact on the fan’s public image and self-esteem (Hirt et al., 1992). In addition, the level of stress in this case may go beyond eustress and become distress, and therefore the game will have a negative impact on the fan’s mood (Hirt et al., 1992; Sloan, Bates, Davis, & Schwieger, 1987). However, the impact of likelihood of losing is expected to be moderated by the fan’s psychological commitment to their favourite team. Highly committed fans are expected to report greater intentions to watch the favourite team both when no conditions are presented and when the team is described as being likely to lose. Moreover, their intentions will probably not be as affected as low commitment fans by the likelihood of the favourite team losing. Although fans who have a stronger attachment to the favourite team will suffer a greater impact if the favourite team loses (such as a stronger negative impact on public image and self-esteem and a larger decrease in their mood [Hirt et al., 1992]), it is possible that highly committed fans will have difficulty CORFing when the team does poorly. In order to assess commitment to the favourite team, the PCT scale was used. Fans who are considered most loyal are those who would be expected to follow the favourite team even when it is unsuccessful. In fact, if fans who are high on the PCT scale are not more likely than low PCT fans to watch the favourite team when its chances for success are lower, the use of the PCT scale to assess commitment would have to be questioned. The first hypothesis was designed to examine the influence of psychological commitment to the favourite team and the likelihood of losing on fan intentions. H1: When asked how likely they are to watch the favourite team when it is described as having a 75% chance of losing and when no conditions are presented, there will be a significant interaction between game condition and psychological commitment level.

50

Impact of Attitudes

Low PCT fans will be significantly less likely to watch the favourite team when it is likely to lose, while high PCT fans will not indicate a significant difference in intentions under the two conditions. Although Mahony and Howard (1998) found no significant differences between preference for a game featuring the most disliked team and a game featuring a neutral attitude team, it is possible that only some fans have a preference for the disliked team. Respondents who are highly committed to the favourite team are also expected to be more likely to watch the most disliked team. The proposed benefits related to watching the most disliked team should be higher for those who are more strongly committed to the favourite team. When the fan is not committed to the favourite team, watching a disliked rival may not have the same potential for an impact on the fan’s public image or self-esteem, and is less likely to create much eustress. The second hypothesis examines the impact of psychological commitment on preference for watching the most disliked team as opposed to a neutral attitude team. H2: When asked how likely they are to watch the disliked team when no conditions are presented and a neutral attitude team, there will be a significant interaction between game condition and psychological commitment level. High PCT fans will be significantly more likely to watch the disliked team, while low PCT fans will not indicate a significant difference in intentions to watch these teams. The third hypothesis examines the impact of the disliked team being a threat to the favourite team’s chances for success. Based on the research of Sivacek and Crano (1982), Mahony and Howard (1998) predicted and found that respondents indicated they were more likely to watch a game featuring their most disliked team when it was described as a threat to their favourite team’s chances for success. The current study again examines the impact of threat; this time also focusing on the moderating effect of psychological commitment to the favourite team. The preference for watching the disliked team will be higher for highly committed fans when they believe the performance by the disliked team will have an impact on their favourite team. For fans who are less committed, this potential impact on the favourite team is less important. H3: When asked how likely they are to watch the most disliked team when it is described as a threat to the favourite team and a neutral attitude team, there will be a significant interaction between game

Mahony and Moorman

63

impact of both positive and negative attitudes on actual behaviour. In addition, research on how both positive and negative attitudes toward teams are formed is still quite limited and more research is needed to better understand this process. Additional research is also necessary to determine what behaviours might be predicted using attitudes. For example, a fan may be willing (and even desire) to watch a disliked team on television when certain circumstances are present, but the same fan may not be willing to actually attend a game to watch a disliked team. Similarly, the impact of attitudes toward players and coaches has been largely ignored, yet is worthy of study. In addition, future research should examine sport teams in countries outside the United States. It would be interesting to see whether fans in other countries also enjoy seeing a disliked team being beaten (perhaps even humiliated) or whether this is a uniquely American phenomenon. Finally, the internet is another media source whose effectiveness is largely unexplored (but see McDaniel & Sullivan, 1998). Now almost every major network, and many internet servers, search engines, and web sites offer up-to-the-minute sport scores and even live sport coverage. Almost all of these sites will feature advertising which either promotes the site creator or promotes other products and services. In fact, even small personal web sites now contain advertising to offset the costs of maintaining the site. Thus, the potential exists, as in television media, to segment and target markets into program segments within sports in order to feature teams about which fans have strong attitudes, both positive and negative, in order to increase the number of “hits” and exposure to the featured advertising on the web page. It is clear that attitudes toward teams play a significant role in fan behaviour. Further examination of that relationship promises to advance our understandings of sport fans. In so doing, it can enhance the formulation of marketing strategies for sport teams.

References Ajzen, I, & Fishbein, M. (1977). Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 888-918. Becker, M. A., & Suls, J. (1983). Take me out to the ballgame: The effects of objective, social, and temporal performance information on attendance at major league baseball games. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 302-313. Branscombe, N. R., & Wann, D. L. (1991). The positive social and self concept consequences of sports team identification. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 15, 115-127.

Impact of Attitudes

62

interest, the current study suggests that fans might also be stimulated by promoting negative aspects of a disliked team. This goes beyond mere rivalry promotion since the disliked team may or may not be an opponent or traditional rival of the favourite team. Other than isolated occurrences where individual “bad boy” athletes, such as Dennis Rodman and John McEnroe, have been used to promote games, actual research supporting the positive effects of negative attitudes on behaviour is sparse. Most research on negative images in television advertising relates to political advertising campaigns (Christ, Thorson, & Caywood, 1994) or television commercials where one company attacks the products of its competitor. In these cases, advertisers assume that a negative attitude will decrease the chances for a positive behaviour (i.e., voting for the opposition candidate or purchasing the product from a rival company). Moreover, the potential for a negative attitude to produce a positive behaviour enables television executives and event promoters to market games beyond the ordinary programming, such as league leaders, traditional rivals, or popular teams. Teams disliked in a region and thought to be of little interest to the television audience may actually produce the game most desirable to watch, particularly if the disliked team has a good chance of losing. For example, many NFL fans who dislike the Dallas Cowboys seemed to enjoy watching Cowboys’ games during the 1997 season because the team was having one of its worst seasons and was likely to lose. In addition, games featuring the disliked team when it poses a threat to the favourite team in that region may be particularly popular because both high and low PCT fans indicate an increased desire to watch the team in this condition. For example, an NFL game featuring the San Francisco 49ers may be of great interest to Philadelphia Eagles fans if these fans believe that the outcome of the 49ers game could have implications for the Eagles (e.g., impact their chances for making the playoffs), even though the 49ers and the Eagles are not traditional rivals and rarely play. As the impact of attitudes and psychographics become better understood, media strategies will be more efficient and productive.

Mahony and Moorman

condition and psychological commitment level. High PCT fans will be significantly more likely to watch the disliked team when it is a threat, while low PCT fans will not indicate a significant difference in intentions to watch these teams. Consistent with the Disposition Theory of Sports Spectatorship (Zillman et al., 1989), prior research suggests that fans prefer games and are in a better mood if they believe their favourite team is likely to win (Demmert, 1973; Sloan et al., 1987). The Disposition Theory of Sports Spectatorship also suggests fans will prefer games in which there is a good chance their most disliked team will be unsuccessful. However, Mahony and Howard (1998) did not find a significant preference for watching the disliked team when it was likely to fail. Although it is possible the results of this study were related to the procedures they used, it is also possible there are differences in individual fans. In particular, the opportunity to watch the most disliked team lose may have a greater impact on the highly committed fans. Watching a disliked rival fail would be expected to provide more BLASTing potential for the fans who are highly committed to the favourite team. Therefore, the fourth hypothesis looks at the impact of the likelihood of failure on the preferences of high and low PCT fans for games featuring the most disliked team. H4: When asked how likely they are to watch the most disliked team when it is described as having a 75% chance of losing and a neutral attitude team, there will be a significant interaction between game condition and psychological commitment level. High PCT fans will be significantly more likely to watch the disliked team when it is likely to lose, while low PCT fans will not indicate a significant difference in intentions to watch these teams.

