- Email: [email protected]
The impact of tailored text messages on health beliefs and medication adherence in adults with diabetes: A randomized pilot study
Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy 12 (2016) 130–140
Original Research
The impact of tailored text messages on health beliefs and medication adherence in adults with diabetes: A randomized pilot study Justin Gatwood, Ph.D., M.P.H.a,*, Rajesh Balkrishnan, Ph.D.b, Steven R. Erickson, Pharm.D.b, Lawrence C. An, M.D.c,d, John D. Piette, Ph.D.c,e,f, Karen B. Farris, Ph.D.b a
University of Tennessee, College of Pharmacy, Memphis, TN, USA University of Michigan, College of Pharmacy, Ann Arbor, MI, USA c University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA d University of Michigan, Center for Health Communication Research, Ann Arbor, MI, USA e Department of Veterans Affairs, Center for Clinical Management Research, Ann Arbor, MI, USA f University of Michigan School of Public Health, Department of Health Behavior and Health Education, Ann Arbor, MI, USA b
Abstract Background: Inadequate medication adherence reduces optimal health outcomes and can lead to increased costs, particularly in patients with diabetes. Efforts to improve adherence have resulted in limited effects; approaches leveraging mobile technology have emerged, but their focus has mainly been limited to simple reminder messages. Objective: The purpose of this pilot study was to test the effectiveness of tailored text messages focusing on improving medication adherence and health beliefs in adults with diabetes. Methods: Adults aged 21–64, with uncontrolled diabetes, and taking at least one anti-diabetic medication were recruited and randomized into 2 study arms: daily tailored text messaging for 90 days or standard care. Comparing baseline and endpoint survey responses, changes in theory-driven health beliefs and attitudes were assessed. The impact on medication adherence was evaluated using pharmacy claims by calculating the percent of days covered (PDC). Results: A total of 75 subjects were consented, and 48 were randomized. Mean PDC at baseline were comparable between cohorts (84.4% and 87.1%, respectively). Declines in adherence were observed in both groups over time but no significant differences were observed between groups or from baseline to the end of the active study period. Unadjusted tests suggested that perceived benefits and competence might have improved in the intervention arm. Conclusions: Tailoring mobile phone text messages is a novel way to address medication nonadherence and health beliefs; further investigation to this combined technique is needed to better understand its impact on behavior change in adults with diabetes. Ó 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Adherence; Tailoring; Mobile health; Self-management; Behavioral theory
* Corresponding author. 881 Madison Ave., Memphis, TN 38109, USA. Tel.: þ1 901 448 7215. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Gatwood). 1551-7411/$ - see front matter Ó 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2015.04.007
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Background Nonadherence to chronic medications is a prevalent public health issue in the United States, contributing to added costs and detrimental health outcomes. The extent of this issue varies widely by condition with estimates of nonadherence to longterm medication regimens ranging from 20 to 83%.1 The landscape of nonadherence is especially problematic among patients with diabetes and is prevalent in those taking either oral medications or insulin. In this patient population, adherence may be as high as 98%, but estimates have been observed to be as low as 31% for oral medications while insulin regimens were found to have been adhered to only two-thirds of the time, on average.2,3 The implications of such suboptimal adherence include a worsening of health status, as indicated by higher levels of hemoglobin A1C, as well as increased hospitalizations and all-cause mortality.4,5 Approaches aimed at improving adherence have evolved over time. Common strategies for supporting medication adherence have included provider follow-up,6–10 patient education and coaching,11–17 case management,12,18,19 and reminders.15,20,21 Across these intervention strategies improvements in medication adherence have been realized, but consistent change has not been observed and no dominant approach has emerged. Recently, mobile phone technology has been used as a means to target improved medication adherence, most commonly leveraging text message reminders to reach patients.22–27 While improvements in adherence have been realized by solely focusing on such cues to action, mobile technology affords the medical community an opportunity to relay messages to patients beyond simple reminders and focus on other medication-taking barriers. Having shown positive results in health-related behaviors, tailored messaging may be an approach to influence patients with diabetes to better adhere to their regimens based on added influences.28,29 Tailoring identifies and then focuses communication on individual barriers and behavioral factors observed to impact a particular behavior. Studies using tailoring techniques aimed at improving medication adherence have shown mostly positive outcomes, and these results have become more consistent in recent years.30–39 However, in studies involving patients with diabetes, the results have been mixed, suggesting the need for further inquiry.11,40 A limited number of studies have investigated the combined effect of both text messaging and
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tailoring on medication adherence and have shown promising results.41–43 Franklin and colleagues examined the use of tailored text messages among pediatric patients with type one diabetes, and results demonstrated that this level of communication was accepted and could be effective in improving self-reported adherence.44 What remains to be seen is whether the combined approach of tailoring and mobile phone message delivery can be an effective mode of behavior change in older and more diverse populations of patients with diabetes. The purpose of this pilot trial was to test the effectiveness of tailored text messages on influencing patients’ health beliefs and attitudes toward their condition and treatment which in turn could lead to improved medication adherence in adults with uncontrolled diabetes. In this study, tailoring was based on the Health Belief Model and Self-Determination Theory, the rationale for which has been presented elsewhere.45 We hypothesized that the sending of daily messages focusing on either theoretical concepts known to influence medication or specific medication knowledge would lead to increased subject beliefs about their condition and treatment and result in improved adherence to pharmacotherapy. Methods Design This pilot study was conducted between November 2012 and September of 2013 as a randomized controlled trial using 2 parallel arms: an active intervention arm that received a daily tailored message and a control arm that received standard care only. Approval to conduct this investigation was granted by an Institutional Review Board at the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor, MI) and Mercy Health Partners (Muskegon, MI). Study population Using electronic health records, adults (aged 21–64) with diabetes and a hemoglobin A1C of at least 8.0% (according to their most recent reading) were recruited from a western Michigan health system. Potentially eligible subjects were drawn from the health system’s electronic health record system, contacted by mail, and given the option to opt out of being further contacted. Initially identified patients who did not opt out were contacted by phone, introduced to the study,
