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The impact of professional development on teachers' self perceptions
Teaching & Teacher Education, Vol. 5. No. 2. pp. 129-141. 1989 Printed in Great Britain
1Y742-051X/S'-) $3.011+0.00 Pergamon Press pie
T H E IMPACT OF P R O F E S S I O N A L D E V E L O P M E N T ON T E A C H E R S ' SELF PERCEPTIONS K E N N E T H J. R O W E and J A C K I E S Y K E S Ministry of Education, Victoria, Australia
Abstract -This study was designed to examine the impact of inservice professional development programs on dimensions of teachers" professional self perceptions among a sample of 273 Victorian teachers drawn from government and non-government, primary and postprimary schools. From measures on observed and latent variables of Professional Development and Self Perception,the results indicated that there were strong, positive effects of Professional Development on teachers" professional Self Perceptions, and particularly those concerned with indicators of Energy, Enthusiasm, and Satisfaction. The paper provides a detailed account of the methodology, and briefly discusses the policy-related implications of the findings.
Consistent with the a d o p t i o n of popular corporate management models in educational governance and the prevailing climate of economic rationalism in which such models o p e r a t e , current policy activity related to issues of accountability, monitoring, and performance indicators in education is widespread, both within Australia ( W o r k i n g Papers on Public Education, 1988; Quality of Education R e v i e w C o m m i t t e e , 1985; W y a t t , 1988) and elsewhere (Jesson, M a y s t o n , & Smith, 1987; Lacey & L a w t o n , 1981; A Special Section on Educational Indicators, 1988; T o r r a n c e , 1988). M u c h of this activity is being directed away from concerns a b o u t inputs o f education systems (e.g., curriculum and teacher professional d e v e l o p m e n t ) fowards outputs (e.g., student performance). O n e of the major effects of such activity has b e e n to signal a shift in g o v e r n m e n t policy intention to bring the delivery of "professional"
educational services into "public sector" accounting, underscored by a c o n c e r n to ensure that such services represent "value for m o n e y " . In contrast to this shift in focus, the'research rep o r t e d here attempts to examine the impact of inservice professional d e v e l o p m e n t (inputs) on teachers' professional self perceptions, and discusses the findings in terms of their implications for policy. D u r i n g the past few years, Australian governm e n t reports such as those from the Joint Review of T e a c h e r Education (1986), the Report of the Inservice T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n Project (1988), and the Quality of Education Review C o m m i t t e e (1985), have emphasized the importance of a functional link b e t w e e n teacher professional d e v e l o p m e n t and the quality of educational outcomes. Such emphasis is supported by an expanding literature attesting to the efficacy of inservice professional d e v e l o p m e n t for
This report is adapted from a paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W., 29 November to 4 December, 1988. The frank and willing assistance of the teachers who participated in the study is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to the "100 Schools Project" Steering Committee, Ministry of Education, Victoria, for their encouragement and support, and to Neil Baumgart and Pat Griffin for their comments on an earlier draft of this paper. Any remaining errors of either omission or commission, are entirely our own. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Ken Rowe, Senior Policy Officer - - Research, School Programs Branch, Ministry of Education, Level 8, Rialto Towers, PO Box 4367, GPO Melbourne, Victoria, 3001, Australia. Telephone: (03) 628 3111. 129
130
KENNETHJ. ROWE and JACKIESYKES
teachers (Eraut, 1985; Guskey, 1986; Harris & vice programs, or to monitor educational outFasano, 1988; Ingvarson, 1987; Ingvarson & comes, since both the identification and evaluaMacKenzie, 1988; Joyce & Showers, 1988; Sut- tion of outputs, at either the teacher level or at ton, 1987; Walberg, 1986). However, as Ingvar- the student level, are necessarily mediated by son and Mackenzie (1988) comment: "A con- the relative saliency of teacher effects. siderable investment is made in further training Following Elsworth and Coulter (1977) and and development for teachers, but little is Smylie (1988), we support the notion that known about the impact or benefits of most of change in professional self perception holds what takes place" (p. 139). This comment particular promise as a criterion for judging the applies to a dearth of knowledge about "bene- effectiveness of teacher inservice training profits" for either teachers and/or students. grams. Moreover, apart from its influence on In the Australian context specifically, recent performance, changes in self perception teacher professional development, especially in (mediated by participation in professional dethe teaching of literacy, has been characterized velopment) may provide useful indicators of by intense activity. Since 1983, several govern- teachers' adjustment to professional role ment-funded inservice programs have been im- demands. Where teachers aspire to be professplemented including the Early Literacy Inser- ionally competent, and also perceive themvice Course (ELIC), the Later Reading Inser- selves to be professionally competent, they may vice Course (LaR1C), and Reading Recovery then be regarded as "well adjusted" in the sense (RR). Although there is a growing body of qual- of being able to realize their professional aspiraitative evaluation literature for these programs tions, rather than being thwarted or frustrated. indicating positive changes in teacher confi- What is suggested here is that "if... teachers are dence and associated teaching practices (e.g., to self-actualize in their professional roles, they Felton, 1986; Geekie, 1988; Glen, 1986; Rowe, should not only possess that knowledge and skill 1987; Russell, 1985; Wheeler, 1986), quantita- regarded as necessary for competent role pertive attempts to examine the impact of profes- formance; they should also see themselves as sional development programs on changes to competent" (Elsworth & Coulter, 1977, p. 4). teachers' self perceptions, are conspicuous by That is, on the one hand, inservice training protheir absence. A notable exception is the recent grams should provide teachers with opporstudy by Smylie (1988), whose findings indicate tunities to develop professional knowledge and that changes in teachers' classroom practices skills, and on the other, assist in the developdue to professional development are a direct ment of a positive professional self view. function of teachers' professional self percepThe aim of this paper is to present the findings tions (i.e., "personal teaching efficacy", p: 25). from a study designed to examine the impact of In spite of the conceptual and methodological non-literacy and literacy inservice programs difficulties entailed by this kind of psychosocial (such as ELIC, LaRIC and RR) on teachers' research, the identification of both qualitative professional self perceptions. The findings and quantitative changes to teachers' profes- focus on the obtained relationships between obsional self perceptions, we argue, is crucial to served and latent dimensions of Professional the provision of evaluative criteria for deter- Development and professional Self Perception. mining the effects of inservice teacher training. The specific hypothesis tested is that ProfessWhile there is compelling evidence for the ef- ional Development has a direct, positive effect fects of teacher behaviour on student achieve- on dimensions of teachers' Self Perception. ment (see Brophy & Good, 1986), there is equally strong evidence that teachers' self perMethod ceptions, and related affective factors, interact with and impact on their professional practices (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Dunkin & Biddle, Sample Characteristics 1974; Levis, 1985; Smylie, 1988). Thus, the cenThe study was conducted in a stratified samtral thesis of the present paper is that teachers' self perceptions are crucial input components of ple of a target population of teachers trained any attempt to evaluate the "benefits" of inser- and not trained in literacy inservice programs
Professional Development and Teachers"Self Perceptions (i.e., ELIC, LaRIC and RR), working at year levels 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 in government and nongovernment, primary, and postprimary schools, drawn from four Victorian education regions. A two-stage design was chosen, with schools being selected with probability proportional to size at the first stage, and one teacher at each year level (within each selected school) at the second stage. The level of sampling precision within each region, for teachers trained and not trained in literacy programs, involved the specification of sampling tolerances of + 5% for 95% confidence limits for item categories, and estimates of item means having standard errors ~< 5% of a respondent's standard deviation (Moser & Kalton, 1971; Ross, 1978). To satisfy these sampling error constraints, it was calculated that a designed sample of at least 250 teachers would be required. Details of the participating teacher sample, by school type and region, are summarized in Table 1.
2. 3.
three years which have involved language and literacy learning? How many inservice programs, other than those related to literacy, have you attended in the last three years? In general, to what extent has your professional development as a teacher been enhanced by participation in inservice programs?
The third question invited teachers to respond in one category of a five-point Likert-type scale, ranging from "Not at all" to "Very much". Measures of teachers' Professional Self Perception were obtained from responses on a semantic differential instrument consisting of 34, seven-point evaluative scales (Kerlinger, 1973). This instrument was adapted from The Professional Self Perception Questionnaire developed by Elsworth and Coulter (1977), which was originally designed to measure the effects of initial teacher education programs on selected dimensions of self perception in teacher trainees. From factor analyses of the data obtained from 396 student teachers, Elsworth and Coulter derived seven dimensions (factors) of self perception made up of 32 scales which maintained consistently high loadings on the same factors across different concepts and subgroups of respondents (i.e., consistent connotative meaning). The conceptual labels for the derived factors were: creativity, orderliness, warmth:~upportiveness, satisfaction, clarity, energy-enthusiasm, and non-conformity. On the adapted semantic differential instrument used in the present study, teachers were required to provide two ratings for each scale:
Teacher Measures
Teachers were asked to respond to a pre-trialled questionnaire instrument designed to obtain information about: Background Training and Experience; Professional Development; Professional Self Perception; and several literacyfocused aspects related to: Teaching Practices, Resources, and Assessment and Reporting Practices. Of immediate concern to the present paper, information about Professional Development was gained from three questions: 1.
131
How many professional development inservice programs have you attended in the last
Table 1 Distribution of TeacherSample by Region and School Type*
Primary
Postprimary
Region
G
NG
A
23
22
4
B
64
19
C D
32 41 160
Totals:
G
P--12
NG
G
4
2
5
20 11
6 6
2 2
72
20
6
* G = Government schools; NG = Non-governmentschools.
NG
Total 49
5
94
5 5
65 65
10
273
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KENNETH J. ROWE and JACKIE SYKES
(1) a s e l f - r a t i n g in t e r m s of " M y s e l f as a t e a c h e r , " a n d (2) an i d e a l - r a t i n g in t e r m s of " T h e t e a c h e r I w o u l d like to b e . " T h e results rep o r t e d in this p a p e r , h o w e v e r , c o n c e r n o n l y t e a c h e r s ' ratings in t e r m s o f " M y s e l f as a t e a c h e r " . T h e r e a s o n for t e a c h e r s b e i n g a s k e d to m a k e the two ratings was to m i n i m i z e the risk o f p o s s i b l e r a t e r effects by r e d u c i n g p o t e n t i a l r e s p o n s e bias r e l a t e d to u n i n t e n t i o n a l conf o u n d i n g b e t w e e n u n d e r l y i n g self a n d ideal concepts.