Methods

Future Research It should be emphasised that actual behaviour was not measured, and the current study measured only intentions to behave. Although Holman (1956) found that the relationship between intention to attend sport events and actual attendance was very high for sport fans (r=.80), it would be unreasonable to assume that all respondents would follow through on their intentions. In fact, Ajzen and Fishbein’s (1977) research has found a number of factors that may impact the likelihood that people will follow through on their intentions. Further research is needed to examine the

51

Sample The respondent pool (N=157) were undergraduate and graduate students recruited from classes at the University of Louisville. Only volunteers who indicated they were fans of professional basketball were used. Since the goal of this study is theory application and no attempt will be made to estimate means or effect sizes for a larger population, the use of homogeneous respondents was preferred (Calder, Phillips, & Tybout, 1981). In order to best determine the impact of psychological commitment to the favourite team, respondents with scores on the PCT scale in the

52

Impact of Attitudes

top 25% of the sample were labelled as being high PCT fans and those in the bottom 25% were labelled as being low PCT fans. Research in social psychology has frequently used this dichotomising procedure to eliminate respondents who are relatively neutral on the independent variable (e.g., Darley & Lim, 1992; Haugtvedt, Petty, & Cacioppo, 1992; Snyder & Simpson, 1984). Therefore, the final sample size used to analyse the four hypotheses in the current study was 81.

Procedures and Instruments Professional basketball games in the United States (National Basketball Association - NBA) were used as the sport events for this study. A professional sport was chosen for the following reasons: (a) there are a smaller number of teams in the NBA (as compared to intercollegiate basketball) and (b) team quality is more consistent than in intercollegiate basketball. The NBA was chosen from among the professional sport leagues in the United States because (a) basketball is the second favourite professional sport for fans under 30 (as cited in Mihoces, 1995), which was the age group of the respondents and (b) Mahony and Howard’s (1998) study on the impact of attitudes examined only teams in the National Football League (NFL). There may be differences between the NBA and the NFL which could affect some of the hypotheses. The study used two stages of data collection. After receiving permission to collect the data from the Human Subjects Committee at the University of Louisville, respondents signed an informed consent form before beginning the first stage of data collection. Each respondent was assigned a number that was placed at the top of the surveys for both stages of data collection. In order to assure confidentiality, the list of assigned numbers was kept separate from the surveys and was destroyed after all respondents completed the second stage of data collection. During the first phase of data collection, respondents were asked a number of questions related to NBA teams. First, the respondents were asked to name their favourite and most disliked teams (Questions 1 and 2). Attitude strength related to these teams was measured using a seven-point Likert-type scale (Strongly Dislike=1, Strongly Like=7). Second, the respondents were asked to list two teams toward which they feel neutral. A list of teams was attached to help respondents recall teams toward which they were neutral. Third, the respondents were asked to record their age and their gender. Finally, respondents were asked to complete Mahony et al.’s (1998) Psychological Commitment to Team (PCT) scale for their favourite NBA team. The second stage of this study was completed by each respondent between one to three weeks after the first stage. Since the teams mentioned in the second survey were based on each respondent’s answers in the first stage, surveys were different for each respondent. First, the respondents were given a list of teams,

Mahony and Moorman

61

Fourth, the current study also has implications for the attitude-behaviour relationship literature. Much has been written about the relationships between attitudes and behaviours (see Kraus, 1995). Based on prior analysis of attitudebehaviour relationships by Ajzen and Fishbein (1977), one could argue the attitude object in the current study would be the game and not the team. Therefore, the attitude toward the team would instead be an attribute of the game. However, even if the team is only an attribute of the attitude object, a positive intention resulting from a negative attitude toward an attribute of the attitude object would still be unusual and worthy of exploration. For example, it would have been unlikely in the Fazio et al. (1989) study that a negative attitude toward peanuts would have increased the likelihood that a respondent would have chosen a Snickers bar. Further, it would also be unusual to see such a relationship in other areas of entertainment. If movie watchers strongly dislike actor Jim Carrey, it would be unlikely for them to want to watch a movie if all they were told was that Jim Carrey was one of the movie’s stars, even if they were told it was highly likely that his performance would be poor. Similarly, a negative attitude toward an attribute of a team and a positive intention to watch that team would seem improbable.

Practical Implications The impact of attitudes on television viewing behaviour should be of great interest to sport marketers. In recent years, sport programming on television has increased dramatically. In 1991, over 47,000 hours of television programming were devoted to sport (Hugh-Jones, 1992), which was an increase of over 400% from the 1980s (Wenner & Gantz, 1989). Recent research by Statistical Research Inc. indicates that sport programs are among the most watched, particularly among men ages 18 to 49 (Tice, 1998). However, it should be noted that the increase in sport television has led to a dramatic increase in competition among sport programming. Those promoting sport programs must expect that there will be considerable competition for that large television audience. Moreover, watching sport programs is more often planned, often a few days in advance, than are decisions to watch other types of programs (Tice, 1998). This clearly indicates that it is very important for upcoming games to be promoted using strategies that will pique and hold the interest of potential viewers. The results of the current study on television viewing behaviour has several practical implications for sport marketers. The likelihood that fans will watch teams they dislike when certain conditions are present provides marketers with information useful when formulating marketing strategy. For example, if marketers would normally focus their efforts on promoting positive aspects of a team to stimulate fan

60

Impact of Attitudes

likely to lose, while low PCT fans tended to CORF in the likely to lose scenario. Although this game could have a negative impact on their self-esteem and public image and may cause distress for the high PCT fans, they appear unable to distance themselves from the team under this condition. Second, this study was also the first to indicate that the PCT scale could be useful when predicting intentions to watch the disliked team. The PCT scale was useful in predicting intentions to watch the disliked team when it was described as a threat to the favourite team, and when it was described as being likely to lose. These results suggest a fan’s preference for watching the disliked team is related to their relationship with their favourite team. Fans with strong relationships with the favourite team were more likely to watch the disliked team in both conditions. Moreover, the results suggest the preference for watching the disliked team may be related to self-esteem and public image concerns, as well as the desire for enjoyable stress. For example, the strong preference among high PCT fans for watching the disliked team when it was a threat to the favourite team makes sense because the presence of the threat increases the implications of the game for the fans’ self-esteem and public image. Thus, it is likely to be more stressful. However, the game would have fewer implications for the self-esteem and public image of low PCT fans. Thus, it would be less stressful for them. It should be noted that while seeking feelings of vicarious achievement and enjoyable stress are major motivations for sport fans, there are other reasons that fans watch sport and pick their favourite team. For example, the Chicago Cubs are among the most popular teams in professional baseball in the United States, even though they have not won a World Series in over 90 years (Kurkjian, 1992). In this case the high levels of support can be explained by other factors. The Cubs have a party tradition at games, which makes game attendance enjoyable for fans even when they lose. The Cubs also benefit from having most of their games televised on WGN, which is available on most cable packages across the country. In other words, they get more exposure than most teams, which makes long term loyalty easier. Perhaps most importantly, it is well known that the Cubs are rarely a good team and never win the big games, so their fans are widely considered to be the most loyal. The label of loyal fan is very positive, so for Cubs fans there is a positive impact on their public image and self-esteem. Whether this has occurred by design or by accident, the Chicago Cubs have been able to maintain a highly loyal fan base despite poor performance by the team. Clearly, more research is needed to understand the somewhat unique relationship between the Chicago Cubs and their fans. Third, the current study supports the finding of Mahony and Howard (1998) that a desire to watch the disliked team is only conditional. When no conditions are presented to the respondents, they do not indicate a preference for watching the disliked team over watching a neutral attitude team.

Mahony and Moorman

53

including (1) their favourite team, (2) their most disliked team, and (3) a neutral attitude team. They were asked to evaluate how likely they would be to watch each team if that team was playing on television. Ratings were on a seven-point Likerttype scale (Highly Unlikely=1, Highly Likely=7). Watching on television was chosen over attendance because there are a number of extraneous factors that could affect the desire to attend a game (e.g., quality of the facility, location of the facility, cost of tickets). These are unrelated to how appealing watching a particular team is to the fan. In addition, enlarging television audiences has become increasingly important in the sport industry (Tice, 1998), but there has been little research examining factors affecting television viewing decisions. Respondents were next asked on a seven-point Likert-type scale (Highly Unlikely=1, Highly Likely=7) how likely they would be to watch their most disliked team on television in two different scenarios. In the first scenario, their most disliked team was a threat to the favourite team’s chances for success. In the second scenario, their most disliked team had a 75% chance of losing against an unnamed opponent. The scenario design is accepted as an appropriate methodological tool in the assessment of attitudes (Nosanchuk, 1972) and was used in the current study to elicit higher quality responses while redressing weaknesses of Mahony and Howard’s (1998) previous study, which required respondents to draw their own conclusions as to the threat posed by the disliked team and its chances of losing. In addition, respondents were asked how likely they would be to watch their favourite team on television when it had a 75% chance of losing. The impact of the favourite team’s chances of losing was not examined by Mahony and Howard.