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and screened for eligibility. Subjects were also recruited at a local diabetes health fair during which the study was introduced and interested subjects were screened and consented, if eligible. No racial or gender bias was present in the selection of participants. To be eligible, subjects needed to have been diagnosed with diabetes, be taking at least one anti-diabetic medication, report missing at least one dose within the past 30 days, use a mobile phone and text messages, and report pharmacy coverage through one of two payer partners or the health system’s assistance program. Subjects were excluded if they had suffered a heart attack or stroke, been diagnosed with congestive heart failure, or if English was not their primary language. Once eligible, all subjects were randomized by the PI into either the intervention or control arm using a random number generator. Regardless of study arm, all subjects were compensated with a $50 debit card at the end of the study. Intervention Using responses to a baseline assessment, subjects in the intervention arm received one tailored message by mobile phone each day for 90 days. Content for each message was based on concepts of the Health Belief Model (HBM) or SelfDetermination Theory (SDT) or focused on the subjects’ medication regimen (e.g. information on how their medication works). To achieve a more deeply tailored message, subject name and the time of day delivered (e.g. morning, afternoon, evening) were always used; age and medication name were used sporadically or when coinciding with a medication-focused message, respectively. The intent of the messages was to increase patient education, provide motivation, and reinforce existing levels of condition- and treatment-related beliefs. Messages were timed to be received at the time of day coinciding with the subject’s first dose, and delivery of each message was confirmed by the system used to automate the process. The message creation and delivery process are described elsewhere.45 Subjects in the control arm received standard care only and a monthly “check-in” text message. Data collection At enrollment, subjects were mailed a survey to capture baseline information related to HBM and SDT constructs as well as data on demographics, mobile phone operation, and medication use.
HBM constructs were captured using a diabetesspecific instrument developed by Given46 and then altered by Becker and Janz,47 maintaining the original Likert-type response options. Cronbach’s a for this instrument ranges from 0.70 to 0.89, depending on the domain of the scale, and content validity was verified by a separate study.46,48 Individual items were scored and summed to create a composite score for each of the 4 model concepts; higher scores indicate a higher perceived belief in each concept. Two separate instruments evaluated items measuring dimensions of Self-Determination Theory: the Treatment SelfRegulation Questionnaire (TSRQ) and the Perceived Competency Scale (PCS). As measured in the TSRQ, the concepts of autonomous motivation and external regulation have acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s a O 0.80) and validity has been verified in diabetes.49,50 Perceived competence was measured by items of the PCS; Cronbach’s a for this scale is 0.94 and support for its construct validity has been demonstrated.51 Similar to the HBM concepts, a summed score was created for each of the three constructs with a higher score indicating a higher level of each concept. Subjects were also asked to provide a complete list of their current diabetes medications, including each medication’s name, dose, and dosing schedule. After the 90 days comprising the study period, each subject was sent a similar survey to capture any changes in attitudes or beliefs since baseline. Subjects in the intervention arm were also asked to respond to a series of questions focused on their acceptance of the text messages. These items were guided by the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)52 and adapted for patients with diabetes using items employed by Kim and colleagues to investigate the acceptance of text messaging.53 The 4 items asked subjects about perceived ease of use and usefulness of receiving tailored text messages; the original 7-point Likert scale response options were used where a higher score indicated a higher level of acceptance. Scale reliability for the 2 constructs was demonstrated previously to be 0.77 and 0.91, respectively.53 As before, the endpoint survey was paper-based and mailed to each subject. To evaluate medication adherence, pharmacy claims were collected from a health insurance company as well as the participating health system. Claims were collected over 3, 90-day periods to establish a baseline, study period, and followup level of adherence to diabetes medications. The
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proportion of days covered (PDC) was calculated for each medication being taken to form an overall composite PDC for each subject.54 For each subject, the first fill date for each medication during the 90-day look-back period served as the index date. For this initial period, the number of days between index and the end of the period determined the denominator; the study and follow-up periods each had 90-day denominators. Using the days supply, a count of the number of days each medication was on hand determined the numerator; overlapping fills occurring before the end of a previous fill’s days supply were not counted until after the previous fill’s supply was exhausted. PDC was calculated as the ratio between total days covered and the days in the period.
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Effectiveness of the intervention was defined a priori as providing an improvement in adherence comparable to previous studies aiming to impact medication-taking and health beliefs using mobile phones. Power calculations indicated that 28 subjects in each cohort would allow for 80% power to detect at least a 15% difference (SD: 20%) in medication adherence, which would be comparable to an earlier study examining the impact of text messaging on adherence and treatment beliefs.43 For all comparisons, a P-value of %0.05 was considered to be significant and Stata 11.0 (StataCorp, College Station, TX) was used for all analyses, which were conducted between October 2013 and May 2014.
Results Subject demographics Analysis Subject characteristics, including demographics, medication use, and mobile phone operation, were described using means and standard deviations or frequencies and proportions, and evaluated using t-tests for continuous variables and Fisher’s exact tests for categorical variables. The proportion of days covered and health beliefs and attitudes for each time period were described by means and standard deviations and compared across cohorts by t-tests and Wilcoxon signed-rank or rank sum tests, respectively. The primary outcome measure was change from baseline in medication adherence following 90 days of daily tailored messaging. Differences in medication adherence across the entire study period were evaluated using repeated measure ANOVA, assessing between and within group differences as well as a group by time interaction.43 ANCOVA was conducted to control for baseline PDC values in examining potential changes from baseline to the end of the intervention. Fisher’s exact tests were used to evaluate the proportions of subjects attaining a PDC R80% across arms. Changes in health beliefs and attitudes, between and within groups, were compared using ANCOVA for those subjects returning the endpoint survey. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to describe potential relationships between demographic characteristics and particular health beliefs and attitudes. Survey data were analyzed using only those who completed both the baseline and endpoint assessments.