Analytic Approach T w o t y p e s of a n a l y s e s w e r e c o n d u c t e d . First, to p r o v i d e the m o s t p a r s i m o n i o u s i n t e r p r e t a tion o f the findings, d e s c r i p t i v e , u n i v a r i a t e , a n d m u l t i v a r i a t e i n f e r e n t i a l statistics w e r e c o m p u t e d . Since g e n e r a l l i n e a r m o d e l - b a s e d m e t h o d s w e r e used ( e . g . , A N O V A , M A N O V A ) , tests o f l i n e a r i t y w e r e c o m p u t e d on the m e a n s o f p a i r e d c o m b i n a t i o n s o f all o u t c o m e v a r i a b l e s o f i n t e r e s t , the results of which indic a t e d that no c o m b i n a t i o n d e v i a t e d significantly f r o m l i n e a r i t y (see R o w e , 1989). S e c o n d , to e x a m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n P r o f e s s i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t a n d t e a c h e r s ' affective d i m e n s i o n s of Self P e r c e p t i o n , the techn i q u e o f s t r u c t u r a l e q u a t i o n m o d e l i n g was used. 1 In b r i e f , s t r u c t u r a l e q u a t i o n m o d e l i n g ( S E M ) is m o s t o f t e n u s e d in a p p l i e d ex post facto r e s e a r c h to specify p h e n o m e n a u n d e r in-
v e s t i g a t i o n in t e r m s o f p u t a t i v e c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t v a r i a b l e s a n d their i n d i c a t o r s . O r d i n a r i l y , S E M p r o c e d u r e s are e x p l a n a t o r y d a t a analysis techn i q u e s , d e s i g n e d to test a p r i o r i h y p o t h e s i z e d c o v a r i a n c e r e l a t i o n s a m o n g sets o f v a r i a b l e s , as well as the " c a u s a l " links t h o u g h t to exist a m o n g t h e m . H o w e v e r , d u e to a lack of c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the d a t a q u a l i t y d e m a n d s o f S E M t e c h n i q u e s z a n d the d a t a a v a i l a b l e for analysis in the p r e s e n t case,3 a m o r e e x p l o r a t o r y approach was u s e d , following s t r a t e g i e s e m p l o y e d a n d d e s c r i b e d by C r a n o a n d M e n d o z a (1987). 4 T o this e n d , s e v e r a l p r e - a n a l y t i c d i a g n o s t i c s a n d a d j u s t m e n t s w e r e m a d e to the data. O u r g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y i n v o l v e d s c r e e n i n g , rec o n s t i t u t i n g a n d c o m b i n i n g the o b s e r v e d d a t a o b t a i n e d on the P r o f e s s i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t a n d Self P e r c e p t i o n v a r i a b l e s in such a w a y that t h e y c o n f o r m e d m o r e closely to S E M r e q u i r e m e n t s . First, given the differing s a m p l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f E l s w o r t h and C o u l t e r ' s (1977) p a r t i c i p a n t s (i.e., s t u d e n t t e a c h e r s ) and t h o s e in the p r e s e n t s t u d y ( i . e . , p r a c t i s i n g t e a c h e r s ) , as well as m i n o r c o n t e n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the two instrum e n t s u s e d , o u r initial s t r a t e g y i n v o l v e d s c r e e n ing the o b s e r v e d d a t a on the s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n tial scales by c o m p u t i n g a f r e q u e n c y analysis. Scales for which the f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n of teachers' responses indicated "non-discriminat i o n " , 5 w e r e d e l e t e d from f u r t h e r analysis. S e c o n d , e x p l o r a t o r y f a c t o r analysis, d i m e n s i o n
i For overviews and technical presentations of structural equation modeling, see Anderson (1987); Cuttance & Ecob (1987); J6reskog & S6rbom (1986a, 1987); Long (1983). z Generally, SEM techniques assume that the observed variables are quantitative variables measured, at least approximately, on an interval scale, and whose distributions are approximately multinormal (see J6reskog & Sfrbom, 1986a, b; Ecob & Cuttance, 1987). 3That is, the data obtained on the variables of interest in this study were "continuous" [for Professional Development (PD) questions 1 and 2], and "ordinal" [for the five-point PD question 3, and on the seven-point semantic differential scales]. 4The relevant comments of Crano & Mendoza (1987, pp. 38-39) in support of such procedures are worth noting: The tactics involved in this preliminary [to SEMi stage can allow construction of models having better overall fit, and stronger paths between observed or latent variables ... Our suggested procedures render the research enterprise more an exploratory than a confirmatory operation, and as such, those who are intent on immediate hypothesis testing might question their value. In response, we argue that our approach is worthwhile because it can provide a more solid foundation for later, more focused, confirmatory investigation of the causal relationships that exist among a set of variables ... The problem is not one of testing a specific hypothesis, but of fitting an appropriate model, or 'template' ... to the data. Another positive aspect of our exploratory orientation is that when other, more 'standard', confirmatory procedures are employed on problematic data sets, the findings often provide few research leads upon which to base subsequent studies (see Biddle & Marlin, 1987). 5 Two categories of scale 'non-discrimination" were used: (1) ~>90%, or ~< 10% of respondents located at either end of a given 7-point response scale, and (2) ~>80% of respondents located in the 'middle' response category (i.e., '4') of a given 7-point scale.
Professional Development and Teachers' Self Perceptions
(scale) re-construction, and reliability estimation were employed. Third, these re-constituted affect (Self Perception) data were combined with the observed Professional Development data using PRELIS (J6reskog & S6rbom, 1986b), and polychoric/polyserial correlation matrices were computed, 6 preliminary to structural equation modeling. Fourth, the data resulting from these procedures were then entered into structural equation models. Results The participating sample of 273 teachers (Table 1) was made up of 205 females (75.1%) and 68 males (24.9%), drawn from four Victorian education regions, with a mean teaching experience of 13.53 years (range = 34; mode = 15.0; SD = 8.01). Table 2 presents the mean results obtained on the Professional Development variables for teachers, by region. With reference to sampling accuracy, the associated upper and lower 95% confidence limits are not tabulated for simplicity of presentation. However, the standard errors of the mean values do not exceed + 3.1% for these variables, which is well within the designed 5% limit of the targeted population value for determining the sampling frame. A multivariate analysis of variance (MAN-
133
OVA) was computed on the standardized variables (M = 0; SD = 1), indicating a significant region effect (Wilks' h = 0.91; F = 2.84; df = 9,650; p < .01). This effect was predominantly accounted for by the higher literacy inservice program participation and evaluation ratings of teachers in regions A and B. The particular relevance of the regional differences will be discussed in more detail later. To guide a detailed appraisal of the findings, the results of betweenregions univariate analyses of variance are also presented in Table 2. Analyses of the data obtained on the semantic differential scales (professional self perception), involved an initial screening step of computing a frequency analysis. Since three scales did not meet the "discrimination" criteria described above (see footnote 5), they were deleted from further analysis (i.e., conventionalunconventional, usual-unusual, conformingnon-conforming). This was followed by an exploratory factor analysis of the data on the remaining 31 scales, using a principal axis method of factoring, on a polychoric correlation matrix computed using P R E L I S (J6reskog & S6rbom, 1986b). Since it was hypothesized that the latent Self Perception dimensions were inter-correlated, the extracted factors were rotated to simple structure via the direct oblimin criterion (Gorsuch, 1983). The results are presented in Table 3, as are those from a reliability analysis
Table 2
Univariate Results for Professional Development Variables Region A (n = 49)
B (n = 94)
C (n = 65)
D (n = 65)
M
1.80 1.19 2.76 2.15 2.63
SD
0.99
2.19 1.65 3.00 2.18 2.60 0.91
1.57 1.94 2.62 2.67 2.15 1.18
1.17 1.23 2.49 2.37 2.06 1.07
Variable I. No. of literacy inservices #
M
SD 2. No. of non-lit, inservices #
M
SD 3. lnservice evaluation
Between-regions Univariate F-ratio 5.76" 0.69 (n.s.) 5.45*
# Number of professional development inservice programs attended during the past three years. * p < .01.
6 J6reskog & S6rbom (1986a, b) advise that when observed variables are of mixed scale types (e.g., continuous and ordinal, as in the present case), the use of ordinary product-moment correlations is not recommended. Instead, they suggest that polychoric (for ordinal variables) and polyserial (for continuous and ordinal variables) correlations be computed. Failure to do so can lead to considerable bias in estimated correlations and structural equation parameters.
134
K E N N E T H J. R O W E and J A C K I E SYKES
Table 3
Oblimin Rotated Factor Pattern Matrix for Teachers" Professional Self Perception Ratings on the Semantic Differential and Scale and Item Reliability Statistics* Factor Factor/Semantic pair
I
11
III
IV
V
h2
Rz
0.763 0.806 0.762 0.850 0.717 0.693 0.706 0.738 0.811 0.468
0.68 0.72 0.65 0.75 0.63 0.58 0.59 0.67 0.68 0.38
0.718 0.802 0.682 0.802 0.690 0.738
0.54 0.54 0.56 0.63 0.51 0.51
0.661 0.670 0.663 0.612 0.590 0.633 0.625
0.48 0.53 0.54 0.45 0.44 0.46 0.35
0.593 0.598 0.523 0.678
0.35 0.35 0.42 0.44
0.650 0.610 0.494 0.342
0.40 0.35 0.25 0.19
I: Energy, Enthusiasm, Satisfaction (Scale a = 0.94; standardized item ot = 0.94) Burnt-out-energized Unfulfilled-fulfilled Stressed-relaxed Unenthusiastic-enthusiastic Dissatisfied-satisfied Stale-fresh Insecure-confident Inert-energetic Indifferent-eager Apathetic-spirited
0.856 0.769 0.683 0.671 0.627 0.622 0.600 0.539 0.523 0.447
11: Orderliness (Scale ct = 0.90; standardized item et = 0.90) Chaotic--orderly Disorganized--organized Random-systematic Jumbled-arranged Unprepared-prepared Inefficient-efficient
0.321
-0.934 -0.790 -0.785 -0.653 -0.545 -0.542
111: Warmth, Supportiveness (Scale ct = 0.88; standardized item a = 0.88) Mean-kind Reproaching--comforting Cool-warm Insulting-esteeming Punishing-rewarding Hostile-friendly Rigid-adaptable
0.825 0.765 0.756 0.640 0.635 0.589 0.298
IV: Creativity (Scale et = 0.78; standardized item ct = 0.78) 0.710 0.530 0.404 0.318
Constrained-free Restrained-liberated Uncreative-creative Unimaginative-imaginative
V: Clarity (Scale a = 0.74; standardized item a = 0.74) Vague-clear Blurry-sharp Obscure-lucid Puzzling-informing
0.595 0.506 0.474 0.467
0.342
Eigenvalue
14.64
2.48
1.70
1.18
1.08
Percent of Variance
47.2
8.0
5.5
3.8
3.5
* Loadings < 0.30 have been omitted. for the extracted dimensions (scales) semantic differential, including squared 7
of the multi-
p i e c o r r e l a t i o n ( R 2) e s t i m a t e s each dimension.'
f o r e a c h i t e m in
In the present context, the values of R 2 provide particularly useful information. By indicating the proportion of variance that a given item has in c o m m o n with other items in a scale (dimension), R 2 gives a conservative lower b o u n d estimate of an item's communality and an index of the strength of its linear association with the scale (see Nunnally, 1978).