Analysis Responses related to the six games described in the four hypotheses were not independent. Thus, a one-between, one-within ANOVA was used. All the games were examined in one ANOVA (to decrease the chances of making a Type I error). The within factor independent variable was the team featured in the game (1=their favourite team; 2=their most disliked team (no conditions); 3=a neutral attitude team; 4=their most disliked team when it is described as a threat to the favourite team’s chances for success; 5=their most disliked team when it is described as having a 75% chance of losing; 6=their favourite team when it is described as having a 75% chance of losing), the between factor independent variable was psychological commitment to the favourite team (1=Low PCT; 2=High PCT), and the dependent variable was the respondent’s self-reported intention to watch the team. Since there were six levels of the independent variable, Dunn’s procedure was used to make post-hoc comparisons. According to Kennedy and Bush (1985), Dunn’s procedure is best when comparisons are not independent and not all comparisons will be made.

Impact of Attitudes

54

Results The sample (N=157) included 113 men and 44 women with a mean age of 23.01 (SD = 4.61) years old. The coefficient alpha for the Psychological Commitment to Team (PCT) scale was .88. This value is well above the minimum standard of .70 as suggested by Nunnally and Bernstein (1994). The mean for the PCT scale was 62.60 (SD = 15.23). It is interesting to note that the mean score on the PCT scale is considerably lower than the mean score on the PCT scale from the previous studies which have used this scale to examine professional football fans (M = 70.12) and college football fans (M = 74.62) (Mahony et al., 1998). Although it would be a mistake to generalise these findings beyond the current sample, this result does suggest that future research should be done to examine differences in psychological commitment across sports. Moreover, the suggestion in the current study that there may be a difference between team commitment in professional football and professional basketball may have some validity. It is also interesting to note that the number of wins by the favourite team (M = 55.83, SD = 17.67) is much higher than the league average for wins (M = 41). Consistent with prior research (Branscombe & Wann, 1991; Smith et al., 1981), respondents in the current study were more likely to have a successful favourite team than an unsuccessful favourite team. This is logical because the chances for a positive impact on public image and self-esteem and the chances for enjoyable stress would be highest when the favourite team is successful. In order to examine the impact of psychological commitment to the favourite team on preference for watching the favourite and disliked teams, respondents were split into three groups based on their score on the PCT scale. Respondents with scores on the PCT scale that were in the top 25% of the sample (72 and higher) were labelled as being high PCT fans (n=40) and those who were in the bottom 25% (52 and lower) were labelled as being low PCT fans (n=41). Respondents with scores in the middle (from 53 to 71) were eliminated from further analysis. The remaining 81 respondents had an average age of 23.72 (SD = 5.47) and included 61 males and 20 females. The means and standard deviations for both high and low PCT fans for each of the six game types are presented in Table 1. The ANOVA using a one-between, one-within subjects design revealed significant main effects for psychological commitment to the favourite team, F (1, 79) = 19.87, p < .001, and for the team featured in the game, F (5, 395) = 86.46, p < .001. In addition, the analysis revealed that the psychological commitment to team (PCT) X game condition interaction was also significant, F (5, 395) = 4.43, p < .001. In order to make the comparisons suggested in the four hypotheses, Dunn’s procedure was used to control for the experimentwise error rate (p < .05).

Mahony and Moorman

59

commitment over time. Since longitudinal research has not been done, little is known about the origins of psychological commitment and its long term relationship with both BIRGing and CORFing. Consistent with Mahony and Howard (1998) there was not a significant difference between preference for games featuring the most disliked team and those featuring a neutral attitude team. Moreover, the difference was not significant for either high or low PCT fans. It should be noted, however, that the difference was in the expected direction and the failure to find a significant difference may have been partly related to the moderate sample size. Further research may still be needed to examine this interaction. In contrast, high PCT fans did indicate a significant preference for watching the disliked team when it was described as being likely to lose when compared to watching a neutral attitude team. However, there were no significant differences in the preferences for low PCT fans in this case. This result provides conditional support for Zillman et al.’s Disposition Theory of Sports Spectatorship. The result is consistent with their finding that fans enjoyed watching the disliked team most when the disliked team is failing, but watching a neutral team leads to lower levels of enjoyment, regardless of the outcome. The results of the current study suggest that enjoyment appears to be strongest for highly committed fans. Finally, both high and low PCT fans significantly preferred games when the disliked team was a threat to the favourite team over games featuring a neutral attitude team. Moreover, intentions to watch the disliked team when it was a threat were much greater in the current study (M = 4.83) than in Mahony and Howard (1998) (M = 3.29). In fact, respondents in the current study indicated they were somewhat likely to watch the disliked team under this condition, while respondents in Mahony and Howard were somewhat unlikely to watch. It is interesting that the impact of the threat condition was so strong that even the preference for low PCT fans was affected. This finding is significant for sport marketers and promoters. Promoting the disliked team as a threat would appear to impact the television behaviour of a wide range of fans. However, it should be noted that there was a significant difference between the two PCT groups; the preference for watching the disliked team when it was a threat was significantly greater for high PCT fans. As expected, the strong attachment of these fans to their favourite team resulted in a stronger preference for watching the disliked team under this condition.

Theoretical Implications First, consistent with prior studies (Mahony et al., 1998), the PCT scale was very useful in predicting intentions to watch the favourite team. In particular, the intentions of high PCT fans were not significantly impacted when the favourite team was

Impact of Attitudes

58

Figure 3: Mean likelihood of watching a game on television featuring the disliked team when it was likely to lose and a neutral attitude team (on a Likert-type scale with 1 = Highly Unlikely, 7 = Highly Likely) as a function of the level of psychological commitment to the favourite team.

Likelihood of Watching

4.5 4 Disliked Team–Lose 3.5 Neutral Team 3 2.5 2 Low PCT

High PCT

Psychological Commitment to the Favourite Team

Discussion and Implications The current study confirmed that professional basketball fans in the United States do prefer watching games featuring their favourite team. The mean intention to watch the favourite team when no conditions were present was high for both high and low PCT fans. This is consistent with the traditional attitude-behaviour relationship which suggests a strong positive attitude tends to lead to a positive behaviour (Fazio et al., 1989), and is consistent with Mahony and Howard’s (1998) results when they examined professional football fans in the United States. However, preference for a game featuring the favourite team, when it was described as being likely to lose, declined significantly for low PCT fans, while the intentions of high PCT fans remained high. High PCT fans appear to have trouble CORFing even though it would be a benefit to their public image and self-esteem and it may help them avoid distress. This would suggest that it is very important for sport marketers to come up with strategies to increase psychological commitment to their teams. Mahony et al. (1998) have outlined strategies to accomplish this goal, but further research is still needed to determine which strategies would be most effective. Moreover, research is needed to examine the development of psychological

Mahony and Moorman

55

Table 1: Means and Standard Deviations for Hypothesis 1 through Hypothesis 4 Team

Likelihood of Watching High PCT Low PCT

Favourite Team M SD

6.80 0.56

5.71 1.29

Favourite Team (75% Chance of Losing) M SD

6.28 0.96

4.37 1.73

Disliked Team (No Conditions) M SD

3.25 2.07

2.68 1.52

Disliked Team (Threat) M SD

5.73 1.58

4.59 1.79

Disliked Team (75% Chance of Losing) M SD

4.43 2.07

3.15 1.77

Neutral Attitude Team M SD

2.80 1.95

2.76 1.22

Hypothesis 1 When comparing preference for watching games featuring the favourite team with no conditions and the favourite team when it was likely to lose, the interaction was significant (see Figure 1). While the preference of high PCT fans for watching their favourite team did not decline significantly when they were told that their favourite team was likely to lose, the preference of low PCT fans did decline significantly. Essentially, high PCT fans wanted to watch their favourite team regardless of the conditions, while low PCT fans were significantly less interested if the result was likely to be unfavourable. This supports the prediction in Hypothesis 1.