A total of 75 individuals were eligible and consented; ultimately, 48 subjects returned the baseline surveys and were randomized equally (Fig. 1). After the 3-month study period, 43 subjects completed and returned endpoint surveys. During the study, 1 subject was lost to follow-up due to death and the remaining 4 failed to return the endpoint survey after multiple attempts. Three of the 4 subjects lost to follow-up were control subjects, and 1 was randomized to the intervention. There were no differences in baseline characteristics between those lost to follow-up and those with complete data. Cohorts were similar at baseline although some marginal differences in demographics were observed (Table 1). Mean ages were not significantly different between groups (P ¼ 0.734) and the average across the entire study population was 47.0 (SD: 11.7). Just over half of subjects were married, and nearly all were either African American or White. Also, nearly all participants reported an annual household income of $75,000 or less with the vast majority reporting a value of $50,000 or less. Study cohorts were also similar in their mobile phone characteristics. Two-thirds of all subjects reported text messaging 10 times or less each day and a majority owned smartphones. Smartphone owners and those more regularly text messaging were more likely to be 49 years of age and under (both P ! 0.01), and basic cell phone owners reported significantly less daily texting (P ¼ 0.037). No significant differences were observed in phone ownership or operation across other demographic characteristics.
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Fig. 1. Study recruitment and enrollment.
Medication use At baseline, a majority of subjects (70%) were taking 1 or 2 anti-diabetic medications and the distribution of diabetes medications taken each day were nearly identical across cohorts. On a daily basis, the average number of doses was approximately 4 with no difference between study groups (P ¼ 0.637). The single most common medication taken was metformin (62%); however, both rapid (e.g. lispro, aspart) and long-acting (e.g. glargine, detemir) insulins were well represented (49% and 58%, respectively). Nearly all subjects (87%) were on oral medication only, insulin only, or a combination of oral and insulin therapy; a near equal distribution was observed between these regimens. While regimen characteristics were fairly similar between arms, more than twice as many subjects in the active arm were on an oral and insulin regimen. Among all subjects, the number of doses per day tended to decrease with age (r ¼ 0.31, P ¼ 0.036); those on an
oral only regimen tended to be aged 50 years and older while a majority of those on either insulin or both insulin and oral medications tended to be 49 years old and younger. Health beliefs and attitudes At baseline, no significant differences existed between treatments groups for any of the measured health beliefs and attitudes (all P O 0.05). Within both cohorts, average scores were highest for perceived severity and autonomous regulation for HBM and SDT constructs, respectively, and were maintained in the followup period. No differences in any mean levels were observed between genders while a negative relationship was observed between the number of medications and perceived barriers (r ¼ 0.42, P ¼ 0.004). Additionally, values for external regulation tended to increase with age (r ¼ 0.429, P ¼ 0.002) but no significant relationship was found between this construct and the
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Table 1 Study population characteristics Characteristic
Demographics Age (mean, SD) Age group 21–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–64 Female Relationship status Single Living together Married Widowed Separated/divorced Race/ethnicity African American Hispanic Multiple Native American White Household income ($) 0–25,000 25,001–50,000 50,001–75,000 75,001–100,000 O100,000 Cohabitants (mean, SD) Mobile phone use Daily texting 1–10 11–20 21–30 31 or more Phone type Basic Smart Average monthly bill (mean, SD) Medication usea Diabetes medications (mean, SD) Daily dose (mean, SD) Therapy Oral only Insulin only Oral and insulin Other combinations Medication adherence (mean, SD)b
Tailored subjects (N ¼ 24)
Control (N ¼ 24) Count
P-value
Count
%
%
47.54
12.1
46.38
11.57
3 3 6 8 4 12
12.5 12.5 25 33.3 16.7 50
3 3 6 9 3 12
12.5 12.5 25 37.5 12.5 50
5 0 13 2 4
20.8 0 54.2 8.3 16.7
3 3 12 0 6
12.5 12.5 50 0 25
8 0 2 0 14
33.3 0 8.3 0 58.3
8 1 0 1 14
33.3 4.2 0 4.2 58.3
6 11 5 2 0 2.25
25 45.8 20.8 8.3 0 1.67
16 5 2 1
66.7 20.8 8.3 4.2
16 3 2 3
66.7 12.5 8.3 12.5
10 14 98.27
41.7 58.3 70.36
9 15 101.9
37.5 62.5 75.48
0.867
2.25
0.85
2.09
0.87
0.805
4.5
2.05
4.24
2.05
0.637 0.421
6 7 9 2 0.84
25.0 29.2 37.5 8.3 0.18
7 7 4 4 0.87
25.0 29.2 37.5 8.3 0.33
0.734 1.000
1.000 0.204
0.406
0.559 7 7 8 1 1 2.79
29.2 29.2 33.3 4.2 4.2 2.11
0.329 0.682
0.768
Values listed are count and proportion unless otherwise noted. a Two control subjects did not accurately report their current medication list. b Reported as the percent of days covered (PDC).