Professional Development and Teachers" Self Perceptions From Table 3, the factor pattern matrix is relatively "clean" in both a conceptual and a statistical sense. The first factor (Energy, Enthusiasm, Satisfaction) accounted for the largest proportion of the variance by far (47.2%), while the remaining four factors accounted for only 20.8% of the total variance a m o n g them. This finding suggests that Energy, Enthusiasm, Satisfaction-related indicators were the most consistent and salient concerns of teachers in terms of professional Self Perception. Regional differences of the five Self Perception affect dimensions were examined by computing a further M A N O V A on the computed scale scores of the semantic differential. ~ The results of this analysis yielded a non-significant overall region effect (Wilks h = 0.91; F = 1.63; d f = 15,732; p > .05). However, univariate analysis of variance on each affect dimension yielded a significant region effect for the Energy . . . . dimension (F = 3.47; df = 3,269; p < .05), and the Clarity dimension (F = 3.47; df = 3,269; p < .05), with the higher mean scale scores for regions A and B accounting for these findings. To examine differences on the five affect dimensions for teachers trained and not trained in literacy inservice programs (i.e., E L I C , LaRIC, RR), univariate t-tests were computed. The results presented in Table 4 indicate significant differences between teachers trained and not trained in these programs on all five dimen-
135
sions, suggesting (at least at the prima facie level) the efficacy of these professional development programs in terms of teachers' professional Self Perceptions. Of particular interest was the extent to which the five Self Perception dimensions were intercorrelated, and correlated with the Professional D e v e l o p m e n t variables (Table 5), namely: (1) The n u m b e r of literacy-related inservice programs attending during the past three years (Inserv 1); (2) the n u m b e r of non-literacy inservices attending during the past three years (Inserv 2); and (3) the extent of perceived professional development enhancement due to participation in inservice programs (Inserv Eval.). Table 5 presents the lower triangular matrix of p r o d u c t - m o m e n t correlations, showing significant, positive intercorrelations a m o n g all these variables. Recursive and non-recursive structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesized relationship between the latent variables of Professional D e v e l o p m e n t and Self Perception. For these models, however, given the prominence of the Energy, Enthusiasm, Satisfaction dimension (which accounted for 47.2% of the total variance), the other four dimensions of Self Perception were excluded from the models. Moreover, since the 10 semantic differential items loading on the Energy .... dimension were highly intercorrelated, suggesting multicolinearity (see Pedhazur, 1982, pp. 232-247), four items with the strongest indices of linearity
Table 4 Univariate Resultsfor Teachers' In~Out of Literacy Programs, for Self Perception Dimensions
In Literacy Programs (n = 130) Affect Dimension Energy, Enthusiasm, Satisfaction Orderliness Warmth, Supportiveness Creativity Clarity
Not in Literacy Programs (n = 143)
M
SD
M
SD
49.4 29.2 37.0 19.2 19.2
7.2 5.1 5.8 3.3 3.5
45.7 27.3 34.6 18.3 17.7
7.9 5.1 6.0 3.3 3.7
Between-groups Univariate t-value (df = 271)
Effect Size #
3.99* 3.16" 3.40* 2.37* 3.36*
0.47 0.37 0.40 0.27 0.41
# Effect sizes were calculated by dividing the difference between the two group means by the standard deviation of the "control" group (i.e., "Not in Literacy Programs"). *p < .05. s Scale scores were constructed by adding the observed data on each item within a given dimension, to provide a total score for each scale, for each respondent.
136
K E N N E T H J. R O W E and J A C K I E S Y K E S
Table 5
Observed lntercorrelations among Teacher Affect Dimensions and Professional Development Variables* (N = 273) Dimension/Variable l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Energy .... Orderliness W a r m t h , Supportiveness Creativity Clarity Inserv I tnserv 2 Inserv Evaluation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1.00 0.71 0.77 0.71 0.81 0.43 0.56 0.48
1.00 0.50 0.53 0.71 0.36 0.43 0.38
1.00 0.74 0.70 0.39 0.47 0.43
1.00 0.72 0.34 0.54 0.45
1.00 0.35 0.58 0.44
1.00 0.26 0.49
1.00 0.46
1.00
* For all coefficients, p < .01 (2-tailed test)
( i . e . , R 2 ~ 0.68 - - from Table 3) were selected as "sufficient" indicators of the Energy . . . . latent variable. Two models were computed from a polychoric/polyserial correlation matrix of the three Professional Development indicators and the four Energy . . . . indicators, using SIMPLIS (J6reskog & S6rbom, 1987), which employs a two-stage least squares method of parameter estimation.9 Figure 1 illustrates the standardized solution for the recursive model used to estimate the covariance structure between the two confirmatory factor analytic models (measurement sub-models) for the latent variables of Professional Development and Energy . . . . . All parameter estimates are significant beyond the .001 level of probability, by univariate twotailed tests. ~° The measurement sub-models, presented at the extremes of Figure 1, show that the standardized path coefficients (ellipses to rectangles) are all substantial, as is the covariance (correlation) between the latent variables of Professional Development and
Energy, .... While the X2 test of the goodness of fit of the model to the data does not indicate a "good fit," the obtained values of the GFI and R M R indices suggest strong concordance between the data and the model. It A substantive interpretation of the model suggests the presence of a strong positive relationship between Professional Development and the Energy . . . . dimension of teachers' Self Perception. To examine the reciprocal effects of Energy, ... and Professional Development, a non-recursive structural equation model was tested. Figure 2 presents the standardized solution for the parameter estimates. Unlike the recursive model presented in Figure 1, in which all effects are from latent variables (ellipses) to observed variables (rectangles), the non-recursive model presented in Figure 2 allows for the direct effects of observed variables on latent variables. Thus, in this model we have both observed "causes" and observed indicators of latent variables. To facilitate the identification of the model, the error of variance of unenthusiastic-
To assist interpretation of the models, completely standardized solutions are presented (i.e., true path analytic representations). Each variable has been standardized to unit variance, so that the regression coefficients (undirectional arrows) can be interpreted as beta path coefficients (13), and the covariances (two-way arrows) as correlations. K, It should be noted that "statistical significance" of p a r a m e t e r estimates in structural equation models, refers to the original, unstandardized parameters. H The chi-square goodness-of-fit test statistic is a function of sample size and the difference between the observed correlation or covariance matrix, and a predicted matrix based on the model. A "perfect fit" is indicated when ×2 = 0, and p = I. However, since this measure is a direct function of sample size, alrriost any model is likely to be rejected if the sample size is sufficiently large. On the other hand, the goodness of fit index (GFI) is a m e a s u r e of the relative a m o u n t of variances and covariances jointly accounted for by the model. This statistic is i n d e p e n d e n t of sample size and relatively robust against departures from normality. Further, the root m e a n square residual ( R M R ) error is a m e a s u r e of the average of the residual variances and covariances when the observed and predicted covariance matrices are compared (see J6reskog & S6rbom, 1986a).
Professional Development and Teachers' Self Perceptions
I
137
~ Inservlce evaluation
.549"
I No.ofLlteracy ~-.471 Inservices -~ 621~ No.of non-lit.
.866"
indifeagererent"
] I
I
I .958" ~
~
~817""~ .7'99
unfulfilled " fulfilled
Inservlces
Figure 1. Recursive structural equation model specifying the covariance between the latent variables of Professional Development and Energy, ..., showing standardized path coefficients (N = 273). Goodness of fit statistics: ×2 = 48.91, df = 13, p < .001, GFI ~ = 0.946; RMR b = 0.040. * p < .001. ~ Goodness of Fit Index. b Root Mean Square Residual. enthusiastic was set to z e r o , since this o b s e r v e d O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t are the r e c i p r o c a l effects v a r i a b l e h a d the s t r o n g e s t a s s o c i a t i o n with the of the l a t e n t v a r i a b l e s o f E n e r g y . . . . and E n e r g y . . . . latent v a r i a b l e ( i . e . , h 2 = 0.85; R 2 = P r o f e s s i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t ( b o t h significant), 0.75; 13 = 0.91). which i n d i c a t e t h a t the effect of P r o f e s s i o n a l A l m o s t all of the m o d e l ' s p a r a m e t e r s a r e D e v e l o p m e n t on E n e r g y . . . . is g r e a t e r than that statistically significant by u n i v a r i a t e t w o - t a i l e d o f E n e r g y . . . . on P r o f e s s i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , by tests, a n d the G F I a n d R M R indices indicate a m o r e t h a n a factor o f 3. T h i s l a t t e r finding is p a r " g o o d fit" of the d a t a to the m o d e l . T h e signifi- ticularly i m p o r t a n t , since it c o u l d b e a r g u e d that cant positive effects of the i n d i f f e r e n t - e a g e r t h o s e t e a c h e r s w h o are a l r e a d y " e n e r g e t i c , " and b u r n t - o u t - - e n e r g i z e d o b s e r v e d v a r i a b l e s on " e n t h u s i a s t i c " , a n d so o n , a r e m o r e likely to the l a t e n t v a r i a b l e o f E n e r g y . . . . . are as ex- a p p r e c i a t e a n d to actively s e e k p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p e c t e d . T h e s t r o n g positive effect o f u n f u l f i l l e d - inservice p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s . fulfilled on P r o f e s s i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t suggests W h i l e the m o d e l p r o v i d e s s u p p o r t for such an that h i g h e r levels of p e r c e i v e d " f u l f i l m e n t " o f a r g u m e n t , the effect of P r o f e s s i o n a l D e v e l o p t e a c h e r s l e a d to h i g h e r levels of p a r t i c i p a t i o n in m e n t on t e a c h e r E n e r g y , E n t h u s i a s m , a n d (and e v a l u a t i o n of) inservice t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s . Satisfaction is n o t a b l y s t r o n g e r .
