The impact of Holocene alluvial landscape evolution on an ancient settlement in the southeastern piedmont of Songshan Mountain, Central China: A study from the Shiyuan site

Catena 183 (2019) 104232

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The impact of Holocene alluvial landscape evolution on an ancient settlement in the southeastern piedmont of Songshan Mountain, Central China: A study from the Shiyuan site ⁎

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Peng Lua,b, , Hui Wangc, , Panpan Chena,b, Michael J. Storozumd,e, Junjie Xuf, Yan Tiana,b, Duowen Mog, Songzhi Wangh, Yang Hea,b, Lijie Yana,b a

Institute of Geography, Henan Academy of Sciences, 450052 Zhengzhou, China Zhengzhou Base, International center on space technologies for natural and cultural heritage under the Auspices of UNESCO, 450052 Zhengzhou, China The Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing 100710, China d Institute of Archaeological Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China e Department of Cultural Heritage and Museology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China f College of History, Zhengzhou University, 450000 Zhengzhou, China g College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, China h Zhengzhou Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, 450000 Zhengzhou, China b c

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Songshan Mountain Human impacts Alluvial geoarchaeology Settlement patterns Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction

The Central Plains of China have long been argued to be swampy during the middle Holocene, despite the presence of many Neolithic sites in the area. Here, we investigate this contradiction using a combination of geoarchaeological and geospatial methods to reconstruct the alluvial landscape at the Shiyuan site, located along the southeastern piedmont of Songshan Mountain. Our results indicate that the river valley started to aggrade sometime before 10,000 BP, incise from 10,000 to 9000 BP, aggrade again from 9000 to 4000 BP, and then heavily incise after 4000 BP. Our results also show that during the late Yangshao period (5000 BP), the landscape around Shiyuan had many rivers, lakes, and wetlands but these aqueous areas are not all contiguous, revealing a mosaic of different environments. Most of the archaeological sites, including Shiyuan, are located on landforms that are naturally elevated, providing these Neolithic villages with an ample supply of nearby aquatic resources. Contrary to suggestions that Neolithic villages were primarily reliant on dry farming, these wetland environments provided an important and overlooked part of the Neolithic landscape in Central China.

1. Introduction The heartland of many of the world's civilizations are situated within alluvial plains where the deep alluvial stratigraphy obscures large portions of the archaeological record, making geological investigations an essential part of any archaeological research program that aims to understand the complex interaction between ancient societies and their alluvial environments. From Oaxaca to Mesopotamia, geomorphologists and archaeologists have worked together for decades to untangle this complex relationship between hydrologic regime, climate change, and settlement patterns (Joyce and Mueller, 1992; Heyvaert and Baeteman, 2008). Recent work suggests that, while each river basin has their own unique fluvial and sedimentary characteristics, they can broadly be divided into several different categories and

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the dynamics of these rivers may have profound consequences for societal organization (Macklin and Lewin, 2015). While this recent work has highlighted an important aspect of rivers that certainly influenced ancient riverine societies, the work done on riverine environments is not equally distributed around the world. We argue that the backswamp areas along the tributaries of the Yellow River and Huai River have been a useful resource to prehistoric people in China, but geological and archaeological data on these areas are frequently absent due to the depth and general inaccessibility of sites in these locations. By using data gathered from a tightly spaced coring survey in Central China along the eastern piedmont of Songshan Mountain, we complicate the widespread assumption that backwater swamp areas in the Central Plains of China were uninhabited and rarely, if at all, used (Liu et al., 2004).

Correspondence to: P. Lu, Institute of Geography, Henan Academy of Sciences, 450052 Zhengzhou, China. Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P. Lu), [email protected] (H. Wang).

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.104232 Received 10 October 2018; Received in revised form 5 August 2019; Accepted 20 August 2019 Available online 27 August 2019 0341-8162/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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Fig. 1. Study area. A. The location of Songshan Mountain and Shiyuan Site; B. Archaeological sites that date from the Neolithic to the Shang dynasty in the alluvial plain of the southeastern piedmont of Songshan Mountain.

that Neolithic people could rely on for a variety of foods and other materials. While Neolithic settlements in Central China are often thought of as primarily based in dry land agriculture, this research demonstrates that the environments around these Neolithic sites are much more diverse than originally thought.