0.703
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Table 2 Subject health beliefs and attitudes Behavioral theory
Construct
Tailored Baseline
Endpoint
Baseline
Health belief modela
Perceived severity Perceived susceptibility Perceived benefits Perceived barriers Perceived competence Autonomous motivation External regulation
4.0 3.7 3.6 3.6 4.5 6.2 3.3
4.3 3.7 3.9 3.8 5.3 6.5 3.7
4.3 3.6 3.8 3.8 4.9 6.6 3.8
Self-determinationb
(0.53) (0.58) (0.59) (0.83) (1.51) (1.17) (1.32)
Control
(0.44) (0.57) (0.34) (0.63) (1.14) (0.49) (1.63)
(0.44) (0.73) (0.48) (0.68) (1.52) (0.43) (1.48)
P-value
Endpoint
Adjusted difference
4.2 3.6 3.8 3.8 5.0 6.3 3.6
0.10 0.01 0.20 0.09 0.57 0.17 0.36
0.447 0.968 0.169 0.646 0.077 0.363 0.406
(0.43) (0.53) (0.61) (0.79) (1.53) (0.70) (1.46)
Values are listed as mean (SD). At endpoint, 23 tailored subjects and 20 controls responded to survey items. a A post-hoc analysis indicated that, for this distribution, the study would have needed at least 203 subjects per arm to have O80% power to detect a difference in mean values between groups at a ¼ 0.05. b A post-hoc analysis indicated that, for this distribution, the study would have needed at least 308 subjects per arm to have O80% power to detect a difference in mean values between groups at a ¼ 0.05.
number of reported cohabitants (P ¼ 0.194) or by relationship status (P ¼ 0.231). Also, in spite of the observed differences in mean values, significant relationships between scores for autonomous motivation and external regulation were not seen at baseline. No significant changes in health beliefs and attitudes following the study period were observed between arms after adjusting for baseline values (Table 2); effects on perceived competence trended toward significance (P ¼ 0.077). Unadjusted tests indicated that statistically significant improvements in perceived benefits (P ¼ 0.02) and perceived competence (P ¼ 0.033) were seen in active arm subjects; comparisons between cohorts did not reach statistical significance (not shown). Analyses using mean value replacement and last value carried forward were also conducted but no appreciable differences in results were observed.
baseline to the end of the intervention was 5.7% and 12.4% for active and control subjects, respectively. ANOVA analysis showed a significant overall time effect (F(1,18) ¼ 0.03, P ¼ 0.012), a non-significant cohort effect, and a nonsignificant cohort by time effect (Fig. 2). Individual tests indicated that the significant difference in mean PDC values occurred for both groups between values at baseline and at follow-up (both P ! 0.05), but no significant differences were achieved between groups at any time point. ANCOVA analysis showed an adjusted but nonsignificant difference in PDC values between groups from baseline through the active study period of 5.5% (P O 0.05); the resulting effect size was 0.034. Between groups, significant differences in mean PDC values over all 3 study periods were also not observed. Over time, the number of adherent subjects in the intervention arm did decline but not in a statistically significant fashion.
Medication adherence Complete pharmacy records over the three, 90day study periods were available for 20 subjects (10 in each cohort). At baseline, the mean PDC values were 84.4% (SD: 18.8) and 87.1% (SD: 19.8) for subjects in the intervention and control arms, respectively, and most subjects in both arms had achieved a PDC of at least 80%. No significant differences between arms were observed for either measure. Over the course of all 3 study periods, the mean PDC for all subjects was 77.2% (SD: 0.276). For both arms, mean PDC values declined between the 3 study periods; mean change from
Discussion The tailoring of messages is a novel method by which behavior change may be driven. Delivering tailored messages by mobile phone leverages a nearly ubiquitous communication channel that expands our ability to reach and engage patients between clinical encounters. This pilot study tested theory-based health belief and attitudes messages and treatment-specific tailored messages in a cohort of adults with uncontrolled diabetes from a single health system in western Michigan over a period of 3 months. Specifically, we aimed
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Fig. 2. Intervention impact on medication adherence. Values represent mean PDC for each time period. 20 subjects with complete pharmacy records for all time periods were analyzed. A post-hoc analysis indicated that, for this distribution, the study would have needed at least 678 subjects to detect a significant difference in mean values with at least 80% power at a ¼ 0.05.