.•
unenthusiastic° enthusiastic
1.00 indifferent eager
Iflservlce evaluation unfulfilled fulfilled No. of literacy Inservlces burnt-out energlzed
.559",,.,,,...,j~ No. of non-lit. Ineervices
1
Figure 2. Non-recursive structural equation model showing path coefficient estimates among observed and latent Energy, ... and Professional Development variables (N = 273). Goodness of fit statistics: ×z = 61.19, df = 7, p < .001, GFIa = 0.935; RMR b = 0.078. ° p < .05. ~ Goodness of Fit Index. b-Root Mean Square Residual.
138
KENNETH J. ROWE and JACKIE SYKES Discussion
Consistent with the findings of Smylie's (1988) study, the results from the present study provide strong support for a functional relationship between professional development and dimensions of teachers' professional self perception. More specifically, the results indicate that teachers' participation in, and evaluation of, inservice professional development programs, had direct, positive effects (impacts) on their self-ratings of Energy, Enthusiasm, and Satisfaction. Furthermore, the findings provide empirical support for the claimed "benefits" of inservice training for teachers made elsewhere (e.g., Coulter & Ingvarson, 1985; Hughes, 1987; Ingvarson, 1987; Joyce & Showers, 1988; Rowe, 1987). Four outcomes of the study are especially worthy of note. First, in terms of teachers' participation rates in inservice programs, as well as their evaluation of personal enhancement due to participation in such programs, there were significant differences between the four education regions from which the teacher sample was drawn. The mean ratings on these variables for teachers located in regions A and B were markedly higher than those for their counterparts in regions C and D. Similarly, there were significant differences between the regions on the mean scale scores for the Energy ... and Clarity dimensions of professional Self Perception, with teachers in region B recording notably higher mean ratings on all five affect dimensions than their colleagues in the other three regions. Moreover, it is interesting to observe that teachers in region B also had notably higher mean participation rates in both literacy and non-literacy inservice professional development programs than their peers in the other three regions. A subsequent check of personnel records for the previous three years revealed that, per capita of teacher population, teachers in region B had less than half the number of absentee days of their nearest regional rival (region A). While this finding may be mere coincidence, it is sufficiently suggestive of a positive impact of professional development on teacher affect to warrant further investigation. Second, the findings related to the underlying dimensionality of the semantic differential instrument used in the present study [adapted
from Elsworth & Coulter's (1977) Professional Self Perception Questionnaire], were of special interest. From Elsworth and Coulter's study among teacher trainees, the derived seven factor solution of the data from the semantic differential indicated that the largest proportion of the variance was accounted for by the W a r m t h Supportiveness dimension (14.6%). By contrast, in the present study among experienced practising teachers, the first factor extracted in a similar analysis was made up of indicators loading on the Energy, Enthusiasm, Satisfaction dimension, and accounted for a large 47.2% of the total variance. The reliability (internal consistency) measure for this scale was also high (Cronbach's e~ = 0.94). This finding suggests that compared to trainees, experienced teachers not only have different professional self perceptions, but also the salience of their affect ratings on indicators of Energy, Enthusiasm, and Satisfaction, are stronger and more consistent. While some of these differences might be explained in terms of teachers' age and experience, the implications of this finding for the provision of criteria for evaluating teachers' affective adjustment to professional role demands, are considerable. Third, the significant differences between teachers trained and not trained in the literacy programs of interest in the present study (i.e., ELIC, LaRIC, and RR), on all five affect dimensions identified, suggest the particular efficacy of these inservice programs in terms of teachers' professional self perceptions. These findings are consistent with the qualitative evaluations of the programs cited earlier (i.e., Felton, 1986; Geekie, 1988; Glen, 1986; Rowe, 1987; Russell, 1985). For example, Rowe's (1987) evaluation found that Victorian teachers consistently claimed that participation in the ELIC program had markedly improved their competence as "observers of children's learning behaviours," and "notably enhanced their professional repertoires of literacy teaching skills" (p. 10). Typical of the comments from teachers in Rowe's study was: " E L I C has recharged my batteries, ... my confidence as a teacher has grown dramatically." Such outcomes point to a need to examine in more detail the particular model of inservice implementation entailed in programs like ELIC, which give rise to such positive affect responses from teachers.
Professional Development and Teachers' Self Perceptions Fourth, the results from the structural equation modeling indicated strong, positive effects of Professional D e v e l o p m e n t on teachers' professional Self Perceptions, particularly those related to Energy, Enthusiasm, and Satisfaction. The reciprocal effects of Professional Development and Energy .... were significantly positive, and especially the direct effect of Professional D e v e l o p m e n t on Energy . . . . . These findings provided explanatory potency to the observations from the raw data, namely, that those teachers who had frequently participated in inservice programs during the last three years, regardless of program type, consistently gave self perception ratings towards the positive ends of the semantic differential scales. Alternatively, those teachers who had none or minimal inservice participation rates during the last three years, tended to provide ratings at the negative ends of the scales. Such findings are consistent with Joyce and Showers' (1988) contention that, "the benefits to personnel and organization are by themselves a sufficient rationale for the development of a strong staff development system ..." Furthermore, they argue, "... the failure to create a strong staff development system is a tragic dereliction" (p. 27). We noted earlier that there is considerable research evidence to show that student achievement is mediated by teacher behaviour (Brophy & G o o d , 1986), and equally strong evidence that teachers' professional practices are influenced by their self perceptions (Levis, 1985). Furthermore, in spite of the current emphasis of policy makers on educational o u t p u t s ( i . e . , student achievement), the present findings suggest that teachers' professional self perceptions constitute important criteria for evaluating the intended "benefits" of inservice programs (inp u t s ) , and may also be crucial in monitoring student outcomes. In any event, the results from this study indicate that professional development does enhance teacher affect, and appears to be a powerful means of doing so. Moreover, teacher affect is a crucial indicator of educational output, by any criterion. The policy implications of the present findings are clear. In the Australian context, the endorsement of professional development for teachers expressed in recent government reports (i.e, the Joint Review of Teacher Education, 1986; the Report of the Inservice Teacher
139
Education Project, 1988; and the Quality of Education Review Committee, 1985) has not been matched in reality. "As the past has repeatedly shown .... the mere expression of interest by government ensures neither policy nor its implementation" (Harris & Fasano, 1988, p. 298). Harris and Fasano also note: The substantial withdrawal of Commonwealth funding from this area in 1986 has severely impaired the delivery of the programmes ... Provision for in-service teacher education now exists mostly in diminished forms in Australia. Yet recent curriculum innovations and expanding stresses in the educational environment have generated needs in this area which are possibly greater than at any other time in the recent past. (p. 292) Finally, the findings of the study reported here are intended not only as a contribution towards a revival of interest in teacher professional development, but also as an empirical offering towards the provision of a rationale for specific policy formulation. If, as the results of the present study indicate, Professional Development impacts positively on teachers' professional Self Perceptions, herein lies sufficient justification for the implementation of policies designed to enhance the professional self perceptions of teachers, and their adjustment to professional role demands. In this context, the comments made recently by Ingvarson (1987) are worth quoting: The most important resource we have for school improvement is the human resource of our teacherstheir stock of knowledge, skills and experience, and their potential for future development. This resource is not being developed with the care and foresight that now is common in other areas of public and private enterprise. Danger signals are emerging from several studies of teacher stress and job-satisfaction (Otto, 1986; Tuettemann, 1986). At present there are many good ideas for improving teaching, but far too few opportunities for teachers to learn how to use them. (p. 31)
References A Special Section on Educational Indicators (1988). Phi Delta Kappan, 69,486-513. Anderson, J. G. (1987). Structural equation models in the social and behavioral sciences: Model building. Child Development, 58, 49-64. Ashton, P., & Webb, R. (1986). Making a difference: Teachers" sense of efficacy and student achievement. New
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York: Longman. Biddle, B. J., & Marlin, M. J. (1987). Causaliiy, confirmation, credulity, and structural equation modeling. Child Development, 58, 4-17. Brophy, J., & Good, T. L. (1986). Teacher behavior and student achievement. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 328--375). New York: Macmillan. Coulter, F., & Ingvarson, L. C. (1985). Professional development and the improvement of schooling. Canberra, Australia: Commonwealth Schools Commission. Crano, W. D., & Mendoza, J. L. (1987). Maternal factors that influence children's positive behavior: Demonstration of a structural equation analysis of selected data from the Berkeley growth study. Child Development, 58, 38-48. Cuttance, P., & Ecob, R. (Eds.) (1987). Structural modeling by example: Applications in educational, sociological and behavioral research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dunkin, M. J., & Biddle, B. J. (1974). The study of teaching. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Ecob, R., & Cuttance, P. (1987). An overview of structural equation modeling. In P. Cuttance & R. Ecob (Eds.), Structural modeling by example: Applications in educational, sociological and behavioral research (pp. 923). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Elsworth, G. R., & Coulter, F. (1977). Aspiration and attainment: The measurement of professional self perception in student teachers. Occasional Paper, No. 11. Hawthorn, Vic: Australian Council for Educational Research. Eraut, M. (1985). lnservice teacher education. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), The International Encyclopedia of Education (vol. 5, pp. 2511-2526). Oxi'ord: Pergamon Press. Felton, H. (1986). ELIC in Tasmania: The implementation of the Early Literacy lnservice Course in Tasmania in 1985. Curriculum Development and Evaluation Section, Education Department, Tasmania. Geekie, P. (1988). Evaluation report on The Reading Recovery field trial in central Victoria, 1984. Centre for Studies in Literacy, Faculty of Education, University of Wollongong, N.S.W., Australia. Glen, M. (1986). The Early Literacy lnservice Course in Queensland: An evaluation of the 1985 trials and implementation. Research Services Branch, Department of Education, Queensland. Gorsuch, L. S. (1983). Factor analysis (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, N J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Guskey, T. (1986). Staff development and the process of teacher change. Educational Researcher, 15(5), 5-12. Harris, M., & Fasano, C. (1988). Towards a policy on continuing professional development of teachers: Australian perspectives. Journal of Education Policy, 3, 291-300. H ughes, P. (Ed.). (1987). Better teachers for better schools. Melbourne: Australian College of Education. Ingvarson, L. (1987). Models of inservice education and their implications for professional development policy. Independent Teacher, 17(2), 23-32. Ingvarson, L., & Mackenzie, D. (1988). Factors affecting
the impact of inservice courses for teachers: Implications for policy. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4, 139-155. Jesson, D., Mayston, D., & Smith, P. (1987). Performance assessment in the education sector: Educational and economic perspectives. Oxford Review of Education, 13, 249---66. Joint Review of Teacher Education, Report. (1986). Improving teacher education. Canberra, Australia: Commonwealth Tertiary Education Commission and Commonwealth Schools Commission. J6reskog, K. G., & S6rbom, D. (1986a). LISREL VI: User's guide (4th ed.). Chicago: National Educational Resources. J6reskog, K. G., &. S6rbom, D. (1986b). PRELIS: A program for multivariate data screening and data summarization -- A preprocessor for LISREL. Mooresville, IN: Scientific Software Inc. Jfreskog, K. G., & S6rbom, D. (1987). SIMPLIS: Estimating linear structural relationships using two-stage least squares. Mooresville, IN: Scientific Software, Inc. Joyce, B., & Showers, B. (1988). Student achievement through staff development. New York: Longman. Kerlinger, F. N. (1973). Foundations of behavioral research (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Lacey, C., & Lawton, D. (Eds.). (1981). Issues in evahtation and accountability. London: Methuen. Levis, D. S. (1985). Teacher personality and instruction. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of education (vol. 9, pp. 5016-21). Oxford: Pergamon Press. Long, S. J. (1983). Covariance structure models: An introduction to LISREL. Sage University Paper series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, Series No. 07-34. Beverley Hills and London: Sage Publications. Moser, C. A., & Kalton, G. (1971). Survey methods in socialinvestigation. London: Heinemann. Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed). New York: McGraw Hill. Otto, R. (1986). Teachers under stress. Melbourne: Hill of Content. Pedhazur, E. J. (1982). Multiple regression in behavioral research: Explanation and prediction (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Quality of Education Review Committee, Report (1985). Quality of Education in Australia. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. Report of the Inservice Teacher Education Project (1988). Teachers' learning: Improving Australian schools through inservice teacher training and development. Canberra: Department of Employment, Education and Training. Ross, K. N. (1978). Sample design for educational survey research. Evaluation in Education: lnernational Progress, 2,105-95. Rowe, K. J. (1987). An evaluation of the Early Literacy lnservice Course in Victorian Schools: Summary report on behalf of the Victorian ELIC Steering Committee. Melbourne: Research and Development, Curriculum Branch. Ministry of Education, Schools Division. Rowe, K. J. (1989). The commensurability of the general linear model in the context of educational and psychosocial research. Australian Journal of Education, 33, 41-52.