In this article, we present stratigraphic data from the alluvial plains in the Songshan area to test the assertion that much of the surrounding landscape was a wetland during the middle Holocene. Our high-resolution palaeoenvironmental reconstruction in the area is used to understand the environmental basis for site selection as well as prehistoric economic and social organization. Our results indicate that the Neolithic environment was a complex mosaic of different environments 2

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of about 135 m. The area is only about 16 km2. This plain was formed by the alluvium of the Shuangji River and Zhenshui River. Several sediment sections including the Holocene marsh and lake strata were discovered in this area, leading archaeologists and geographers to believe that large-scale lakes existed in this area during the Neolithic. However, there are a large number of the Neolithic to Bronze Age settlement sites on the plain as well (Fig. 1). According to the statistics presented in the latest archaeological survey, there are 20 sites in the area, with an average distribution density of 1.25 sites per km2. These settlements are from a diverse time periods, including the Yangshao (7000–5000 BP), the Longshan (5000–4000 BP), and the Xia-Shang (4000–3000 BP) periods. The Shiyuan site is representative of ancient settlements that date to the Yangshao period. The Shiyuan site is located in the north section of the alluvial plain between the Zhenshui River and its tributary, Dongzhai Ditch. The coordinates are 34°29.409′N, 113°36.933′E and the elevation is 136 m. The site shape is irregular and is 600 m long to the east-west and 325 m wide to the north-south. Its area is about 195,000 m2. The site dates to the mid to late Yangshao period (6000–5000 BP) and, although it has not yet been excavated, archaeologists have found abundant artifacts and features likes ash pits, pottery sherds and burned earth at the site (Fig. 2). As one of the largest Yangshao sites in this region, archaeologists believe the Shiyuan site may be a regional center (Zhang, 2010). In the western and northern parts of the site, a Holocene lake and marsh deposit was discovered (Xu et al., 2013). The ancient lake and marsh sediments contain many Yangshao artifacts, indicating that the economy of the Shiyuan site is likely linked to these swampy ecologies.

1.1. Regional background The palaeoenvironment of the Songshan area in Central China has received much scholarly attention because it is considered a core area for the formation and development of Chinese civilization. To date, many studies have focused on the palaeoclimate, environmental archaeology, palaeohydrology, and landscape evolution around the Central Plains and here we review some of these studies to provide the proper environmental context for our work (Yan et al., 1986; Zhang et al., 2007; Wang and He, 2004; Dong et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2015; Xia, 2012; Zhang et al., 2018). According to palaeoclimate research, the climate around the Songshan area is basically consistent with the “three-stage” model of Holocene climate change in North China. First, there is a cool, dry period during the early Holocene, followed by a warm and humid period during the middle Holocene, which is then followed by a dry period in the late Holocene (Yan et al., 1986, Zhang et al., 2007, Wang and He, 2004, Dong et al., 2006). These climatic changes significantly affected the local hydrology and development of landforms around the Songshan area (Zhou et al., 2006). Wang et al. (2015) analyzed the geomorphological evolution characteristics of the middle reaches of the Yinghe River in the southern Songshan area and found that these rivers were in a prolonged phase of aggradation during the middle Holocene which affected Neolithic agricultural systems around the Wadian site. Zhang et al. (2007) and Xu et al. (2013) also analyzed the geomorphological characteristics of the Shuangji River Basin and the Zhenshui River Basin, respectively, and found that the high terraces that developed from river incision provided an ideal environment for early agriculture. Lu et al. (2014) and Qiu and Lu (2013) examined the geomorphological evolution characteristics of the Suoxu River Basin and the Yiluo River Basin and revealed that these riverine landforms have changed many times since the Pleistocene. Specifically, Rosen (2008)'s study of the Yiluo River Basin revealed that the early to middle Holocene landscape was fairly stable and ideal for Neolithic millet agriculture. In sum, these results indicate a Holocene sequence roughly characterized as beginning with a high-water tables during the early to middle Holocene which later shifted to a period of valley incision during the end of the middle Holocene. These geomorphic studies reflect the overall characteristics of environmental change and human settlement patterns in Central China but many details around archaeological sites are still missing. For example, Liu et al. (2004a) make the case that much of the area around the lower course of the Yellow River is covered with swamps that are not drained until after the middle Holocene. Wang et al. (2012) reached a similar conclusion based on their discovery of a large lake in the northeastern portion of the piedmont of Songshan Mountain. However, these assertions are contradictory to the numerous sites that date from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age that are widely distributed in the region. In order to disentangle this complex relationship between site selection and geomorphic change, it is necessary to conduct a targeted study around a single archaeological site in this alluvial landscape.