Impact of Attitudes

56

Figure 1: Mean likelihood of watching a game on television featuring the favourite team under no conditions and the favourite team when it was likely to lose (on a Likert-type scale with 1 = Highly Unlikely, 7 = Highly Likely) as a function of the level of psychological commitment to the favourite team. 7

Likelihood of Watching

6.5 Favourite Team

6

Favourite Team–Lose

5.5 5

Mahony and Moorman

57

preference for watching the disliked team when it was a threat to the favourite was significantly greater for high PCT fans, while there was no significant difference between the two PCT groups when they were presented with the option of a neutral attitude team. However, in contrast to the prediction in Hypothesis 3, it appears that both groups reacted strongly when the disliked team was described as a threat and both indicated a stronger desire to watch the team under this condition than the other option. Therefore, although there was a significant interaction, the mean differences do not support the prediction in Hypothesis 3. Figure 2: Mean likelihood of watching a game on television featuring the disliked team when it was a threat to the favourite team and a neutral attitude team (on a Likert-type scale with 1 = Highly Unlikely, 7 = Highly Likely) as a function of the level of psychological commitment to the favourite team. 6

4.5 4 Low PCT

High PCT

Psychological Commitment to the Favourite Team

Hypothesis 2 When comparing preference for watching games featuring the disliked team with no conditions and for watching a neutral attitude team, the interaction was not significant. Although, as predicted, the mean preference among high PCT fans for watching the disliked team (M = 3.25) was greater than the mean preference for watching a neutral attitude team (M = 2.80) while the mean for low PCT fans was higher for the neutral attitude team (M = 2.76) as opposed to the disliked team (M = 2.68), none of the differences was significant. Therefore, Hypothesis 2 was not supported.

Hypothesis 3 When comparing preference for watching games featuring the disliked team when it is a threat to the favourite team and for watching a neutral attitude team, the interaction was significant (see Figure 2). Dunn’s procedure did indicate that mean

Likelihood of Watching

5.5 5 Disliked Team–Threat 4.5 Neutral Team

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 Low PCT

High PCT

Psychological Commitment to the Favourite Team

Hypothesis 4 Finally, when comparing preference for watching the disliked team when it was described as being likely to lose to watching a neutral attitude team, the interaction was significant (see Figure 3). High PCT fans indicated a significant preference for watching the disliked team when it was likely to lose as opposed to watching a neutral attitude team, while low PCT fans indicated no preference for either game. This result supports the prediction in Hypothesis 4.

Impact of Attitudes

56

Figure 1: Mean likelihood of watching a game on television featuring the favourite team under no conditions and the favourite team when it was likely to lose (on a Likert-type scale with 1 = Highly Unlikely, 7 = Highly Likely) as a function of the level of psychological commitment to the favourite team. 7

Likelihood of Watching

6.5 Favourite Team

6

Favourite Team–Lose

5.5 5

Mahony and Moorman

57

preference for watching the disliked team when it was a threat to the favourite was significantly greater for high PCT fans, while there was no significant difference between the two PCT groups when they were presented with the option of a neutral attitude team. However, in contrast to the prediction in Hypothesis 3, it appears that both groups reacted strongly when the disliked team was described as a threat and both indicated a stronger desire to watch the team under this condition than the other option. Therefore, although there was a significant interaction, the mean differences do not support the prediction in Hypothesis 3. Figure 2: Mean likelihood of watching a game on television featuring the disliked team when it was a threat to the favourite team and a neutral attitude team (on a Likert-type scale with 1 = Highly Unlikely, 7 = Highly Likely) as a function of the level of psychological commitment to the favourite team. 6

4.5 4 Low PCT

High PCT

Psychological Commitment to the Favourite Team

Hypothesis 2 When comparing preference for watching games featuring the disliked team with no conditions and for watching a neutral attitude team, the interaction was not significant. Although, as predicted, the mean preference among high PCT fans for watching the disliked team (M = 3.25) was greater than the mean preference for watching a neutral attitude team (M = 2.80) while the mean for low PCT fans was higher for the neutral attitude team (M = 2.76) as opposed to the disliked team (M = 2.68), none of the differences was significant. Therefore, Hypothesis 2 was not supported.

Hypothesis 3 When comparing preference for watching games featuring the disliked team when it is a threat to the favourite team and for watching a neutral attitude team, the interaction was significant (see Figure 2). Dunn’s procedure did indicate that mean

Likelihood of Watching

5.5 5 Disliked Team–Threat 4.5 Neutral Team

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 Low PCT

High PCT

Psychological Commitment to the Favourite Team

Hypothesis 4 Finally, when comparing preference for watching the disliked team when it was described as being likely to lose to watching a neutral attitude team, the interaction was significant (see Figure 3). High PCT fans indicated a significant preference for watching the disliked team when it was likely to lose as opposed to watching a neutral attitude team, while low PCT fans indicated no preference for either game. This result supports the prediction in Hypothesis 4.

Impact of Attitudes

58

Figure 3: Mean likelihood of watching a game on television featuring the disliked team when it was likely to lose and a neutral attitude team (on a Likert-type scale with 1 = Highly Unlikely, 7 = Highly Likely) as a function of the level of psychological commitment to the favourite team.

Likelihood of Watching

4.5 4 Disliked Team–Lose 3.5 Neutral Team 3 2.5 2 Low PCT

High PCT

Psychological Commitment to the Favourite Team

Discussion and Implications The current study confirmed that professional basketball fans in the United States do prefer watching games featuring their favourite team. The mean intention to watch the favourite team when no conditions were present was high for both high and low PCT fans. This is consistent with the traditional attitude-behaviour relationship which suggests a strong positive attitude tends to lead to a positive behaviour (Fazio et al., 1989), and is consistent with Mahony and Howard’s (1998) results when they examined professional football fans in the United States. However, preference for a game featuring the favourite team, when it was described as being likely to lose, declined significantly for low PCT fans, while the intentions of high PCT fans remained high. High PCT fans appear to have trouble CORFing even though it would be a benefit to their public image and self-esteem and it may help them avoid distress. This would suggest that it is very important for sport marketers to come up with strategies to increase psychological commitment to their teams. Mahony et al. (1998) have outlined strategies to accomplish this goal, but further research is still needed to determine which strategies would be most effective. Moreover, research is needed to examine the development of psychological

Mahony and Moorman

55

Table 1: Means and Standard Deviations for Hypothesis 1 through Hypothesis 4 Team

Likelihood of Watching High PCT Low PCT

Favourite Team M SD

6.80 0.56

5.71 1.29

Favourite Team (75% Chance of Losing) M SD

6.28 0.96

4.37 1.73

Disliked Team (No Conditions) M SD

3.25 2.07

2.68 1.52

Disliked Team (Threat) M SD

5.73 1.58

4.59 1.79

Disliked Team (75% Chance of Losing) M SD

4.43 2.07

3.15 1.77

Neutral Attitude Team M SD

2.80 1.95

2.76 1.22

Hypothesis 1 When comparing preference for watching games featuring the favourite team with no conditions and the favourite team when it was likely to lose, the interaction was significant (see Figure 1). While the preference of high PCT fans for watching their favourite team did not decline significantly when they were told that their favourite team was likely to lose, the preference of low PCT fans did decline significantly. Essentially, high PCT fans wanted to watch their favourite team regardless of the conditions, while low PCT fans were significantly less interested if the result was likely to be unfavourable. This supports the prediction in Hypothesis 1.