Professional Development and Teachers' Self Perceptions Russell, D. (1985). Early Literacy Inservice Course: Victorian evaluation. Shepparton, Vic: Bourdier Street School. Smylie, M. A. (1988). The enhancement function of staff development: Organizational and psychological antecedents to individual teacher change. American Educational Research Journal, 25, 1-30. Sutton, R. E. (1987). Teacher education and self-direction: A conceptual analysis and empirical investigation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 3, 121-133. Torrance, H. (Ed.) (1988). National assessment and testing: A research response. London: British Educational Research Association. Tuettemann, E. (1986). Teaching and its satisfaction.
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Research Branch, Education Department of Western Australia. Walberg, H. (1986). What works in a nation still at risk. Educational Leadership, 4(1 ), 7-11. Wheeler, H. G. (1986). Central Victorian field trials o f Reading Recovery in 1984. Bendigo, Vic: Bendigo College of Advanced Education. Working Papers on Public Education, vol. I. (1988). Melbourne: State Board of Education, Victoria. Wyatt, T. (Ed.) (1988). Reporting on educational progress: Performance indicators in education. Bulletin 8, Indicators o f School Effectiveness. Sydney: Australian Conference of Directors-General of Education. Received 19 D e c e m b e r 1988 [ ]
1Y742-051X/S'-) $3.011+0.00 Pergamon Press pie
T H E IMPACT OF P R O F E S S I O N A L D E V E L O P M E N T ON T E A C H E R S ' SELF PERCEPTIONS K E N N E T H J. R O W E and J A C K I E S Y K E S Ministry of Education, Victoria, Australia
Abstract -This study was designed to examine the impact of inservice professional development programs on dimensions of teachers" professional self perceptions among a sample of 273 Victorian teachers drawn from government and non-government, primary and postprimary schools. From measures on observed and latent variables of Professional Development and Self Perception,the results indicated that there were strong, positive effects of Professional Development on teachers" professional Self Perceptions, and particularly those concerned with indicators of Energy, Enthusiasm, and Satisfaction. The paper provides a detailed account of the methodology, and briefly discusses the policy-related implications of the findings.
Consistent with the a d o p t i o n of popular corporate management models in educational governance and the prevailing climate of economic rationalism in which such models o p e r a t e , current policy activity related to issues of accountability, monitoring, and performance indicators in education is widespread, both within Australia ( W o r k i n g Papers on Public Education, 1988; Quality of Education R e v i e w C o m m i t t e e , 1985; W y a t t , 1988) and elsewhere (Jesson, M a y s t o n , & Smith, 1987; Lacey & L a w t o n , 1981; A Special Section on Educational Indicators, 1988; T o r r a n c e , 1988). M u c h of this activity is being directed away from concerns a b o u t inputs o f education systems (e.g., curriculum and teacher professional d e v e l o p m e n t ) fowards outputs (e.g., student performance). O n e of the major effects of such activity has b e e n to signal a shift in g o v e r n m e n t policy intention to bring the delivery of "professional"
educational services into "public sector" accounting, underscored by a c o n c e r n to ensure that such services represent "value for m o n e y " . In contrast to this shift in focus, the'research rep o r t e d here attempts to examine the impact of inservice professional d e v e l o p m e n t (inputs) on teachers' professional self perceptions, and discusses the findings in terms of their implications for policy. D u r i n g the past few years, Australian governm e n t reports such as those from the Joint Review of T e a c h e r Education (1986), the Report of the Inservice T e a c h e r E d u c a t i o n Project (1988), and the Quality of Education Review C o m m i t t e e (1985), have emphasized the importance of a functional link b e t w e e n teacher professional d e v e l o p m e n t and the quality of educational outcomes. Such emphasis is supported by an expanding literature attesting to the efficacy of inservice professional d e v e l o p m e n t for
This report is adapted from a paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W., 29 November to 4 December, 1988. The frank and willing assistance of the teachers who participated in the study is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to the "100 Schools Project" Steering Committee, Ministry of Education, Victoria, for their encouragement and support, and to Neil Baumgart and Pat Griffin for their comments on an earlier draft of this paper. Any remaining errors of either omission or commission, are entirely our own. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Ken Rowe, Senior Policy Officer - - Research, School Programs Branch, Ministry of Education, Level 8, Rialto Towers, PO Box 4367, GPO Melbourne, Victoria, 3001, Australia. Telephone: (03) 628 3111. 129
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KENNETHJ. ROWE and JACKIESYKES
teachers (Eraut, 1985; Guskey, 1986; Harris & vice programs, or to monitor educational outFasano, 1988; Ingvarson, 1987; Ingvarson & comes, since both the identification and evaluaMacKenzie, 1988; Joyce & Showers, 1988; Sut- tion of outputs, at either the teacher level or at ton, 1987; Walberg, 1986). However, as Ingvar- the student level, are necessarily mediated by son and Mackenzie (1988) comment: "A con- the relative saliency of teacher effects. siderable investment is made in further training Following Elsworth and Coulter (1977) and and development for teachers, but little is Smylie (1988), we support the notion that known about the impact or benefits of most of change in professional self perception holds what takes place" (p. 139). This comment particular promise as a criterion for judging the applies to a dearth of knowledge about "bene- effectiveness of teacher inservice training profits" for either teachers and/or students. grams. Moreover, apart from its influence on In the Australian context specifically, recent performance, changes in self perception teacher professional development, especially in (mediated by participation in professional dethe teaching of literacy, has been characterized velopment) may provide useful indicators of by intense activity. Since 1983, several govern- teachers' adjustment to professional role ment-funded inservice programs have been im- demands. Where teachers aspire to be professplemented including the Early Literacy Inser- ionally competent, and also perceive themvice Course (ELIC), the Later Reading Inser- selves to be professionally competent, they may vice Course (LaR1C), and Reading Recovery then be regarded as "well adjusted" in the sense (RR). Although there is a growing body of qual- of being able to realize their professional aspiraitative evaluation literature for these programs tions, rather than being thwarted or frustrated. indicating positive changes in teacher confi- What is suggested here is that "if... teachers are dence and associated teaching practices (e.g., to self-actualize in their professional roles, they Felton, 1986; Geekie, 1988; Glen, 1986; Rowe, should not only possess that knowledge and skill 1987; Russell, 1985; Wheeler, 1986), quantita- regarded as necessary for competent role pertive attempts to examine the impact of profes- formance; they should also see themselves as sional development programs on changes to competent" (Elsworth & Coulter, 1977, p. 4). teachers' self perceptions, are conspicuous by That is, on the one hand, inservice training protheir absence. A notable exception is the recent grams should provide teachers with opporstudy by Smylie (1988), whose findings indicate tunities to develop professional knowledge and that changes in teachers' classroom practices skills, and on the other, assist in the developdue to professional development are a direct ment of a positive professional self view. function of teachers' professional self percepThe aim of this paper is to present the findings tions (i.e., "personal teaching efficacy", p: 25). from a study designed to examine the impact of In spite of the conceptual and methodological non-literacy and literacy inservice programs difficulties entailed by this kind of psychosocial (such as ELIC, LaRIC and RR) on teachers' research, the identification of both qualitative professional self perceptions. The findings and quantitative changes to teachers' profes- focus on the obtained relationships between obsional self perceptions, we argue, is crucial to served and latent dimensions of Professional the provision of evaluative criteria for deter- Development and professional Self Perception. mining the effects of inservice teacher training. The specific hypothesis tested is that ProfessWhile there is compelling evidence for the ef- ional Development has a direct, positive effect fects of teacher behaviour on student achieve- on dimensions of teachers' Self Perception. ment (see Brophy & Good, 1986), there is equally strong evidence that teachers' self perMethod ceptions, and related affective factors, interact with and impact on their professional practices (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Dunkin & Biddle, Sample Characteristics 1974; Levis, 1985; Smylie, 1988). Thus, the cenThe study was conducted in a stratified samtral thesis of the present paper is that teachers' self perceptions are crucial input components of ple of a target population of teachers trained any attempt to evaluate the "benefits" of inser- and not trained in literacy inservice programs
Professional Development and Teachers"Self Perceptions (i.e., ELIC, LaRIC and RR), working at year levels 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 in government and nongovernment, primary, and postprimary schools, drawn from four Victorian education regions. A two-stage design was chosen, with schools being selected with probability proportional to size at the first stage, and one teacher at each year level (within each selected school) at the second stage. The level of sampling precision within each region, for teachers trained and not trained in literacy programs, involved the specification of sampling tolerances of + 5% for 95% confidence limits for item categories, and estimates of item means having standard errors ~< 5% of a respondent's standard deviation (Moser & Kalton, 1971; Ross, 1978). To satisfy these sampling error constraints, it was calculated that a designed sample of at least 250 teachers would be required. Details of the participating teacher sample, by school type and region, are summarized in Table 1.