2. Methods 2.1. Field survey and sample Detailed field investigations were carried out in the study area and more than 20 profiles were observed and studied. The spatial coordinates and altitude of each section were measured using an RTKGPS. Each section was divided by strata according to their sedimentary characteristics. The thickness, texture, structure, composition and depositional environment of each stratum were recorded in detail. The color of each sediment was determined according to the Munsell Soil Color Book (Munsell Color, 2013). The age of each stratum was preliminarily judged through the ceramic inclusions and diagnostic palaeosols found within the sections. At Shiyuan (P11 in Fig. 3) and Niuyuhuan (P10 in Fig. 3), we sampled two sections with continuous sedimentation since the Holocene. This work synthesizes our original work with the results of other work published only in the Chinese language literature (Xu, 2013; Ren, 2017). The Shiyuan section was sampled in 2 cm intervals. A total of 211 sediment samples were collected from the 422 cm thick section (Xu et al., 2013). The Niuyuhuan section was sampled at a 5 cm interval, with a section thickness of 240 cm. A total of 48 samples were collected (Ren, 2017). Six radiocarbon samples were collected at the Shiyuan section and three were collected at the Niuyuhuan section for radiocarbon dating (Table 1). These samples mainly came from the alluvial strata and their neighbor layers in order to establish a radiocarbon framework for environmental change.

1.2. Study area The study area is located to the southeast of Songshan Mountain and is part of the Zhenshui River Basin which is the fourth level tributary of the Huai River. To the south of this area, the Zhenshui River flows into the next order stream, the Shuangji River. The area belongs to a temperate continental monsoon climate with an average annual temperature of 14 °C and an annual precipitation of 640 mm (Shi, 1983). The study area is a transitional zone between the mountainous hills of Songshan Mountain and the North China Plain, meaning that the geomorphic units vary from bedrock hill, loess terraces, to alluvial plains (Fig. 1). The alluvial plain is located in the middle of this area surrounded by loess terraces and bedrock-exposed hills. It is very flat with an elevation

2.2. Coring program In order to obtain high-resolution data on the spatial distribution of different sedimentary deposits in the study area, detailed drilling investigations were carried out in the alluvial plain near Shiyuan. The drilling positions are arranged at roughly equal intervals of 100 m. We have also added some drilling cores in key locations, such as areas between the limnetic facies. There are 30 boreholes in the area (Fig. 3). All sediments of borehole cores are extracted with a gasoline-powered 3

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A

B

C

Fig. 2. The Shiyuan site. A. Ash pit; B. Burned-soil; C. Pottery.

pressure rig, each extracting cores up to 50 cm long, up to a depth of 6 m to 8 m. All drilling locations were marked using a RTK-GPS to obtain accurate latitude and longitude coordinates and elevations. We divided each the cores' stratum according to sedimentary characteristics, such as color, thickness, lithology, and inclusions.

Niuyuhuan. The analysis was as carried out in the Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes at Peking University. A Malvern 2000 laser particle size meter was used to measure the grain size ranging from 0.2 to 2000 μm. The particle size parameters were calculated using the FolkWard method and classified according to international standard (Folk and Ward, 1957). Magnetic susceptibility analysis was also carried out on the Shiyuan deposit because it the thick and continuous sedimentation should reveal rich information about ancient environmental change for the region.

2.3. Sediment analyses To obtain quantitative sediment information, we conducted particle size analysis on the sediments from the profiles at Shiyuan and 4

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Fig. 3. The positions of each core and exposed profile (P = Profile, C = Core; P 11: Shiyuan Section; P 10: Niuyuhuan Section; P 5: Niuji Section). Refer to these codes for each profile and core in Fig. 5.