Impact of Attitudes

54

Results The sample (N=157) included 113 men and 44 women with a mean age of 23.01 (SD = 4.61) years old. The coefficient alpha for the Psychological Commitment to Team (PCT) scale was .88. This value is well above the minimum standard of .70 as suggested by Nunnally and Bernstein (1994). The mean for the PCT scale was 62.60 (SD = 15.23). It is interesting to note that the mean score on the PCT scale is considerably lower than the mean score on the PCT scale from the previous studies which have used this scale to examine professional football fans (M = 70.12) and college football fans (M = 74.62) (Mahony et al., 1998). Although it would be a mistake to generalise these findings beyond the current sample, this result does suggest that future research should be done to examine differences in psychological commitment across sports. Moreover, the suggestion in the current study that there may be a difference between team commitment in professional football and professional basketball may have some validity. It is also interesting to note that the number of wins by the favourite team (M = 55.83, SD = 17.67) is much higher than the league average for wins (M = 41). Consistent with prior research (Branscombe & Wann, 1991; Smith et al., 1981), respondents in the current study were more likely to have a successful favourite team than an unsuccessful favourite team. This is logical because the chances for a positive impact on public image and self-esteem and the chances for enjoyable stress would be highest when the favourite team is successful. In order to examine the impact of psychological commitment to the favourite team on preference for watching the favourite and disliked teams, respondents were split into three groups based on their score on the PCT scale. Respondents with scores on the PCT scale that were in the top 25% of the sample (72 and higher) were labelled as being high PCT fans (n=40) and those who were in the bottom 25% (52 and lower) were labelled as being low PCT fans (n=41). Respondents with scores in the middle (from 53 to 71) were eliminated from further analysis. The remaining 81 respondents had an average age of 23.72 (SD = 5.47) and included 61 males and 20 females. The means and standard deviations for both high and low PCT fans for each of the six game types are presented in Table 1. The ANOVA using a one-between, one-within subjects design revealed significant main effects for psychological commitment to the favourite team, F (1, 79) = 19.87, p < .001, and for the team featured in the game, F (5, 395) = 86.46, p < .001. In addition, the analysis revealed that the psychological commitment to team (PCT) X game condition interaction was also significant, F (5, 395) = 4.43, p < .001. In order to make the comparisons suggested in the four hypotheses, Dunn’s procedure was used to control for the experimentwise error rate (p < .05).

Mahony and Moorman

59

commitment over time. Since longitudinal research has not been done, little is known about the origins of psychological commitment and its long term relationship with both BIRGing and CORFing. Consistent with Mahony and Howard (1998) there was not a significant difference between preference for games featuring the most disliked team and those featuring a neutral attitude team. Moreover, the difference was not significant for either high or low PCT fans. It should be noted, however, that the difference was in the expected direction and the failure to find a significant difference may have been partly related to the moderate sample size. Further research may still be needed to examine this interaction. In contrast, high PCT fans did indicate a significant preference for watching the disliked team when it was described as being likely to lose when compared to watching a neutral attitude team. However, there were no significant differences in the preferences for low PCT fans in this case. This result provides conditional support for Zillman et al.’s Disposition Theory of Sports Spectatorship. The result is consistent with their finding that fans enjoyed watching the disliked team most when the disliked team is failing, but watching a neutral team leads to lower levels of enjoyment, regardless of the outcome. The results of the current study suggest that enjoyment appears to be strongest for highly committed fans. Finally, both high and low PCT fans significantly preferred games when the disliked team was a threat to the favourite team over games featuring a neutral attitude team. Moreover, intentions to watch the disliked team when it was a threat were much greater in the current study (M = 4.83) than in Mahony and Howard (1998) (M = 3.29). In fact, respondents in the current study indicated they were somewhat likely to watch the disliked team under this condition, while respondents in Mahony and Howard were somewhat unlikely to watch. It is interesting that the impact of the threat condition was so strong that even the preference for low PCT fans was affected. This finding is significant for sport marketers and promoters. Promoting the disliked team as a threat would appear to impact the television behaviour of a wide range of fans. However, it should be noted that there was a significant difference between the two PCT groups; the preference for watching the disliked team when it was a threat was significantly greater for high PCT fans. As expected, the strong attachment of these fans to their favourite team resulted in a stronger preference for watching the disliked team under this condition.

Theoretical Implications First, consistent with prior studies (Mahony et al., 1998), the PCT scale was very useful in predicting intentions to watch the favourite team. In particular, the intentions of high PCT fans were not significantly impacted when the favourite team was

60

Impact of Attitudes

likely to lose, while low PCT fans tended to CORF in the likely to lose scenario. Although this game could have a negative impact on their self-esteem and public image and may cause distress for the high PCT fans, they appear unable to distance themselves from the team under this condition. Second, this study was also the first to indicate that the PCT scale could be useful when predicting intentions to watch the disliked team. The PCT scale was useful in predicting intentions to watch the disliked team when it was described as a threat to the favourite team, and when it was described as being likely to lose. These results suggest a fan’s preference for watching the disliked team is related to their relationship with their favourite team. Fans with strong relationships with the favourite team were more likely to watch the disliked team in both conditions. Moreover, the results suggest the preference for watching the disliked team may be related to self-esteem and public image concerns, as well as the desire for enjoyable stress. For example, the strong preference among high PCT fans for watching the disliked team when it was a threat to the favourite team makes sense because the presence of the threat increases the implications of the game for the fans’ self-esteem and public image. Thus, it is likely to be more stressful. However, the game would have fewer implications for the self-esteem and public image of low PCT fans. Thus, it would be less stressful for them. It should be noted that while seeking feelings of vicarious achievement and enjoyable stress are major motivations for sport fans, there are other reasons that fans watch sport and pick their favourite team. For example, the Chicago Cubs are among the most popular teams in professional baseball in the United States, even though they have not won a World Series in over 90 years (Kurkjian, 1992). In this case the high levels of support can be explained by other factors. The Cubs have a party tradition at games, which makes game attendance enjoyable for fans even when they lose. The Cubs also benefit from having most of their games televised on WGN, which is available on most cable packages across the country. In other words, they get more exposure than most teams, which makes long term loyalty easier. Perhaps most importantly, it is well known that the Cubs are rarely a good team and never win the big games, so their fans are widely considered to be the most loyal. The label of loyal fan is very positive, so for Cubs fans there is a positive impact on their public image and self-esteem. Whether this has occurred by design or by accident, the Chicago Cubs have been able to maintain a highly loyal fan base despite poor performance by the team. Clearly, more research is needed to understand the somewhat unique relationship between the Chicago Cubs and their fans. Third, the current study supports the finding of Mahony and Howard (1998) that a desire to watch the disliked team is only conditional. When no conditions are presented to the respondents, they do not indicate a preference for watching the disliked team over watching a neutral attitude team.

Mahony and Moorman

53

including (1) their favourite team, (2) their most disliked team, and (3) a neutral attitude team. They were asked to evaluate how likely they would be to watch each team if that team was playing on television. Ratings were on a seven-point Likerttype scale (Highly Unlikely=1, Highly Likely=7). Watching on television was chosen over attendance because there are a number of extraneous factors that could affect the desire to attend a game (e.g., quality of the facility, location of the facility, cost of tickets). These are unrelated to how appealing watching a particular team is to the fan. In addition, enlarging television audiences has become increasingly important in the sport industry (Tice, 1998), but there has been little research examining factors affecting television viewing decisions. Respondents were next asked on a seven-point Likert-type scale (Highly Unlikely=1, Highly Likely=7) how likely they would be to watch their most disliked team on television in two different scenarios. In the first scenario, their most disliked team was a threat to the favourite team’s chances for success. In the second scenario, their most disliked team had a 75% chance of losing against an unnamed opponent. The scenario design is accepted as an appropriate methodological tool in the assessment of attitudes (Nosanchuk, 1972) and was used in the current study to elicit higher quality responses while redressing weaknesses of Mahony and Howard’s (1998) previous study, which required respondents to draw their own conclusions as to the threat posed by the disliked team and its chances of losing. In addition, respondents were asked how likely they would be to watch their favourite team on television when it had a 75% chance of losing. The impact of the favourite team’s chances of losing was not examined by Mahony and Howard.

Analysis Responses related to the six games described in the four hypotheses were not independent. Thus, a one-between, one-within ANOVA was used. All the games were examined in one ANOVA (to decrease the chances of making a Type I error). The within factor independent variable was the team featured in the game (1=their favourite team; 2=their most disliked team (no conditions); 3=a neutral attitude team; 4=their most disliked team when it is described as a threat to the favourite team’s chances for success; 5=their most disliked team when it is described as having a 75% chance of losing; 6=their favourite team when it is described as having a 75% chance of losing), the between factor independent variable was psychological commitment to the favourite team (1=Low PCT; 2=High PCT), and the dependent variable was the respondent’s self-reported intention to watch the team. Since there were six levels of the independent variable, Dunn’s procedure was used to make post-hoc comparisons. According to Kennedy and Bush (1985), Dunn’s procedure is best when comparisons are not independent and not all comparisons will be made.

52

Impact of Attitudes

top 25% of the sample were labelled as being high PCT fans and those in the bottom 25% were labelled as being low PCT fans. Research in social psychology has frequently used this dichotomising procedure to eliminate respondents who are relatively neutral on the independent variable (e.g., Darley & Lim, 1992; Haugtvedt, Petty, & Cacioppo, 1992; Snyder & Simpson, 1984). Therefore, the final sample size used to analyse the four hypotheses in the current study was 81.