2. 3.
three years which have involved language and literacy learning? How many inservice programs, other than those related to literacy, have you attended in the last three years? In general, to what extent has your professional development as a teacher been enhanced by participation in inservice programs?
The third question invited teachers to respond in one category of a five-point Likert-type scale, ranging from "Not at all" to "Very much". Measures of teachers' Professional Self Perception were obtained from responses on a semantic differential instrument consisting of 34, seven-point evaluative scales (Kerlinger, 1973). This instrument was adapted from The Professional Self Perception Questionnaire developed by Elsworth and Coulter (1977), which was originally designed to measure the effects of initial teacher education programs on selected dimensions of self perception in teacher trainees. From factor analyses of the data obtained from 396 student teachers, Elsworth and Coulter derived seven dimensions (factors) of self perception made up of 32 scales which maintained consistently high loadings on the same factors across different concepts and subgroups of respondents (i.e., consistent connotative meaning). The conceptual labels for the derived factors were: creativity, orderliness, warmth:~upportiveness, satisfaction, clarity, energy-enthusiasm, and non-conformity. On the adapted semantic differential instrument used in the present study, teachers were required to provide two ratings for each scale:
Teacher Measures
Teachers were asked to respond to a pre-trialled questionnaire instrument designed to obtain information about: Background Training and Experience; Professional Development; Professional Self Perception; and several literacyfocused aspects related to: Teaching Practices, Resources, and Assessment and Reporting Practices. Of immediate concern to the present paper, information about Professional Development was gained from three questions: 1.
131
How many professional development inservice programs have you attended in the last
Table 1 Distribution of TeacherSample by Region and School Type*
Primary
Postprimary
Region
G
NG
A
23
22
4
B
64
19
C D
32 41 160
Totals:
G
P--12
NG
G
4
2
5
20 11
6 6
2 2
72
20
6
* G = Government schools; NG = Non-governmentschools.
NG
Total 49
5
94
5 5
65 65
10
273
132
KENNETH J. ROWE and JACKIE SYKES
(1) a s e l f - r a t i n g in t e r m s of " M y s e l f as a t e a c h e r , " a n d (2) an i d e a l - r a t i n g in t e r m s of " T h e t e a c h e r I w o u l d like to b e . " T h e results rep o r t e d in this p a p e r , h o w e v e r , c o n c e r n o n l y t e a c h e r s ' ratings in t e r m s o f " M y s e l f as a t e a c h e r " . T h e r e a s o n for t e a c h e r s b e i n g a s k e d to m a k e the two ratings was to m i n i m i z e the risk o f p o s s i b l e r a t e r effects by r e d u c i n g p o t e n t i a l r e s p o n s e bias r e l a t e d to u n i n t e n t i o n a l conf o u n d i n g b e t w e e n u n d e r l y i n g self a n d ideal concepts.
Analytic Approach T w o t y p e s of a n a l y s e s w e r e c o n d u c t e d . First, to p r o v i d e the m o s t p a r s i m o n i o u s i n t e r p r e t a tion o f the findings, d e s c r i p t i v e , u n i v a r i a t e , a n d m u l t i v a r i a t e i n f e r e n t i a l statistics w e r e c o m p u t e d . Since g e n e r a l l i n e a r m o d e l - b a s e d m e t h o d s w e r e used ( e . g . , A N O V A , M A N O V A ) , tests o f l i n e a r i t y w e r e c o m p u t e d on the m e a n s o f p a i r e d c o m b i n a t i o n s o f all o u t c o m e v a r i a b l e s o f i n t e r e s t , the results of which indic a t e d that no c o m b i n a t i o n d e v i a t e d significantly f r o m l i n e a r i t y (see R o w e , 1989). S e c o n d , to e x a m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n P r o f e s s i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t a n d t e a c h e r s ' affective d i m e n s i o n s of Self P e r c e p t i o n , the techn i q u e o f s t r u c t u r a l e q u a t i o n m o d e l i n g was used. 1 In b r i e f , s t r u c t u r a l e q u a t i o n m o d e l i n g ( S E M ) is m o s t o f t e n u s e d in a p p l i e d ex post facto r e s e a r c h to specify p h e n o m e n a u n d e r in-
v e s t i g a t i o n in t e r m s o f p u t a t i v e c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t v a r i a b l e s a n d their i n d i c a t o r s . O r d i n a r i l y , S E M p r o c e d u r e s are e x p l a n a t o r y d a t a analysis techn i q u e s , d e s i g n e d to test a p r i o r i h y p o t h e s i z e d c o v a r i a n c e r e l a t i o n s a m o n g sets o f v a r i a b l e s , as well as the " c a u s a l " links t h o u g h t to exist a m o n g t h e m . H o w e v e r , d u e to a lack of c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the d a t a q u a l i t y d e m a n d s o f S E M t e c h n i q u e s z a n d the d a t a a v a i l a b l e for analysis in the p r e s e n t case,3 a m o r e e x p l o r a t o r y approach was u s e d , following s t r a t e g i e s e m p l o y e d a n d d e s c r i b e d by C r a n o a n d M e n d o z a (1987). 4 T o this e n d , s e v e r a l p r e - a n a l y t i c d i a g n o s t i c s a n d a d j u s t m e n t s w e r e m a d e to the data. O u r g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y i n v o l v e d s c r e e n i n g , rec o n s t i t u t i n g a n d c o m b i n i n g the o b s e r v e d d a t a o b t a i n e d on the P r o f e s s i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t a n d Self P e r c e p t i o n v a r i a b l e s in such a w a y that t h e y c o n f o r m e d m o r e closely to S E M r e q u i r e m e n t s . First, given the differing s a m p l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f E l s w o r t h and C o u l t e r ' s (1977) p a r t i c i p a n t s (i.e., s t u d e n t t e a c h e r s ) and t h o s e in the p r e s e n t s t u d y ( i . e . , p r a c t i s i n g t e a c h e r s ) , as well as m i n o r c o n t e n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the two instrum e n t s u s e d , o u r initial s t r a t e g y i n v o l v e d s c r e e n ing the o b s e r v e d d a t a on the s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n tial scales by c o m p u t i n g a f r e q u e n c y analysis. Scales for which the f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n of teachers' responses indicated "non-discriminat i o n " , 5 w e r e d e l e t e d from f u r t h e r analysis. S e c o n d , e x p l o r a t o r y f a c t o r analysis, d i m e n s i o n
i For overviews and technical presentations of structural equation modeling, see Anderson (1987); Cuttance & Ecob (1987); J6reskog & S6rbom (1986a, 1987); Long (1983). z Generally, SEM techniques assume that the observed variables are quantitative variables measured, at least approximately, on an interval scale, and whose distributions are approximately multinormal (see J6reskog & Sfrbom, 1986a, b; Ecob & Cuttance, 1987). 3That is, the data obtained on the variables of interest in this study were "continuous" [for Professional Development (PD) questions 1 and 2], and "ordinal" [for the five-point PD question 3, and on the seven-point semantic differential scales]. 4The relevant comments of Crano & Mendoza (1987, pp. 38-39) in support of such procedures are worth noting: The tactics involved in this preliminary [to SEMi stage can allow construction of models having better overall fit, and stronger paths between observed or latent variables ... Our suggested procedures render the research enterprise more an exploratory than a confirmatory operation, and as such, those who are intent on immediate hypothesis testing might question their value. In response, we argue that our approach is worthwhile because it can provide a more solid foundation for later, more focused, confirmatory investigation of the causal relationships that exist among a set of variables ... The problem is not one of testing a specific hypothesis, but of fitting an appropriate model, or 'template' ... to the data. Another positive aspect of our exploratory orientation is that when other, more 'standard', confirmatory procedures are employed on problematic data sets, the findings often provide few research leads upon which to base subsequent studies (see Biddle & Marlin, 1987). 5 Two categories of scale 'non-discrimination" were used: (1) ~>90%, or ~< 10% of respondents located at either end of a given 7-point response scale, and (2) ~>80% of respondents located in the 'middle' response category (i.e., '4') of a given 7-point scale.
Professional Development and Teachers' Self Perceptions
(scale) re-construction, and reliability estimation were employed. Third, these re-constituted affect (Self Perception) data were combined with the observed Professional Development data using PRELIS (J6reskog & S6rbom, 1986b), and polychoric/polyserial correlation matrices were computed, 6 preliminary to structural equation modeling. Fourth, the data resulting from these procedures were then entered into structural equation models. Results The participating sample of 273 teachers (Table 1) was made up of 205 females (75.1%) and 68 males (24.9%), drawn from four Victorian education regions, with a mean teaching experience of 13.53 years (range = 34; mode = 15.0; SD = 8.01). Table 2 presents the mean results obtained on the Professional Development variables for teachers, by region. With reference to sampling accuracy, the associated upper and lower 95% confidence limits are not tabulated for simplicity of presentation. However, the standard errors of the mean values do not exceed + 3.1% for these variables, which is well within the designed 5% limit of the targeted population value for determining the sampling frame. A multivariate analysis of variance (MAN-
133
OVA) was computed on the standardized variables (M = 0; SD = 1), indicating a significant region effect (Wilks' h = 0.91; F = 2.84; df = 9,650; p < .01). This effect was predominantly accounted for by the higher literacy inservice program participation and evaluation ratings of teachers in regions A and B. The particular relevance of the regional differences will be discussed in more detail later. To guide a detailed appraisal of the findings, the results of betweenregions univariate analyses of variance are also presented in Table 2. Analyses of the data obtained on the semantic differential scales (professional self perception), involved an initial screening step of computing a frequency analysis. Since three scales did not meet the "discrimination" criteria described above (see footnote 5), they were deleted from further analysis (i.e., conventionalunconventional, usual-unusual, conformingnon-conforming). This was followed by an exploratory factor analysis of the data on the remaining 31 scales, using a principal axis method of factoring, on a polychoric correlation matrix computed using P R E L I S (J6reskog & S6rbom, 1986b). Since it was hypothesized that the latent Self Perception dimensions were inter-correlated, the extracted factors were rotated to simple structure via the direct oblimin criterion (Gorsuch, 1983). The results are presented in Table 3, as are those from a reliability analysis
Table 2
Univariate Results for Professional Development Variables Region A (n = 49)
B (n = 94)
C (n = 65)
D (n = 65)
M
1.80 1.19 2.76 2.15 2.63
SD
0.99
2.19 1.65 3.00 2.18 2.60 0.91
1.57 1.94 2.62 2.67 2.15 1.18
1.17 1.23 2.49 2.37 2.06 1.07
Variable I. No. of literacy inservices #
M
SD 2. No. of non-lit, inservices #
M
SD 3. lnservice evaluation
Between-regions Univariate F-ratio 5.76" 0.69 (n.s.) 5.45*
# Number of professional development inservice programs attended during the past three years. * p < .01.
6 J6reskog & S6rbom (1986a, b) advise that when observed variables are of mixed scale types (e.g., continuous and ordinal, as in the present case), the use of ordinary product-moment correlations is not recommended. Instead, they suggest that polychoric (for ordinal variables) and polyserial (for continuous and ordinal variables) correlations be computed. Failure to do so can lead to considerable bias in estimated correlations and structural equation parameters.