N, 113° 36.933′ E, and the altitude is 136 m. The profile is about 4 m and can be divided into four units (Fig. 4A):

2.4. Radiocarbon dating Six radiocarbon samples from the Shiyuan section were analyzed at Peking University, and three samples from Niuyuhuan were tested at Beta Analytic Labs. Both laboratories used an accelerated mass spectrometer (AMS) to measure the radiocarbon age of the samples. We calibrated the raw radiocarbon ages using OxCal 3.10 and IntCal 13 (Reimer et al., 2013).

① Topsoil layer, 40 cm thick, grayish yellow (10YR 4/6), the soil is denser, the silt content is over 50%, and the median diameter is 20–30 μm. The upper part of the layer was dated to 2970–2770 cal BP (Fig. 4, Table 1); ② Palaeosol, 60 cm thick, brown (10YR 3/4), still dominated by silt, with a median particle size of 30–50 μm. The layer is dense and contains more plant roots and pores. In the middle sections of this stratum, a radiocarbon date was obtained, which was dated to 3650–3160 cal BP; ③ Sand layers, 40 cm thick, grayish yellow (10 YR 4/4), and the particles became significantly larger. The amount clay in this layer is very small, and the median particle size is 30–60 μm. The deposit also contains horizontal bedding typical of a sedimentary river. A radiocarbon date was obtained from this stratum, which was dated

3. Results 3.1. Stratigraphic sediment characteristics Field surveys show that lake and marsh facies are abundant in the area. They have been found in several places such as the Shiyuan, Niuyuhuan, and Niuji sections (Fig. 3). The geographical coordinates of the Shiyuan section are 34° 29.409′ Table 1 Radiocarbon ages. Sampling site

Lab codes

Texture

Dating materials

Cover depth (cm)

SY205 SY189 SY177 SY117 SY74 SY18 NYH003

Shiyuan Shiyuan Shiyuan Shiyuan Shiyuan Shiyuan Niuyuhuan

BA07087 BA07086 BA07085 BA07083 BA07081 BA07079 Beta-25589

Loess Palaeosol Sand Limnetic facies Limnetic facies Limnetic facies Palaeosol

Organic Organic Organic Organic Organic Organic Organic

12–14 44–46 104–106 188–190 274–276 386–388 90

−16.9 o/oo

2775 3330 3560 5455 6045 7800 2120

NYH002

Niuyuhuan

Beta-425588

Limnetic facies

Organic sediment

195

−16.2 o/oo

4350 ± 30 BP

NYH001

Niuyuhuan

Beta-425587

Limnetic facies

Organic sediment

275

−17.2 o/oo

6380 ± 40 BP

sediment sediment sediment sediment sediment sediment sediment

5

d 13C

14

Sample code

C age

± ± ± ± ± ± ±

40 BP 40 BP 40 BP 40 BP 45 BP 60 BP 30 BP

Calibrated age cal BP(2σ)

Laboratory

2970–2770 3650–3160 3980–3720 6320–6180 7010–6750 8770–8420 2345–2295 2270–2155 5300–5035 5005–4980 7480–7415 7390–7370 7355–7330

Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Peking Beta Beta Beta

University University University University University University

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A. Shiyuan Profile

Fig. 4. Main analytical results. A. Particle size and magnetic susceptibility of the Shiyuan section. B. Particle size analysis of the Niuyuhuan section (Particle size curves modified from Ren (2017), with our new radiocarbon ages). 6

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Fig. 5. The strata of cores and exposure profiles. The locations of profiles and cores as shown in Fig. 3.

7355–7330 cal BP in the lower part.

to 3980–3720 cal BP; ④ The sedimentary layer of the lake and marsh, 280 cm exposure, which is the clay or clay silt with obvious horizontal bedding. Value particle size 20–40 μm, brown (10 YR 3/3). The upper, middle and lower parts of the stratum are radiocarbon dated to 6320–6180 cal BP, 7010–6750 cal BP and 8770–8420 cal BP, respectively. A period of increasing magnetic susceptibility which may be led by the temperature increasing occurred in the section before and after 7000 BP, reflecting the warm and humid climatic conditions during this period.