to improve adherence to diabetes medications and alter condition- and treatment-specific health beliefs and attitudes by focusing message content on individual treatment regimens and baseline health belief levels. Results suggested that the intervention did not significantly improve participants’ anti-diabetic medication adherence or health beliefs and attitudes. However, some notable findings were observed that will be helpful in guiding future interventions. Compared to and controlled for baseline values, intervention subjects’ mean values for perceived competence trended toward significant improvement versus what was observed in control subjects. This potential impact may be the result of the messages employed: the majority of the content focused on reinforcing diabetes self-management and the internalization of the motivation to do so. As perceived competence has been suggested to facilitate goal attainment and provide individuals with need satisfaction, it may be hypothesized that this individual, specific finding may be reflective of the universal effect of the tailored messages used across concepts in spite of there being a lack of significant change in each concept.55 Since unadjusted, withingroup results suggested that significant improvement was realized in the intervention arm, further inquiry to better understand the way in which perceived competence may be incorporated into and altered by tailored text messages, specifically by the means employed, should be considered in future, larger investigations. Similarly, results suggested that subjects’ perceived benefits might be impacted by focusing
some messages on either medication-specific information or theory-driven content with an emphasis on the benefits of treatment adherence. When considering the content delivered, 1 in 5 messages focused on the benefits of treatment. Resultantly, we expected to see a more dramatic change in mean values from baseline. However, in spite of limited statistical power, this finding should be taken into consideration by future studies that may more precisely tailor medication information to each patient’s regimen, specifically the point at which they are in their treatment and to any changes made over time. To the authors’ knowledge, this was the first study to leverage tailored text messages to specifically focus on improving medication adherence in adults with diabetes. While multiple studies have investigated the impact that text messages and tailoring can have on adherence, the combined use of these two methods has been limited and either failed to individually tailor or did not fully describe how tailoring was accomplished. Importantly, this study adds both a precise description of how tailoring was achieved as well as an analysis of the intervention’s impact45; the results add to a body of literature demonstrating mixed effects from employing text messaging in encouraging medication adherence.56,57 Such a demonstration, in spite of clearly significant results, can help guide future studies aiming to employ similar methods. However, investigators should also consider the approaches taken by recent studies that demonstrated positive improvements in medication adherence,41–44 specifically those that
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focused on adults with diabetes.58 Considering the extent of nonadherence, myriad reasons for this behavior, and lack of consistency in what has proven to be effective, future studies may benefit from an individualized yet multifaceted approach that builds off of what has been observed to date. Limitations This study was limited by its small sample size, similar to many mobile health investigations to date; several subjects were lost to follow-up and less than half had reliable pharmacy claims data, further reducing the sample size for analysis. As a pilot study, the aim of this research was to examine the potential for several types of messages to influence health beliefs and medicationtaking, and while the sample size limits statistical interpretation the results still provide guidance on how particular tailored text messages may be used during the diabetes treatment process. Additionally, the types of messages employed were constructed based on their previously observed influence on adherence while also providing education on reported medications. However, research on medication taking has uncovered myriad reasons for nonadherence, only some of which were the focus of this investigation. Thus, the influence of the tailored messages may have been limited if their focus did not match the needs of the enrolled population. The influence of the messages may have also been impacted by how long each subject had been treated for diabetes: more established patients may not have benefited as much as those who were recently diagnosed. Also, the intervention only lasted 3 months and may not have been long enough to make a significant impact on either health beliefs or adherence. To examine adherence, pharmacy claims data were used to track the refilling of diabetes medications; however, a significant discrepancy existed between the medications being taken as listed by each subject and those for which a claim was observed. Considering the wide availability of generic medications through pharmacies offering discount programs, it is possible that some oral medications were filled in this manner and, therefore, could not be tracked by insurance claims data. As a result, the impact of the intervention on the taking of some medications could not be measured. Similarly, the use of PDC as an adherence metric, while widely used and accepted, is an indirect measure of medication-taking behavior: this method cannot confirm that a prescription filled
led to medication being taken by each subject. Additionally, adjustments to insulin dosing may not be accurately measured by PDC, leading to a bias in how adherence was measured for subjects taking this class of medication. Finally, the study population consisted of mostly insured subjects; therefore, the results may not be generalizable to populations lacking or with dissimilar coverage. Conclusion The tailoring of treatment- and conditionspecific text messages remains an area of opportunity to improve medication adherence, increase patient knowledge, and provide motivation to patients with diabetes and other conditions. Future research should seek to improve information exchange between patients and providers, enroll large cohorts of subjects, and improve the tailoring of the messages to further individualize the intervention, advance patient engagement, and, potentially, lead to significant behavior change over time. Acknowledgments This research was sponsored by an award from the University of Michigan Rackham Graduate School and by Grant Number R36 HS021976 from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). John Piette is a VA Senior Research Career Scientist and received additional support from NIH Grant #P30DK092926. The contents of this publication are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of AHRQ. The study authors wish to thank Jason Barnum, PharmD (Mercy Health Partners) for his assistance with identifying potentially eligible subjects and Katie S. Kaminski, PharmD (University of North Carolina Hospitals) for her assistance with recruiting subjects for the intervention. The authors of this paper reported no financial disclosures. All authors contributed to the development of the intervention and revising of the manuscript; JG managed the operations of the intervention and conducted all analyses; and RB, SR, LA, JP, and KF provided methodological guidance. References 1. Krueger KP, Berger BA, Felkey B. Medication adherence and persistence: a comprehensive review. Adv Ther 2005;22:313–356.
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17. Collins-McNeil J, Edwards CL, Batch BC, Benbow D, McDougald CS, Sharpe D. A culturally targeted self-management program for African Americans with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Can J Nurs Res 2012;44:126–141. 18. Krein SL, Klamerus ML, Vijan S, et al. Case management for patients with poorly controlled diabetes: a randomized trial. Am J Med 2004;116:732–739. 19. Gibson TB, Mahoney J, Ranghell K, Cherney BJ, McElwee N. Value-based insurance plus disease management increased medication use and produced savings. Health Aff 2011;30:100–108. 20. Skaer TL, Sclar DA, Markowski DJ, Won JKH. Effect of value-added utilities on prescription refill compliance and Medicaid health care expendituresa study of patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Pharm Ther 1993;18:295–299. 21. Rosen MI, Rigsby MO, Salahi JT, Ryan CE, Cramer JA. Electronic monitoring and counseling to improve medication adherence. Behav Res Ther 2004;42:409–422. 22. Marquez-Contreras E, Figuera von Wichmann M, Guillen V, et al. Effectiveness of an intervention to provide information to patients with hypertension as short text messages of reminders sent to their mobile phone. Aten Primaria 2004;34:399–405. 23. Cocosila M, Archer N, Haynes RB, Yuan Y. Can wireless text messaging improve adherence to preventive activities? Results of a randomized controlled trial. Int J Med Inf 2009;78:230–238. 24. Hou MY, Hurwitz S, Kavanagh E, Fortin J, Goldberg AB. Using daily text-message reminders to improve adherence with oral contraceptives, a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2010; 116:633–640. 25. Strandbygaard U, Thomsen SF, Backer V. A daily SMS reminder increases adherence to asthma treatment: a three-month follow-up study. Resp Med 2010;104:166–171. 26. Pop-Eleches C, Thirumurthy H, Habyarimana JP, et al. Mobile phone technologies improve adherence to antiretroviral treatment in a resource-limited setting: a randomized controlled trial of text message reminders. AIDS 2011;25:825–834. 27. Vervloet M, van Dijk L, Santen-Reestman J, et al. SMS reminders improve adherence to oral medication in type 2 diabetes patients who are real time electronically monitored. Int J Med Inform 2012; 81:594–604. 28. Noar SM, Benac CN, Harris MS. Does tailoring matter? Meta-analytic review of tailored print health behavior change interventions. Psychol Bull 2007;133:673–693. 29. Krebs P, Prochaska JO, Rossi JS. Defining what works in tailoring: a meta-analysis of computer tailored interventions for health behavior change. Prev Med 2010;51:214–221. 30. Holzemer WL, Bakken S, Portilo CJ, et al. Testing a nurse-tailored HIV medication adherence intervention. Nurs Res 2006;55:189–197.