Procedures and Instruments Professional basketball games in the United States (National Basketball Association - NBA) were used as the sport events for this study. A professional sport was chosen for the following reasons: (a) there are a smaller number of teams in the NBA (as compared to intercollegiate basketball) and (b) team quality is more consistent than in intercollegiate basketball. The NBA was chosen from among the professional sport leagues in the United States because (a) basketball is the second favourite professional sport for fans under 30 (as cited in Mihoces, 1995), which was the age group of the respondents and (b) Mahony and Howard’s (1998) study on the impact of attitudes examined only teams in the National Football League (NFL). There may be differences between the NBA and the NFL which could affect some of the hypotheses. The study used two stages of data collection. After receiving permission to collect the data from the Human Subjects Committee at the University of Louisville, respondents signed an informed consent form before beginning the first stage of data collection. Each respondent was assigned a number that was placed at the top of the surveys for both stages of data collection. In order to assure confidentiality, the list of assigned numbers was kept separate from the surveys and was destroyed after all respondents completed the second stage of data collection. During the first phase of data collection, respondents were asked a number of questions related to NBA teams. First, the respondents were asked to name their favourite and most disliked teams (Questions 1 and 2). Attitude strength related to these teams was measured using a seven-point Likert-type scale (Strongly Dislike=1, Strongly Like=7). Second, the respondents were asked to list two teams toward which they feel neutral. A list of teams was attached to help respondents recall teams toward which they were neutral. Third, the respondents were asked to record their age and their gender. Finally, respondents were asked to complete Mahony et al.’s (1998) Psychological Commitment to Team (PCT) scale for their favourite NBA team. The second stage of this study was completed by each respondent between one to three weeks after the first stage. Since the teams mentioned in the second survey were based on each respondent’s answers in the first stage, surveys were different for each respondent. First, the respondents were given a list of teams,

Mahony and Moorman

61

Fourth, the current study also has implications for the attitude-behaviour relationship literature. Much has been written about the relationships between attitudes and behaviours (see Kraus, 1995). Based on prior analysis of attitudebehaviour relationships by Ajzen and Fishbein (1977), one could argue the attitude object in the current study would be the game and not the team. Therefore, the attitude toward the team would instead be an attribute of the game. However, even if the team is only an attribute of the attitude object, a positive intention resulting from a negative attitude toward an attribute of the attitude object would still be unusual and worthy of exploration. For example, it would have been unlikely in the Fazio et al. (1989) study that a negative attitude toward peanuts would have increased the likelihood that a respondent would have chosen a Snickers bar. Further, it would also be unusual to see such a relationship in other areas of entertainment. If movie watchers strongly dislike actor Jim Carrey, it would be unlikely for them to want to watch a movie if all they were told was that Jim Carrey was one of the movie’s stars, even if they were told it was highly likely that his performance would be poor. Similarly, a negative attitude toward an attribute of a team and a positive intention to watch that team would seem improbable.

Practical Implications The impact of attitudes on television viewing behaviour should be of great interest to sport marketers. In recent years, sport programming on television has increased dramatically. In 1991, over 47,000 hours of television programming were devoted to sport (Hugh-Jones, 1992), which was an increase of over 400% from the 1980s (Wenner & Gantz, 1989). Recent research by Statistical Research Inc. indicates that sport programs are among the most watched, particularly among men ages 18 to 49 (Tice, 1998). However, it should be noted that the increase in sport television has led to a dramatic increase in competition among sport programming. Those promoting sport programs must expect that there will be considerable competition for that large television audience. Moreover, watching sport programs is more often planned, often a few days in advance, than are decisions to watch other types of programs (Tice, 1998). This clearly indicates that it is very important for upcoming games to be promoted using strategies that will pique and hold the interest of potential viewers. The results of the current study on television viewing behaviour has several practical implications for sport marketers. The likelihood that fans will watch teams they dislike when certain conditions are present provides marketers with information useful when formulating marketing strategy. For example, if marketers would normally focus their efforts on promoting positive aspects of a team to stimulate fan

Impact of Attitudes

62

interest, the current study suggests that fans might also be stimulated by promoting negative aspects of a disliked team. This goes beyond mere rivalry promotion since the disliked team may or may not be an opponent or traditional rival of the favourite team. Other than isolated occurrences where individual “bad boy” athletes, such as Dennis Rodman and John McEnroe, have been used to promote games, actual research supporting the positive effects of negative attitudes on behaviour is sparse. Most research on negative images in television advertising relates to political advertising campaigns (Christ, Thorson, & Caywood, 1994) or television commercials where one company attacks the products of its competitor. In these cases, advertisers assume that a negative attitude will decrease the chances for a positive behaviour (i.e., voting for the opposition candidate or purchasing the product from a rival company). Moreover, the potential for a negative attitude to produce a positive behaviour enables television executives and event promoters to market games beyond the ordinary programming, such as league leaders, traditional rivals, or popular teams. Teams disliked in a region and thought to be of little interest to the television audience may actually produce the game most desirable to watch, particularly if the disliked team has a good chance of losing. For example, many NFL fans who dislike the Dallas Cowboys seemed to enjoy watching Cowboys’ games during the 1997 season because the team was having one of its worst seasons and was likely to lose. In addition, games featuring the disliked team when it poses a threat to the favourite team in that region may be particularly popular because both high and low PCT fans indicate an increased desire to watch the team in this condition. For example, an NFL game featuring the San Francisco 49ers may be of great interest to Philadelphia Eagles fans if these fans believe that the outcome of the 49ers game could have implications for the Eagles (e.g., impact their chances for making the playoffs), even though the 49ers and the Eagles are not traditional rivals and rarely play. As the impact of attitudes and psychographics become better understood, media strategies will be more efficient and productive.

Mahony and Moorman

condition and psychological commitment level. High PCT fans will be significantly more likely to watch the disliked team when it is a threat, while low PCT fans will not indicate a significant difference in intentions to watch these teams. Consistent with the Disposition Theory of Sports Spectatorship (Zillman et al., 1989), prior research suggests that fans prefer games and are in a better mood if they believe their favourite team is likely to win (Demmert, 1973; Sloan et al., 1987). The Disposition Theory of Sports Spectatorship also suggests fans will prefer games in which there is a good chance their most disliked team will be unsuccessful. However, Mahony and Howard (1998) did not find a significant preference for watching the disliked team when it was likely to fail. Although it is possible the results of this study were related to the procedures they used, it is also possible there are differences in individual fans. In particular, the opportunity to watch the most disliked team lose may have a greater impact on the highly committed fans. Watching a disliked rival fail would be expected to provide more BLASTing potential for the fans who are highly committed to the favourite team. Therefore, the fourth hypothesis looks at the impact of the likelihood of failure on the preferences of high and low PCT fans for games featuring the most disliked team. H4: When asked how likely they are to watch the most disliked team when it is described as having a 75% chance of losing and a neutral attitude team, there will be a significant interaction between game condition and psychological commitment level. High PCT fans will be significantly more likely to watch the disliked team when it is likely to lose, while low PCT fans will not indicate a significant difference in intentions to watch these teams.

Methods

Future Research It should be emphasised that actual behaviour was not measured, and the current study measured only intentions to behave. Although Holman (1956) found that the relationship between intention to attend sport events and actual attendance was very high for sport fans (r=.80), it would be unreasonable to assume that all respondents would follow through on their intentions. In fact, Ajzen and Fishbein’s (1977) research has found a number of factors that may impact the likelihood that people will follow through on their intentions. Further research is needed to examine the

51

Sample The respondent pool (N=157) were undergraduate and graduate students recruited from classes at the University of Louisville. Only volunteers who indicated they were fans of professional basketball were used. Since the goal of this study is theory application and no attempt will be made to estimate means or effect sizes for a larger population, the use of homogeneous respondents was preferred (Calder, Phillips, & Tybout, 1981). In order to best determine the impact of psychological commitment to the favourite team, respondents with scores on the PCT scale in the