The characteristics of the strata described in the boreholes and exposure profiles are shown in Fig. 5. Since the late Pleistocene, loess similar to Malan loess in color, texture, structure, composition and sorting features, accumulated in this area (Liu, 1965). The lower part of the loess is a pure grayish yellow silt, indicating dry conditions. The upper part of the loess sediment has some brown-yellow rusty spots, indicating a moister environment compared to other areas. Above the loess sediments, there are two types of sediments. The lake/marsh sediments are composed of a layer of gray-black clay and light gray silt. According to radiocarbon results from the Shiyuan and the Niuyuhuan sections, the age of lake/marsh facies likely dates to around 9000–4000 BP. Afterwards, the strata that indicate a regional lake/ marsh disappears. A set of reddish-brown palaeosols developed on the previous strata, becoming a regional diagnostic stratum that dates to around 4000–3000 BP, and is mostly covered by a newly-developed loess layer or modern farm land.

The Niuyuhuan section is located south of the Shiyuan section at 34°29′2.64″N, 113°36′52.21″E and an elevation of 137 m. The section is 3 m deep, and has a stratigraphic sequence roughly similar to that of the Shiyuan section. The section can be divided into four units (Fig. 4B): ① Cultivated soil layer, 30 cm thick; ② Loess, 30 cm thick, clayey silt, grayish yellow (10YR 4/6); ③ Palaeosol, 40 cm thick, dark brown (10YR 3/4), clayey silt, prismatic structure, dense and hard. A carbon date was obtained in the middle of the formation, which is 2345–2295 cal BP and 2270–2155 cal BP. Taking into account the regional Holocene palaeosol age characteristics (Tang and He, 2004) and Holocene climate evolution characteristics (Chen et al., 2015, 2016), this stratum's age is about 3000 BP; ④ Lake and marsh stratum, 160 cm exposure, the upper part is a silty clay and clay with horizontal bedding, the lower part is clayey silt, brown (10 YR 4/6), and the color is slightly lighter. Radiocarbon dates returned ages of 5300–5035 cal BP and 5005–4980 cal BP in the middle, and 7480–7415 cal BP, 7390–7370 cal BP,

3.2. Regional landform change Based on the profiling and coring work conducted here, we divided the deposits in the piedmont area of Songshan Mountain into three units, the Basal Complexes, the Lower Complexes, and the Upper Complexes following methods used in Ayala et al., 2017. The Basal Complexes formed before 9000 BP. The Lower Complexes date to around 9000–4000 BP and predominately include deposits from lakes, marshes, and the floodplain, but some areas still contain silty loess. The Upper Complexes have formed since 4000 BP. (Figs. 5, 6). Using the ground elevation of each borehole and the thickness of the 7

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Modern

Upper Complexes (UC) 4000aBP

Lower Complexes (LC)

9000aBP

Basal Complexes (BC)

<130 m

130 -135 m

135 -140 m

>140 m

Fig. 6. Topographic simulation of the landscape during different periods. The length from east to west is 3.8 km, and the length from north to south is 3.2 km. The area is 12.16 km2.

The location and gradients of the ancient rivers are similar to those found in the modern river valley. There are obvious connections between the succession of the ancient and modern river system. Instead of one large lake, we found that there were two small lakes at Shiyuan and Niuyuhuan. These rivers, gullies and lakes formed a complex water system in the mid-Holocene. Overtime, the small gullies and lakes filled up with sediment obscuring them from the modern-day land surface. The Shiyuan site is located in the higher geomorphic units near the valleys and wetlands.

Basal, Lower, and Upper Complexes, we used the heights of these points to interpolate the regional landforms around 9000 BP, 4000 BP, and the modern period (Fig. 6). The digital elevation map shows that regional topographic changes are mainly visible in the river valley. Before 9000 BP, there is not much topographic relief in the region. In the lower southeaster part of this region, the area is not a fixed river valley. It underwent a flattening process which made a small difference in elevation in the region. From 9000 to 4000 BP, the main river valley began to form, but was still shallow and the higher elevated area became larger over time. It is likely that the river water could sometimes rise into a higher elevation area. After 4000 BP, the elevation difference between the river valley and the uplands became more pronounced, making it much more difficult for flooding to affect the higher elevation areas.