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31. Johnson SS, Driskell MM, Johnson JL, et al. Efficacy of a transtheoretical model-based expert system for antihypertensive adherence. Dis Manag 2006;9:291–301. 32. Johnson SS, Driskell MM, Johnson JL, et al. Transtheoretical model intervention for adherence to lipid-lowering drugs. Dis Manag 2006;9:102–114. 33. Parsons JT, Golub SA, Rosof E, Holder C. Motivational interviewing and cognitive-behavioral intervention to improve HIV medication adherence among hazardous drinkers: a randomized controlled trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2007;46:443–450. 34. Bosworth HB, Olsen MK, Neary A, et al. Take Control of Your Blood pressure (TCYB) study: a multifactorial tailored behavioral and educational intervention for achieving blood pressure control. Patient Educ Couns 2008;70:338–347. 35. Hudson TJ, Owen RR, Thrush CR, Armitage TL, Thapa P. Guideline implementation and patienttailoring strategies to improve medication adherence for schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry 2008;69:74–80. 36. Reynolds NR, Testa MA, Max S, et al. Telephone support to improve antiretroviral medication adherence: a multisite, randomized controlled trial. J Acquir Defic Syndr 2008;47:62–68. 37. Velligan DI, Diamond PM, Mintz J, et al. The use of individually tailored environmental supports to improve medication adherence and outcomes in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2008;34:483–493. 38. Janson SL, McGrath KW, Covington JK, Cheng SC, Boushey HA. Individualized asthma self-management improves medication adherence and markers of asthma control. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009;123:840–846. 39. Stacy JN, Schwartz SM, Ershoff D, Shreve MS. Incorporating tailored interactive patient solutions using interactive voice response technology to improve statin adherence: results of a randomized clinical trial in a managed care setting. Popul Health Manag 2009;12:241–254. 40. Walker EA, Shmukler C, Ullman R, et al. Results of a successful telephonic intervention to improve diabetes control in urban adults. Diabetes Care 2011;34:2–7. 41. Hardy H, Kumar V, Doros G, et al. Randomized controlled trial of a personalized cellular phone reminder system to enhance adherence to antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2011;25:153–161. 42. Granholm E, Ben-Zeev D, Link PC, Bradshaw KR, Holden JL. Mobile assessment and treatment for schizophrenia (MATS): a pilot trial of an interactive text messaging intervention for medication adherence, socialization, and auditory hallucinations. Schizophr Bull 2012;38:414–425. 43. Petrie KJ, Perry K, Broadbent E, Weinman J. A text message programme designed to modify patients’
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illness and treatment beliefs improves self-reported adherence to asthma preventer medication. Br J Health Psychol 2012;17:74–84. Franklin VL, Waller A, Pagliarit C, Greene SA. A randomized controlled trial of Sweet Talk, a textmessaging system to support young people with diabetes. Diabet Med 2006;23:1332–1338. Gatwood J, Balkrishnan R, Erickson SR, et al. Addressing medication nonadherence by mobile phone: development and delivery of tailored messages. Res Social Adm Pharm 2014;10:809–823. Given CW, Given BA, Gallin RS, Condon JW. Development of scales to measure beliefs of diabetic patients. Res Nurs Health 1983;6:127–141. Becker MH, Janz NK. The Health Belief Model applied to understanding diabetes regimen compliance. Diabetes Educ 1985;11:41–47. Hurley AC. The health belief model: evaluation of a diabetes scale. Diabetes Educ 1990;16:44–48. Williams GC, Freedman ZR, Deci EL. Supporting autonomy to motivate patients with diabetes for glucose control. Diabetes Care 1998;21:1644–1651. Williams GC, Freedman Z, Deci EL. Promoting motivation for diabetics’ self-regulation of HbA1c. Diabetes 1996;45:13A. Williams GC, Lynch M, Glasgow RE. Computerassisted intervention improves patient-centered diabetes care by increasing autonomy support. Health Psychol 2007;26:728–734. Davis FD. Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Q 1989;13:319–340. Kim GS, Park S, Oh J. An examination of factors influencing consumer adoption of short message service (SMS). Psychol Mark 2008;25:769–786. Peterson AM, Nau DP, Cramer JA, et al. A checklist for medication compliance and persistence studies using retrospective databases. Value Health 2007;10:3–12. Ryan RM, Deci EL. Self-Determination Theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. Am Psychol 2000;55:68–78. Fjeldsoe BS, Marshall AL, Miller YD. Behavior change interventions delivered by mobile telephone short-message service. Am J Prev Med 2009;36: 165–173. Krishna S, Boren SA, Balas EA. Healthcare via cell phones: a systematic review. Telemed J E Health 2009;15:231–240. Arora S, Peters AL, Burner E, Lam CN, Menchine M. Trial to examine text message-based mHealth in emergency department patients with diabetes (TExT-MED): a randomized controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med; 2013;. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.annemergmed.2013.10.012.