50

Impact of Attitudes

Low PCT fans will be significantly less likely to watch the favourite team when it is likely to lose, while high PCT fans will not indicate a significant difference in intentions under the two conditions. Although Mahony and Howard (1998) found no significant differences between preference for a game featuring the most disliked team and a game featuring a neutral attitude team, it is possible that only some fans have a preference for the disliked team. Respondents who are highly committed to the favourite team are also expected to be more likely to watch the most disliked team. The proposed benefits related to watching the most disliked team should be higher for those who are more strongly committed to the favourite team. When the fan is not committed to the favourite team, watching a disliked rival may not have the same potential for an impact on the fan’s public image or self-esteem, and is less likely to create much eustress. The second hypothesis examines the impact of psychological commitment on preference for watching the most disliked team as opposed to a neutral attitude team. H2: When asked how likely they are to watch the disliked team when no conditions are presented and a neutral attitude team, there will be a significant interaction between game condition and psychological commitment level. High PCT fans will be significantly more likely to watch the disliked team, while low PCT fans will not indicate a significant difference in intentions to watch these teams. The third hypothesis examines the impact of the disliked team being a threat to the favourite team’s chances for success. Based on the research of Sivacek and Crano (1982), Mahony and Howard (1998) predicted and found that respondents indicated they were more likely to watch a game featuring their most disliked team when it was described as a threat to their favourite team’s chances for success. The current study again examines the impact of threat; this time also focusing on the moderating effect of psychological commitment to the favourite team. The preference for watching the disliked team will be higher for highly committed fans when they believe the performance by the disliked team will have an impact on their favourite team. For fans who are less committed, this potential impact on the favourite team is less important. H3: When asked how likely they are to watch the most disliked team when it is described as a threat to the favourite team and a neutral attitude team, there will be a significant interaction between game

Mahony and Moorman

63

impact of both positive and negative attitudes on actual behaviour. In addition, research on how both positive and negative attitudes toward teams are formed is still quite limited and more research is needed to better understand this process. Additional research is also necessary to determine what behaviours might be predicted using attitudes. For example, a fan may be willing (and even desire) to watch a disliked team on television when certain circumstances are present, but the same fan may not be willing to actually attend a game to watch a disliked team. Similarly, the impact of attitudes toward players and coaches has been largely ignored, yet is worthy of study. In addition, future research should examine sport teams in countries outside the United States. It would be interesting to see whether fans in other countries also enjoy seeing a disliked team being beaten (perhaps even humiliated) or whether this is a uniquely American phenomenon. Finally, the internet is another media source whose effectiveness is largely unexplored (but see McDaniel & Sullivan, 1998). Now almost every major network, and many internet servers, search engines, and web sites offer up-to-the-minute sport scores and even live sport coverage. Almost all of these sites will feature advertising which either promotes the site creator or promotes other products and services. In fact, even small personal web sites now contain advertising to offset the costs of maintaining the site. Thus, the potential exists, as in television media, to segment and target markets into program segments within sports in order to feature teams about which fans have strong attitudes, both positive and negative, in order to increase the number of “hits” and exposure to the featured advertising on the web page. It is clear that attitudes toward teams play a significant role in fan behaviour. Further examination of that relationship promises to advance our understandings of sport fans. In so doing, it can enhance the formulation of marketing strategies for sport teams.

References Ajzen, I, & Fishbein, M. (1977). Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 888-918. Becker, M. A., & Suls, J. (1983). Take me out to the ballgame: The effects of objective, social, and temporal performance information on attendance at major league baseball games. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 302-313. Branscombe, N. R., & Wann, D. L. (1991). The positive social and self concept consequences of sports team identification. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 15, 115-127.

64

Impact of Attitudes

Branscombe, N. R., & Wann, D. L. (1992). Physiological arousal and reactions to outgroup members during competitions that implicate an important social identity. Aggressive Behavior, 18, 85-93. Braves most popular. (1998, June 15). The Courier Journal, p. E5. Brunson, M. W., Shelby, B., & Johnson, R. L. (1991). Recreational commitment and seasonal changes among whitewater boaters. In C. Sylvester & L. Caldwell (Eds.), Abstracts from the 1991 NRPA symposium for leisure research (p. 14). Alexandria, VA: National Recreation and Park Association. Burger, J. M. (1985). Temporal effects on attributions for academic performances and reflected-glory basking. Social Psychology Quarterly, 48, 330-336. Calder, B. J., Phillips, L. W., & Tybout A. M. (1981). Designing research for application. Journal of Consumer Research, 8, 197-207. Christ, W. G., Thorson, E., & Caywood, C. (1994). Do attitudes toward political advertising affect information processing of televised political commercials? Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 38, 251-270. Cialdini, R. B., Borden, B. J., Thorne, A., Walker, M. R., Freeman, S., & Sloan, L. R. (1976). Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 366-375. Cialdini, R. B., & Richardson, K. D. (1980). Two indirect tactics of impression management: Basking and blasting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 406-415. Darley, W. K., & Lim, J. (1992). The effect of consumers’ emotional reactions on behavioral intentions: The moderating role of personal relevance and selfmonitoring. Psychology & Marketing, 9, 329-346. Demmert, H. G. (1973). The economics of professional team sports. Lexington, MA: D. C. Health. Fazio, R. H., Powell, M. C., & Williams, C. J. (1989). The role of attitude accessibility in the attitude-to-behavior process. Journal of Consumer Behavior, 16, 280-288. Fazio, R. H., & Williams, C. J. (1986). Attitude accessibility as a moderator of the attitude-perception and attitude-behavior relationship: An investigation of the 1984 presidential election. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 505-514. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Beliefs, attitudes, intentions and behavior: An introduction to theoretical research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Haugtvedt, C. P., Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1992). Need for cognition and advertising: Understanding the role of personality variables in consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 1, 239-260. Havitz, M. E., & Howard, D. R. (1996). How enduring is enduring involvement? A seasonal examination of three recreational activities. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 4, 255-276. Hirt, E. R., Zillman, D., Erickson, G. A., & Kennedy, C. (1992). Costs and benefits of allegiance: Changes in fans’ self-ascribed competencies after team victory versus defeat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 724-738. Holman. P. A. (1956). Validation of an attitude scale as a device for predicting behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 40, 347-349.

Mahony and Moorman

49

team and to watch games featuring the most disliked team under a variety of conditions. When psychological commitment to the favourite team is highest, the impact on self-esteem and public image of games featuring either the favourite team or the most disliked team (often a rival of the favourite team) will be the highest. Moreover, games featuring these teams will also be expected to create more eustress when the respondent’s score on the PCT scale is higher.

Hypotheses Although fans are expected to prefer games featuring the favourite team, it is possible their intentions to watch a game featuring this team will decrease when the team is likely to lose. In this case, the benefits derived from watching the game will decrease. A loss by the favourite team is likely to have a negative impact on the fan’s public image and self-esteem (Hirt et al., 1992). In addition, the level of stress in this case may go beyond eustress and become distress, and therefore the game will have a negative impact on the fan’s mood (Hirt et al., 1992; Sloan, Bates, Davis, & Schwieger, 1987). However, the impact of likelihood of losing is expected to be moderated by the fan’s psychological commitment to their favourite team. Highly committed fans are expected to report greater intentions to watch the favourite team both when no conditions are presented and when the team is described as being likely to lose. Moreover, their intentions will probably not be as affected as low commitment fans by the likelihood of the favourite team losing. Although fans who have a stronger attachment to the favourite team will suffer a greater impact if the favourite team loses (such as a stronger negative impact on public image and self-esteem and a larger decrease in their mood [Hirt et al., 1992]), it is possible that highly committed fans will have difficulty CORFing when the team does poorly. In order to assess commitment to the favourite team, the PCT scale was used. Fans who are considered most loyal are those who would be expected to follow the favourite team even when it is unsuccessful. In fact, if fans who are high on the PCT scale are not more likely than low PCT fans to watch the favourite team when its chances for success are lower, the use of the PCT scale to assess commitment would have to be questioned. The first hypothesis was designed to examine the influence of psychological commitment to the favourite team and the likelihood of losing on fan intentions. H1: When asked how likely they are to watch the favourite team when it is described as having a 75% chance of losing and when no conditions are presented, there will be a significant interaction between game condition and psychological commitment level.