3.4. Regional fluvial landscape evolution Our analysis shows the landscape evolution of the alluvial plain southeast of Songshan Mountain can be divided into five stages since the Late Pleistocene (Fig. 8). During the late Pleistocene (before 10,000 BP), aggregational processes dominate the hydrology of the region. Although the late Pleistocene strata in the study area are predominately loess deposits, late Pleistocene lacustrine facies are seen in several sections of region (Wang and He, 2004). From the end of the late Pleistocene to the early Holocene (10,000–9000 BP), the rivers started incising their channels. With this down-cutting, terraces began to develop in the area. In the middle of the Holocene (9000–4000 BP), the rivers switched again from incision to aggradation. There was large scale siltation which lasted longer than the previous phase and formed smaller swamps and wetlands in certain areas. The drop in the river's channel is also small, reducing the hydrodynamic power of the system. Some rivers began to deposit the sediments with horizontal bedding. After 4000 BP, a large-scale incision occurred in the rivers. The river valley is deep and formed a longitudinal profile comparable to the

3.3. Reconstructing the regional hydrology from the early to middle Holocene The lake and marsh facies have the following characteristics: First, the age of these sediments (9000–4000 BP) is contemporaneous with the late Yangshao occupation at the Shiyuan site (ca. 5000 BP). Second, most of these deposits are found along the locations of modern rivers and valleys. We infer that most of these sediments are from early rivers and valleys and can be used to estimate their specific morphology and flow path. Third, the lake/marsh strata at Shiyuan and Niuyuhuan are different. These lake/marsh strata are thick and densely distributed in neighboring boreholes. Based on our results, we estimate that the hydrology of the region was comprised of a complex mosaic of marshy lowlands and drier low-lying hills from 9000 to 4000 BP (Fig. 7). 8

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Fig. 7. Hydrological reconstruction of the landscape from 9000 to 4000 BP.

landscape features of the region are significantly more complex than previously speculated (Liu et al., 2004). The lakes, marshes, and wetlands found in the Songshan Mountain area are separated from each other and only interconnected by other river valleys. There were not large bodies of water in this area during the Holocene. Instead, lakes were located between the uplands and formed a central environmental resource for the region. This topographic complexity provided a resource rich environment for Neolithic settlements. Mixed farming of millet and rice emerged during the Peiligang period (9000–7000 BP) in the Songshan area (Zhang et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2017a; Bestel et al., 2017). While most of the geoarchaeological work has to date focused on the Yiluo River valley or deeply buried alluvial sequences nearby the main channel of the Yellow River (Rosen, 2008; Zhuang and Kidder, 2014; Storozum et al., 2018), the alluvial geoarchaeology of the entire North China Plains region is not easily characterized by just a few locations. Zhuang and Kidder (2014) have argued that the Neolithic landscape of the North China Plain is better characterized as a series of small rolling hills that later became filled in during a prolonged period of aggradation, forming the currently flat landscape. Our results around the Shiyuan site indicate that there is indeed topographic and hydrological variability throughout the region that was likely used to support the inhabitants at Shiyuan, but archaeological data are lacking from the site itself. However, at Jiahu, a contemporaneous archaeological site in southern Henan province, archaeologists have found extensive evidence of a mixed rice and millet agricultural system that likely relied on a wide range of environmental systems (Zhang et al., 1998). In combination with our geoarchaeological results, these findings indicate that the Neolithic people used the hydrology and topography to their advantage to support a diverse agricultural system and possibility aquaculture. This farming pattern