134
K E N N E T H J. R O W E and J A C K I E SYKES
Table 3
Oblimin Rotated Factor Pattern Matrix for Teachers" Professional Self Perception Ratings on the Semantic Differential and Scale and Item Reliability Statistics* Factor Factor/Semantic pair
I
11
III
IV
V
h2
Rz
0.763 0.806 0.762 0.850 0.717 0.693 0.706 0.738 0.811 0.468
0.68 0.72 0.65 0.75 0.63 0.58 0.59 0.67 0.68 0.38
0.718 0.802 0.682 0.802 0.690 0.738
0.54 0.54 0.56 0.63 0.51 0.51
0.661 0.670 0.663 0.612 0.590 0.633 0.625
0.48 0.53 0.54 0.45 0.44 0.46 0.35
0.593 0.598 0.523 0.678
0.35 0.35 0.42 0.44
0.650 0.610 0.494 0.342
0.40 0.35 0.25 0.19
I: Energy, Enthusiasm, Satisfaction (Scale a = 0.94; standardized item ot = 0.94) Burnt-out-energized Unfulfilled-fulfilled Stressed-relaxed Unenthusiastic-enthusiastic Dissatisfied-satisfied Stale-fresh Insecure-confident Inert-energetic Indifferent-eager Apathetic-spirited
0.856 0.769 0.683 0.671 0.627 0.622 0.600 0.539 0.523 0.447
11: Orderliness (Scale ct = 0.90; standardized item et = 0.90) Chaotic--orderly Disorganized--organized Random-systematic Jumbled-arranged Unprepared-prepared Inefficient-efficient
0.321
-0.934 -0.790 -0.785 -0.653 -0.545 -0.542
111: Warmth, Supportiveness (Scale ct = 0.88; standardized item a = 0.88) Mean-kind Reproaching--comforting Cool-warm Insulting-esteeming Punishing-rewarding Hostile-friendly Rigid-adaptable
0.825 0.765 0.756 0.640 0.635 0.589 0.298
IV: Creativity (Scale et = 0.78; standardized item ct = 0.78) 0.710 0.530 0.404 0.318
Constrained-free Restrained-liberated Uncreative-creative Unimaginative-imaginative
V: Clarity (Scale a = 0.74; standardized item a = 0.74) Vague-clear Blurry-sharp Obscure-lucid Puzzling-informing
0.595 0.506 0.474 0.467
0.342
Eigenvalue
14.64
2.48
1.70
1.18
1.08
Percent of Variance
47.2
8.0
5.5
3.8
3.5
* Loadings < 0.30 have been omitted. for the extracted dimensions (scales) semantic differential, including squared 7
of the multi-
p i e c o r r e l a t i o n ( R 2) e s t i m a t e s each dimension.'
f o r e a c h i t e m in
In the present context, the values of R 2 provide particularly useful information. By indicating the proportion of variance that a given item has in c o m m o n with other items in a scale (dimension), R 2 gives a conservative lower b o u n d estimate of an item's communality and an index of the strength of its linear association with the scale (see Nunnally, 1978).
Professional Development and Teachers" Self Perceptions From Table 3, the factor pattern matrix is relatively "clean" in both a conceptual and a statistical sense. The first factor (Energy, Enthusiasm, Satisfaction) accounted for the largest proportion of the variance by far (47.2%), while the remaining four factors accounted for only 20.8% of the total variance a m o n g them. This finding suggests that Energy, Enthusiasm, Satisfaction-related indicators were the most consistent and salient concerns of teachers in terms of professional Self Perception. Regional differences of the five Self Perception affect dimensions were examined by computing a further M A N O V A on the computed scale scores of the semantic differential. ~ The results of this analysis yielded a non-significant overall region effect (Wilks h = 0.91; F = 1.63; d f = 15,732; p > .05). However, univariate analysis of variance on each affect dimension yielded a significant region effect for the Energy . . . . dimension (F = 3.47; df = 3,269; p < .05), and the Clarity dimension (F = 3.47; df = 3,269; p < .05), with the higher mean scale scores for regions A and B accounting for these findings. To examine differences on the five affect dimensions for teachers trained and not trained in literacy inservice programs (i.e., E L I C , LaRIC, RR), univariate t-tests were computed. The results presented in Table 4 indicate significant differences between teachers trained and not trained in these programs on all five dimen-
135
sions, suggesting (at least at the prima facie level) the efficacy of these professional development programs in terms of teachers' professional Self Perceptions. Of particular interest was the extent to which the five Self Perception dimensions were intercorrelated, and correlated with the Professional D e v e l o p m e n t variables (Table 5), namely: (1) The n u m b e r of literacy-related inservice programs attending during the past three years (Inserv 1); (2) the n u m b e r of non-literacy inservices attending during the past three years (Inserv 2); and (3) the extent of perceived professional development enhancement due to participation in inservice programs (Inserv Eval.). Table 5 presents the lower triangular matrix of p r o d u c t - m o m e n t correlations, showing significant, positive intercorrelations a m o n g all these variables. Recursive and non-recursive structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesized relationship between the latent variables of Professional D e v e l o p m e n t and Self Perception. For these models, however, given the prominence of the Energy, Enthusiasm, Satisfaction dimension (which accounted for 47.2% of the total variance), the other four dimensions of Self Perception were excluded from the models. Moreover, since the 10 semantic differential items loading on the Energy .... dimension were highly intercorrelated, suggesting multicolinearity (see Pedhazur, 1982, pp. 232-247), four items with the strongest indices of linearity
Table 4 Univariate Resultsfor Teachers' In~Out of Literacy Programs, for Self Perception Dimensions
In Literacy Programs (n = 130) Affect Dimension Energy, Enthusiasm, Satisfaction Orderliness Warmth, Supportiveness Creativity Clarity
Not in Literacy Programs (n = 143)
M
SD
M
SD
49.4 29.2 37.0 19.2 19.2
7.2 5.1 5.8 3.3 3.5
45.7 27.3 34.6 18.3 17.7
7.9 5.1 6.0 3.3 3.7
Between-groups Univariate t-value (df = 271)
Effect Size #
3.99* 3.16" 3.40* 2.37* 3.36*
0.47 0.37 0.40 0.27 0.41
# Effect sizes were calculated by dividing the difference between the two group means by the standard deviation of the "control" group (i.e., "Not in Literacy Programs"). *p < .05. s Scale scores were constructed by adding the observed data on each item within a given dimension, to provide a total score for each scale, for each respondent.
136
K E N N E T H J. R O W E and J A C K I E S Y K E S
Table 5
Observed lntercorrelations among Teacher Affect Dimensions and Professional Development Variables* (N = 273) Dimension/Variable l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Energy .... Orderliness W a r m t h , Supportiveness Creativity Clarity Inserv I tnserv 2 Inserv Evaluation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1.00 0.71 0.77 0.71 0.81 0.43 0.56 0.48
1.00 0.50 0.53 0.71 0.36 0.43 0.38
1.00 0.74 0.70 0.39 0.47 0.43
1.00 0.72 0.34 0.54 0.45
1.00 0.35 0.58 0.44
1.00 0.26 0.49
1.00 0.46
1.00
* For all coefficients, p < .01 (2-tailed test)
( i . e . , R 2 ~ 0.68 - - from Table 3) were selected as "sufficient" indicators of the Energy . . . . latent variable. Two models were computed from a polychoric/polyserial correlation matrix of the three Professional Development indicators and the four Energy . . . . indicators, using SIMPLIS (J6reskog & S6rbom, 1987), which employs a two-stage least squares method of parameter estimation.9 Figure 1 illustrates the standardized solution for the recursive model used to estimate the covariance structure between the two confirmatory factor analytic models (measurement sub-models) for the latent variables of Professional Development and Energy . . . . . All parameter estimates are significant beyond the .001 level of probability, by univariate twotailed tests. ~° The measurement sub-models, presented at the extremes of Figure 1, show that the standardized path coefficients (ellipses to rectangles) are all substantial, as is the covariance (correlation) between the latent variables of Professional Development and
Energy, .... While the X2 test of the goodness of fit of the model to the data does not indicate a "good fit," the obtained values of the GFI and R M R indices suggest strong concordance between the data and the model. It A substantive interpretation of the model suggests the presence of a strong positive relationship between Professional Development and the Energy . . . . dimension of teachers' Self Perception. To examine the reciprocal effects of Energy, ... and Professional Development, a non-recursive structural equation model was tested. Figure 2 presents the standardized solution for the parameter estimates. Unlike the recursive model presented in Figure 1, in which all effects are from latent variables (ellipses) to observed variables (rectangles), the non-recursive model presented in Figure 2 allows for the direct effects of observed variables on latent variables. Thus, in this model we have both observed "causes" and observed indicators of latent variables. To facilitate the identification of the model, the error of variance of unenthusiastic-
To assist interpretation of the models, completely standardized solutions are presented (i.e., true path analytic representations). Each variable has been standardized to unit variance, so that the regression coefficients (undirectional arrows) can be interpreted as beta path coefficients (13), and the covariances (two-way arrows) as correlations. K, It should be noted that "statistical significance" of p a r a m e t e r estimates in structural equation models, refers to the original, unstandardized parameters. H The chi-square goodness-of-fit test statistic is a function of sample size and the difference between the observed correlation or covariance matrix, and a predicted matrix based on the model. A "perfect fit" is indicated when ×2 = 0, and p = I. However, since this measure is a direct function of sample size, alrriost any model is likely to be rejected if the sample size is sufficiently large. On the other hand, the goodness of fit index (GFI) is a m e a s u r e of the relative a m o u n t of variances and covariances jointly accounted for by the model. This statistic is i n d e p e n d e n t of sample size and relatively robust against departures from normality. Further, the root m e a n square residual ( R M R ) error is a m e a s u r e of the average of the residual variances and covariances when the observed and predicted covariance matrices are compared (see J6reskog & S6rbom, 1986a).