Original Research
The impact of tailored text messages on health beliefs and medication adherence in adults with diabetes: A randomized pilot study Justin Gatwood, Ph.D., M.P.H.a,*, Rajesh Balkrishnan, Ph.D.b, Steven R. Erickson, Pharm.D.b, Lawrence C. An, M.D.c,d, John D. Piette, Ph.D.c,e,f, Karen B. Farris, Ph.D.b a
University of Tennessee, College of Pharmacy, Memphis, TN, USA University of Michigan, College of Pharmacy, Ann Arbor, MI, USA c University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA d University of Michigan, Center for Health Communication Research, Ann Arbor, MI, USA e Department of Veterans Affairs, Center for Clinical Management Research, Ann Arbor, MI, USA f University of Michigan School of Public Health, Department of Health Behavior and Health Education, Ann Arbor, MI, USA b
Abstract Background: Inadequate medication adherence reduces optimal health outcomes and can lead to increased costs, particularly in patients with diabetes. Efforts to improve adherence have resulted in limited effects; approaches leveraging mobile technology have emerged, but their focus has mainly been limited to simple reminder messages. Objective: The purpose of this pilot study was to test the effectiveness of tailored text messages focusing on improving medication adherence and health beliefs in adults with diabetes. Methods: Adults aged 21–64, with uncontrolled diabetes, and taking at least one anti-diabetic medication were recruited and randomized into 2 study arms: daily tailored text messaging for 90 days or standard care. Comparing baseline and endpoint survey responses, changes in theory-driven health beliefs and attitudes were assessed. The impact on medication adherence was evaluated using pharmacy claims by calculating the percent of days covered (PDC). Results: A total of 75 subjects were consented, and 48 were randomized. Mean PDC at baseline were comparable between cohorts (84.4% and 87.1%, respectively). Declines in adherence were observed in both groups over time but no significant differences were observed between groups or from baseline to the end of the active study period. Unadjusted tests suggested that perceived benefits and competence might have improved in the intervention arm. Conclusions: Tailoring mobile phone text messages is a novel way to address medication nonadherence and health beliefs; further investigation to this combined technique is needed to better understand its impact on behavior change in adults with diabetes. Ó 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Adherence; Tailoring; Mobile health; Self-management; Behavioral theory
* Corresponding author. 881 Madison Ave., Memphis, TN 38109, USA. Tel.: þ1 901 448 7215. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Gatwood). 1551-7411/$ - see front matter Ó 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2015.04.007
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Background Nonadherence to chronic medications is a prevalent public health issue in the United States, contributing to added costs and detrimental health outcomes. The extent of this issue varies widely by condition with estimates of nonadherence to longterm medication regimens ranging from 20 to 83%.1 The landscape of nonadherence is especially problematic among patients with diabetes and is prevalent in those taking either oral medications or insulin. In this patient population, adherence may be as high as 98%, but estimates have been observed to be as low as 31% for oral medications while insulin regimens were found to have been adhered to only two-thirds of the time, on average.2,3 The implications of such suboptimal adherence include a worsening of health status, as indicated by higher levels of hemoglobin A1C, as well as increased hospitalizations and all-cause mortality.4,5 Approaches aimed at improving adherence have evolved over time. Common strategies for supporting medication adherence have included provider follow-up,6–10 patient education and coaching,11–17 case management,12,18,19 and reminders.15,20,21 Across these intervention strategies improvements in medication adherence have been realized, but consistent change has not been observed and no dominant approach has emerged. Recently, mobile phone technology has been used as a means to target improved medication adherence, most commonly leveraging text message reminders to reach patients.22–27 While improvements in adherence have been realized by solely focusing on such cues to action, mobile technology affords the medical community an opportunity to relay messages to patients beyond simple reminders and focus on other medication-taking barriers. Having shown positive results in health-related behaviors, tailored messaging may be an approach to influence patients with diabetes to better adhere to their regimens based on added influences.28,29 Tailoring identifies and then focuses communication on individual barriers and behavioral factors observed to impact a particular behavior. Studies using tailoring techniques aimed at improving medication adherence have shown mostly positive outcomes, and these results have become more consistent in recent years.30–39 However, in studies involving patients with diabetes, the results have been mixed, suggesting the need for further inquiry.11,40 A limited number of studies have investigated the combined effect of both text messaging and
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tailoring on medication adherence and have shown promising results.41–43 Franklin and colleagues examined the use of tailored text messages among pediatric patients with type one diabetes, and results demonstrated that this level of communication was accepted and could be effective in improving self-reported adherence.44 What remains to be seen is whether the combined approach of tailoring and mobile phone message delivery can be an effective mode of behavior change in older and more diverse populations of patients with diabetes. The purpose of this pilot trial was to test the effectiveness of tailored text messages on influencing patients’ health beliefs and attitudes toward their condition and treatment which in turn could lead to improved medication adherence in adults with uncontrolled diabetes. In this study, tailoring was based on the Health Belief Model and Self-Determination Theory, the rationale for which has been presented elsewhere.45 We hypothesized that the sending of daily messages focusing on either theoretical concepts known to influence medication or specific medication knowledge would lead to increased subject beliefs about their condition and treatment and result in improved adherence to pharmacotherapy. Methods Design This pilot study was conducted between November 2012 and September of 2013 as a randomized controlled trial using 2 parallel arms: an active intervention arm that received a daily tailored message and a control arm that received standard care only. Approval to conduct this investigation was granted by an Institutional Review Board at the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor, MI) and Mercy Health Partners (Muskegon, MI). Study population Using electronic health records, adults (aged 21–64) with diabetes and a hemoglobin A1C of at least 8.0% (according to their most recent reading) were recruited from a western Michigan health system. Potentially eligible subjects were drawn from the health system’s electronic health record system, contacted by mail, and given the option to opt out of being further contacted. Initially identified patients who did not opt out were contacted by phone, introduced to the study,