48

Impact of Attitudes

In order to extend the Mahony and Howard (1998) study, the current study examined National Basketball Association (NBA) fans during the last weeks of the NBA regular season. One of the potential weakness of the Mahony and Howard (1998) study was that it was conducted several months after the NFL season had ended. Attitudes may have been less accessible and therefore weaker during this time (Fazio & Williams, 1986). The attitudes of the respondents in the current study should be stronger and more accessible because the study is conducted during the season. In fact, the presence of stronger attitudes during the season is consistent with other research in leisure (e.g., Brunson, Shelby, & Johnson, 1991; Havitz & Howard, 1996). In addition, the current study aided respondents by indicating that the most disliked team was a threat to the favourite team, or the disliked team was likely to lose. Mahony and Howard (1998) relied on respondents to recall which disliked teams were threats to the favourite team and which disliked teams were likely to lose, which may have rendered those contextual factors inaccessible. Moreover, the current study examined NBA fans so that a comparison could be made with Mahony and Howard’s examination of NFL fans. Although the relationship between attitude toward a team and intention to watch that team in a game is expected to be the same in both leagues, some popular literature suggests there may be some differences. Many college officials have claimed that college basketball is about the name on the front of the jersey (the team), while professional basketball is all about the name on the back of the jersey (the player) (Vitale & Weiss, 1995). In fact, professional basketball has traditionally focused more on marketing players than on marketing teams. One indication of the NBA’s concentration on players can be seen in product endorsements. During 1996, three NBA players were among the top athletes in product endorsements (Lane & Spiegel, 1996). Conversely, the NFL, like college basketball, has traditionally been more focused on marketing teams. When the Cleveland Browns left for Baltimore, the citizens of Cleveland were more concerned about keeping the team name than any of the players (James & Kolbe, 1998). Unlike the NBA, NFL players are “typically ignored by marketers” (King, 1998, p. 28) and none was among the top 15 athletes in product endorsements in 1996 (Lane & Spiegel, 1996). Therefore, it is possible that attitude toward teams will have a more limited impact when examining the NBA. Finally, the current study wanted to examine the impact of fans’ commitment to their favourite team on their preference for watching the favourite and most disliked teams under various conditions. Mahony, Madrigal, and Howard (1998) found their Psychological Commitment to Team (PCT) Scale was very useful in predicting fan behaviour related to their favourite team, including game attendance. In the current study it is expected that fans who are higher in psychological commitment will indicate a greater intention to watch games on television featuring the favourite

Mahony and Moorman

65

Hugh-Jones, S. (1992, July 25). A survey of sports businesses. The Economist, pp. S3-S17. James, J., & Kolbe, R. (1998, May). Fan loyalty: Understanding the construct from the fan perspective. Paper presented at the meeting of the North American Society for Sport Management, Buffalo, NY. Kennedy, J. J., & Bush, A. J. (1985). An introduction to the design and analysis of experiments in behavioral research. Lantham, MD: University Press of America. Kimble, C. E., & Cooper, B. P. (1992). Association by dissociation by football fans. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 75, 303-309. King, B. (1998, July 20-26). MLB players thrown endorsement curve: Major leaguers make less than stars in other sports. Street & Smith’s Sports Business Journal, pp. 1, 28-29. Klausner, S. Z. (1968). Empirical analysis of stress seekers. In S. Z. Klausner (Ed.), Why man takes chances (pp. 137-168). Garden City, NY: Doubleday/Anchor. Kraus, S. J. (1995). Attitudes and the prediction of behavior: A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 58-75. Kurkjian, T. (1992). Baseball. In J. Papanck (Ed.), The Sports Illustrated 1992 Sports Almanac and Record Book (pp. 25-89). Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. Lane, R., & Spiegel, P. (1996, December 16). The year of the Michaels. Forbes, pp. 244-254. Madrigal, R., & Howard, D. R. (1995, May). The development of the FANDIM scale and its potential application to understanding sport spectators. Paper presented at the meeting of the North American Society for Sport Management, Athens, GA. Mahony, D. F., & Howard, D. R. (1998). The impact of attitudes on the behavioral intentions of sport spectators. International Sports Journal, 2(2), 96-110. Mahony, D. F., Madrigal, R., & Howard, D. R. (1998). Using the psychological commitment to team (PCT) scale to segment customers based on loyalty. Manuscript submitted for publication. McDaniel, S.R., & Sullivan, C.B. (1998). Extending the sports experience: Mediations in cyberspace. In L.A. Wenner (Ed.), MediaSport (pp. 266-281). London: Routledge. Mihoces, G. (1995, May 23). Fans fight post-strike hangover. USA Today, pp. 1C-2C. Nosanchuk, T. A. (1972). The vignette as an experimental approach to the study of social status: An exploratory study. Social Science Research, 1, 107-120. Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Pavelchak, M. A., Antil, J. H., & Munch, J. M. (1988). The Super Bowl: An investigation into the relationship among program context, emotional experience, and ad recall. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 360-367. Sivacek, J., & Crano, W. D. (1982). Vested interest as a moderator of attitude-behavior consistency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 210-221. Sloan, L. R. (1989). The motives of sports fans. In J. D. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, games, and play: Social and psychosocial viewpoints (2nd ed., pp. 175-240). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

66

Impact of Attitudes

Sloan, L. R., Bates, S., Davis, W., & Schwieger, P. K. (1987). Are sports’ appeal and sports’ consequences derived from the same fan motives? Support for the achievement seeking needs. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, IL. Smith, G. J., Patterson, B., Williams, T., & Hogg, J. (1981). A profile of the deeply committed male sports fans. Arena Review, 5, 26-44. Snyder, C. R., Higgins, R. L., & Stucky, R. J. (1983). Excuses: Masquerades in search of grace. New York: Wiley-Interscience. Snyder, C. R., Lassegard, M. A., & Ford, C. E. (1986). Distancing after group success and failure: Basking in reflected glory and cutting off reflected failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 382-388. Snyder, M., & Simpson, J. A. (1984). Self-monitoring and dating relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1281-1291. Tice, D. (1998, September 21-27). What counts is how you watch the game. Street & Smith’s Sports Business Journal, pp. 36-37. Vitale, D., & Weiss, D. (1995). Holding court: Reflections on the game I love. Indianapolis, IN: Masters Press. Wann, D. L. (1995). Preliminary validation of the sport fan motivation scale. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 19, 377-396. Wenner, L. A., & Gantz, W. (1989). The audience experience with sport on television. In L. A. Wenner (Ed.), Media, sports, and society (pp. 241-269). Newberry Park, CA: Sage. Zillman, D., Bryant, J., & Sapolsky, B. J. (1989). Enjoyment from sport spectatorship. In J. D. Goldstein (Ed.), Sports, games, and play: Social and psychosocial viewpoints (2nd ed., pp. 241-278). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Mahony and Moorman

47

However, there is the possibility that games featuring the favourite team or the most disliked team could become so stressful that the eustress could become an unenjoyable form of stress, or distress. Distress would appear to be more likely than eustress when the games are predictable in a direction which is unfavourable from the fan’s perspective. In fact, both Hirt et al. (1992) and Pavelchak et al. (1988) found that respondents’ moods decreased when the favourite team lost, suggesting the stress the game created was not enjoyable. Therefore, fans would be expected to prefer games when the potential for eustress would be higher and avoid games when distress is more likely.

Relationships Between Attitudes and Behavioural Intentions in Professional Football Based on the research on the Disposition Theory of Sports Spectatorship (Zillman, et al., 1989), eustress (Klausner, 1968; Madrigal & Howard, 1995; Sloan, 1989; Wann, 1995), self-esteem, public image, and outgroup derogation (Branscombe & Wann, 1992; Cialdini et al., 1976; Cialdini & Richardson, 1980), Mahony and Howard (1998) hypothesised that National Football League (NFL) fans would prefer watching games featuring their favourite team and games featuring their most disliked team as opposed to games featuring two teams toward which the respondent was neutral. They further suggested the desire to watch a disliked team would increase when the team was a threat to the favourite team’s chances for success, or when this team was likely to lose. The former hypothesis was based on research by Sivacek and Crano (1982) which suggested individuals are more likely to act if they have a vested interest related to the behaviour. The results of Mahony and Howard (1998) supported the contention that fans would prefer watching a game featuring their favourite team as opposed to a game featuring two teams toward which the fan felt indifferent. However, respondents only preferred the game featuring the most disliked team as opposed to a game featuring two neutral attitude teams when the disliked team was a threat to the favourite team’s chances for success. When the disliked team was not a threat, there were no significant differences in preference between these two games. Moreover, although there was a significant difference when the disliked team was a threat to the favourite team, the mean intention to watch the game was below neutral (M=3.29 on a scale of 1-7). Finally, the respondents appeared to be unaffected by the chances the disliked team would fail. Team records had no impact on fans’ intentions to watch a game featuring the most disliked team. Overall, Mahony and Howard provided only mild support for the theory that the presence of a disliked team can increase intentions to watch a game.