Professional Development and Teachers' Self Perceptions
I
137
~ Inservlce evaluation
.549"
I No.ofLlteracy ~-.471 Inservices -~ 621~ No.of non-lit.
.866"
indifeagererent"
] I
I
I .958" ~
~
~817""~ .7'99
unfulfilled " fulfilled
Inservlces
Figure 1. Recursive structural equation model specifying the covariance between the latent variables of Professional Development and Energy, ..., showing standardized path coefficients (N = 273). Goodness of fit statistics: ×2 = 48.91, df = 13, p < .001, GFI ~ = 0.946; RMR b = 0.040. * p < .001. ~ Goodness of Fit Index. b Root Mean Square Residual. enthusiastic was set to z e r o , since this o b s e r v e d O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t are the r e c i p r o c a l effects v a r i a b l e h a d the s t r o n g e s t a s s o c i a t i o n with the of the l a t e n t v a r i a b l e s o f E n e r g y . . . . and E n e r g y . . . . latent v a r i a b l e ( i . e . , h 2 = 0.85; R 2 = P r o f e s s i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t ( b o t h significant), 0.75; 13 = 0.91). which i n d i c a t e t h a t the effect of P r o f e s s i o n a l A l m o s t all of the m o d e l ' s p a r a m e t e r s a r e D e v e l o p m e n t on E n e r g y . . . . is g r e a t e r than that statistically significant by u n i v a r i a t e t w o - t a i l e d o f E n e r g y . . . . on P r o f e s s i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , by tests, a n d the G F I a n d R M R indices indicate a m o r e t h a n a factor o f 3. T h i s l a t t e r finding is p a r " g o o d fit" of the d a t a to the m o d e l . T h e signifi- ticularly i m p o r t a n t , since it c o u l d b e a r g u e d that cant positive effects of the i n d i f f e r e n t - e a g e r t h o s e t e a c h e r s w h o are a l r e a d y " e n e r g e t i c , " and b u r n t - o u t - - e n e r g i z e d o b s e r v e d v a r i a b l e s on " e n t h u s i a s t i c " , a n d so o n , a r e m o r e likely to the l a t e n t v a r i a b l e o f E n e r g y . . . . . are as ex- a p p r e c i a t e a n d to actively s e e k p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p e c t e d . T h e s t r o n g positive effect o f u n f u l f i l l e d - inservice p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s . fulfilled on P r o f e s s i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t suggests W h i l e the m o d e l p r o v i d e s s u p p o r t for such an that h i g h e r levels of p e r c e i v e d " f u l f i l m e n t " o f a r g u m e n t , the effect of P r o f e s s i o n a l D e v e l o p t e a c h e r s l e a d to h i g h e r levels of p a r t i c i p a t i o n in m e n t on t e a c h e r E n e r g y , E n t h u s i a s m , a n d (and e v a l u a t i o n of) inservice t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s . Satisfaction is n o t a b l y s t r o n g e r .
.•
unenthusiastic° enthusiastic
1.00 indifferent eager
Iflservlce evaluation unfulfilled fulfilled No. of literacy Inservlces burnt-out energlzed
.559",,.,,,...,j~ No. of non-lit. Ineervices
1
Figure 2. Non-recursive structural equation model showing path coefficient estimates among observed and latent Energy, ... and Professional Development variables (N = 273). Goodness of fit statistics: ×z = 61.19, df = 7, p < .001, GFIa = 0.935; RMR b = 0.078. ° p < .05. ~ Goodness of Fit Index. b-Root Mean Square Residual.
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KENNETH J. ROWE and JACKIE SYKES Discussion
Consistent with the findings of Smylie's (1988) study, the results from the present study provide strong support for a functional relationship between professional development and dimensions of teachers' professional self perception. More specifically, the results indicate that teachers' participation in, and evaluation of, inservice professional development programs, had direct, positive effects (impacts) on their self-ratings of Energy, Enthusiasm, and Satisfaction. Furthermore, the findings provide empirical support for the claimed "benefits" of inservice training for teachers made elsewhere (e.g., Coulter & Ingvarson, 1985; Hughes, 1987; Ingvarson, 1987; Joyce & Showers, 1988; Rowe, 1987). Four outcomes of the study are especially worthy of note. First, in terms of teachers' participation rates in inservice programs, as well as their evaluation of personal enhancement due to participation in such programs, there were significant differences between the four education regions from which the teacher sample was drawn. The mean ratings on these variables for teachers located in regions A and B were markedly higher than those for their counterparts in regions C and D. Similarly, there were significant differences between the regions on the mean scale scores for the Energy ... and Clarity dimensions of professional Self Perception, with teachers in region B recording notably higher mean ratings on all five affect dimensions than their colleagues in the other three regions. Moreover, it is interesting to observe that teachers in region B also had notably higher mean participation rates in both literacy and non-literacy inservice professional development programs than their peers in the other three regions. A subsequent check of personnel records for the previous three years revealed that, per capita of teacher population, teachers in region B had less than half the number of absentee days of their nearest regional rival (region A). While this finding may be mere coincidence, it is sufficiently suggestive of a positive impact of professional development on teacher affect to warrant further investigation. Second, the findings related to the underlying dimensionality of the semantic differential instrument used in the present study [adapted
from Elsworth & Coulter's (1977) Professional Self Perception Questionnaire], were of special interest. From Elsworth and Coulter's study among teacher trainees, the derived seven factor solution of the data from the semantic differential indicated that the largest proportion of the variance was accounted for by the W a r m t h Supportiveness dimension (14.6%). By contrast, in the present study among experienced practising teachers, the first factor extracted in a similar analysis was made up of indicators loading on the Energy, Enthusiasm, Satisfaction dimension, and accounted for a large 47.2% of the total variance. The reliability (internal consistency) measure for this scale was also high (Cronbach's e~ = 0.94). This finding suggests that compared to trainees, experienced teachers not only have different professional self perceptions, but also the salience of their affect ratings on indicators of Energy, Enthusiasm, and Satisfaction, are stronger and more consistent. While some of these differences might be explained in terms of teachers' age and experience, the implications of this finding for the provision of criteria for evaluating teachers' affective adjustment to professional role demands, are considerable. Third, the significant differences between teachers trained and not trained in the literacy programs of interest in the present study (i.e., ELIC, LaRIC, and RR), on all five affect dimensions identified, suggest the particular efficacy of these inservice programs in terms of teachers' professional self perceptions. These findings are consistent with the qualitative evaluations of the programs cited earlier (i.e., Felton, 1986; Geekie, 1988; Glen, 1986; Rowe, 1987; Russell, 1985). For example, Rowe's (1987) evaluation found that Victorian teachers consistently claimed that participation in the ELIC program had markedly improved their competence as "observers of children's learning behaviours," and "notably enhanced their professional repertoires of literacy teaching skills" (p. 10). Typical of the comments from teachers in Rowe's study was: " E L I C has recharged my batteries, ... my confidence as a teacher has grown dramatically." Such outcomes point to a need to examine in more detail the particular model of inservice implementation entailed in programs like ELIC, which give rise to such positive affect responses from teachers.
Professional Development and Teachers' Self Perceptions Fourth, the results from the structural equation modeling indicated strong, positive effects of Professional D e v e l o p m e n t on teachers' professional Self Perceptions, particularly those related to Energy, Enthusiasm, and Satisfaction. The reciprocal effects of Professional Development and Energy .... were significantly positive, and especially the direct effect of Professional D e v e l o p m e n t on Energy . . . . . These findings provided explanatory potency to the observations from the raw data, namely, that those teachers who had frequently participated in inservice programs during the last three years, regardless of program type, consistently gave self perception ratings towards the positive ends of the semantic differential scales. Alternatively, those teachers who had none or minimal inservice participation rates during the last three years, tended to provide ratings at the negative ends of the scales. Such findings are consistent with Joyce and Showers' (1988) contention that, "the benefits to personnel and organization are by themselves a sufficient rationale for the development of a strong staff development system ..." Furthermore, they argue, "... the failure to create a strong staff development system is a tragic dereliction" (p. 27). We noted earlier that there is considerable research evidence to show that student achievement is mediated by teacher behaviour (Brophy & G o o d , 1986), and equally strong evidence that teachers' professional practices are influenced by their self perceptions (Levis, 1985). Furthermore, in spite of the current emphasis of policy makers on educational o u t p u t s ( i . e . , student achievement), the present findings suggest that teachers' professional self perceptions constitute important criteria for evaluating the intended "benefits" of inservice programs (inp u t s ) , and may also be crucial in monitoring student outcomes. In any event, the results from this study indicate that professional development does enhance teacher affect, and appears to be a powerful means of doing so. Moreover, teacher affect is a crucial indicator of educational output, by any criterion. The policy implications of the present findings are clear. In the Australian context, the endorsement of professional development for teachers expressed in recent government reports (i.e, the Joint Review of Teacher Education, 1986; the Report of the Inservice Teacher
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Education Project, 1988; and the Quality of Education Review Committee, 1985) has not been matched in reality. "As the past has repeatedly shown .... the mere expression of interest by government ensures neither policy nor its implementation" (Harris & Fasano, 1988, p. 298). Harris and Fasano also note: The substantial withdrawal of Commonwealth funding from this area in 1986 has severely impaired the delivery of the programmes ... Provision for in-service teacher education now exists mostly in diminished forms in Australia. Yet recent curriculum innovations and expanding stresses in the educational environment have generated needs in this area which are possibly greater than at any other time in the recent past. (p. 292) Finally, the findings of the study reported here are intended not only as a contribution towards a revival of interest in teacher professional development, but also as an empirical offering towards the provision of a rationale for specific policy formulation. If, as the results of the present study indicate, Professional Development impacts positively on teachers' professional Self Perceptions, herein lies sufficient justification for the implementation of policies designed to enhance the professional self perceptions of teachers, and their adjustment to professional role demands. In this context, the comments made recently by Ingvarson (1987) are worth quoting: The most important resource we have for school improvement is the human resource of our teacherstheir stock of knowledge, skills and experience, and their potential for future development. This resource is not being developed with the care and foresight that now is common in other areas of public and private enterprise. Danger signals are emerging from several studies of teacher stress and job-satisfaction (Otto, 1986; Tuettemann, 1986). At present there are many good ideas for improving teaching, but far too few opportunities for teachers to learn how to use them. (p. 31)
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