modern day. After this incision event, the lakes, swamps, and wetlands were drained to lower elevations and then were filled in with sediment and by soil development. In the historical period (after 2000 BP), the rivers in the region experienced a shorter cycle of aggradation and incision, forming the current terrace of the river. Although 9000–4000 BP is the wettest climatic period in the Holocene, large bodies of water are not ubiquitously found throughout the landscape of Central China. In contrast to previous studies, our results indicate that no large lakes existed in the alluvial plain southeast of Songshan Mountain. Some areas with higher elevation still contain loess deposits, creating a geomorphic condition suitable for settlement. Shiyuan and other Neolithic settlements are distributed on these higher geomorphic units and used the mosaic of different landscapes and bodies of water throughout the region to support a diverse food production system. 4. Discussion The surface topography has consistently changed since the Holocene, making the early geomorphological features of the Songshan area different from the modern landscape in several aspects. First, after the late Pleistocene, the terrain around Songshan Mountain became flatter with some undulating, narrow, shallow valleys. Since the beginning of the Holocene, the river had several cycles of incision and deposition. During the mid-Holocene period, the occupation phase of the Shiyuan site, the regional topography is significantly different from the modern topography. At that time, the river system was aggrading and there were many rivers and valleys. The lakes, marshes and wetlands were interconnected by shallow and wide valleys. Although the mid-Holocene region was wetter than the modern environment, the 9

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ü10,000aBP

10,000ü9,000aBP

9,000ü4,000aBP

4,000aBPü

Fig. 8. Alluvial landscape evolution reconstruction of the region. 10

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has existed from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age in this region (Lee et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2017b). Similar to the environmental conditions at Shiyuan site, the mosaic of different environments created a favorable ecology for mixed farming of rice and millet, along with hunting and gathering of aquatic resources. More investigations at sites in other ancient marshy areas along the lower reaches of the Yellow and Huai Rivers are needed to understand the role that regional hydrological changes may have had in shaping settlement patterns and agricultural practices. After 4000 BP, these rivers in the region incised their channels, creating a series of deep valleys. The river water was restricted in the valley and rarely rose to the top of river terrace, making settlements more secure from flood events. Some capital settlements emerged in the Songshan Mountain area, like the Erlitou Site (Lu et al., 2019), which eventually led to the earliest state-level society in China (Liu, 2004). After 2000 BP, the topography and hydrology of the region became increasingly affected by human activity and obscured many of the original landforms that supported early settlements and agriculture in the region.

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5. Conclusion Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction is an important part of understanding ancient society and human activity in China and elsewhere (de Menocal, 2001; Bell, 1971; Kidder et al., 2008, Kidder and Liu, 2017; Lu et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2017; Zhuang et al., 2017; Storozum et al., 2019). Our alluvial geoarchaeological study reveals new insights into the relationship between environmental changes and the origins of Chinese civilization around the Songshan Mountain area. The high-resolution reconstruction of the early environment in the eastern alluvial plain of the Songshan Mountains shows that this area had many lakes and marshes around 5000 BP. However, unlike previous studies, we have also identified several high-lying geomorphic units predominately composed of loess deposits that are located in between these rivers, lakes, and swamps. These geomorphic units were never completely inundated by flood waters and provided an ideal area for human settlement. Neolithic people built their settlements on these high-lying geomorphic units located next to marshlands to facilitate the use of aquatic resources while also using the loessic soil to support dryland farming activities. By reconstructing the sequence of landscape evolution, we can determine that Neolithic societies in Central China paid careful attention to the specific micro-environment of their settlements. In the future, it is necessary to carry out more detailed research and analysis on the landscape evolution around archaeological sites. Acknowledgement The study is funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant nos. 41671014, 41701014), the National Social Science Foundation of China (grant nos. 11&ZD183, 18CKG003), the Zhengzhou Environmental Archaeological Research Project, the Major Project of Songshan Mountain Culture Research Society, and the Digital Environment Archaeology Specially-appointed Researcher of Henan, China. References Ayala, G., Wainwright, J., Walker, J., Hodara, R., Lloyd, J.M., Leng, M., Doherty, C., 2017. Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the alluvial landscape of Neolithic Çatalh€oyük, central southern Turkey: the implications for early agriculture and responses to environmental change. J. Archaeol. Sci. 87, 30–43. Bell, B., 1971. The Dark Ages in ancient history. I. The First Dark Age in Egypt. Am. J. Archaeol. 75 (1), 1–26. Bestel, S., Bao, Y.J., Zhong, H., Chen, X.C., Liu, L., 2017. Wild plant use and multicropping at the early Neolithic Zhuzhai site in the middle Yellow River region, China. The Holocene 28 (2), 195–207. Chen, F.H., Xu, Q.H., Chen, J.H., 2015. East Asian summer monsoon precipitation

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