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and screened for eligibility. Subjects were also recruited at a local diabetes health fair during which the study was introduced and interested subjects were screened and consented, if eligible. No racial or gender bias was present in the selection of participants. To be eligible, subjects needed to have been diagnosed with diabetes, be taking at least one anti-diabetic medication, report missing at least one dose within the past 30 days, use a mobile phone and text messages, and report pharmacy coverage through one of two payer partners or the health system’s assistance program. Subjects were excluded if they had suffered a heart attack or stroke, been diagnosed with congestive heart failure, or if English was not their primary language. Once eligible, all subjects were randomized by the PI into either the intervention or control arm using a random number generator. Regardless of study arm, all subjects were compensated with a $50 debit card at the end of the study. Intervention Using responses to a baseline assessment, subjects in the intervention arm received one tailored message by mobile phone each day for 90 days. Content for each message was based on concepts of the Health Belief Model (HBM) or SelfDetermination Theory (SDT) or focused on the subjects’ medication regimen (e.g. information on how their medication works). To achieve a more deeply tailored message, subject name and the time of day delivered (e.g. morning, afternoon, evening) were always used; age and medication name were used sporadically or when coinciding with a medication-focused message, respectively. The intent of the messages was to increase patient education, provide motivation, and reinforce existing levels of condition- and treatment-related beliefs. Messages were timed to be received at the time of day coinciding with the subject’s first dose, and delivery of each message was confirmed by the system used to automate the process. The message creation and delivery process are described elsewhere.45 Subjects in the control arm received standard care only and a monthly “check-in” text message. Data collection At enrollment, subjects were mailed a survey to capture baseline information related to HBM and SDT constructs as well as data on demographics, mobile phone operation, and medication use.
HBM constructs were captured using a diabetesspecific instrument developed by Given46 and then altered by Becker and Janz,47 maintaining the original Likert-type response options. Cronbach’s a for this instrument ranges from 0.70 to 0.89, depending on the domain of the scale, and content validity was verified by a separate study.46,48 Individual items were scored and summed to create a composite score for each of the 4 model concepts; higher scores indicate a higher perceived belief in each concept. Two separate instruments evaluated items measuring dimensions of Self-Determination Theory: the Treatment SelfRegulation Questionnaire (TSRQ) and the Perceived Competency Scale (PCS). As measured in the TSRQ, the concepts of autonomous motivation and external regulation have acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s a O 0.80) and validity has been verified in diabetes.49,50 Perceived competence was measured by items of the PCS; Cronbach’s a for this scale is 0.94 and support for its construct validity has been demonstrated.51 Similar to the HBM concepts, a summed score was created for each of the three constructs with a higher score indicating a higher level of each concept. Subjects were also asked to provide a complete list of their current diabetes medications, including each medication’s name, dose, and dosing schedule. After the 90 days comprising the study period, each subject was sent a similar survey to capture any changes in attitudes or beliefs since baseline. Subjects in the intervention arm were also asked to respond to a series of questions focused on their acceptance of the text messages. These items were guided by the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)52 and adapted for patients with diabetes using items employed by Kim and colleagues to investigate the acceptance of text messaging.53 The 4 items asked subjects about perceived ease of use and usefulness of receiving tailored text messages; the original 7-point Likert scale response options were used where a higher score indicated a higher level of acceptance. Scale reliability for the 2 constructs was demonstrated previously to be 0.77 and 0.91, respectively.53 As before, the endpoint survey was paper-based and mailed to each subject. To evaluate medication adherence, pharmacy claims were collected from a health insurance company as well as the participating health system. Claims were collected over 3, 90-day periods to establish a baseline, study period, and followup level of adherence to diabetes medications. The
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proportion of days covered (PDC) was calculated for each medication being taken to form an overall composite PDC for each subject.54 For each subject, the first fill date for each medication during the 90-day look-back period served as the index date. For this initial period, the number of days between index and the end of the period determined the denominator; the study and follow-up periods each had 90-day denominators. Using the days supply, a count of the number of days each medication was on hand determined the numerator; overlapping fills occurring before the end of a previous fill’s days supply were not counted until after the previous fill’s supply was exhausted. PDC was calculated as the ratio between total days covered and the days in the period.
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Effectiveness of the intervention was defined a priori as providing an improvement in adherence comparable to previous studies aiming to impact medication-taking and health beliefs using mobile phones. Power calculations indicated that 28 subjects in each cohort would allow for 80% power to detect at least a 15% difference (SD: 20%) in medication adherence, which would be comparable to an earlier study examining the impact of text messaging on adherence and treatment beliefs.43 For all comparisons, a P-value of %0.05 was considered to be significant and Stata 11.0 (StataCorp, College Station, TX) was used for all analyses, which were conducted between October 2013 and May 2014.
Results Subject demographics Analysis Subject characteristics, including demographics, medication use, and mobile phone operation, were described using means and standard deviations or frequencies and proportions, and evaluated using t-tests for continuous variables and Fisher’s exact tests for categorical variables. The proportion of days covered and health beliefs and attitudes for each time period were described by means and standard deviations and compared across cohorts by t-tests and Wilcoxon signed-rank or rank sum tests, respectively. The primary outcome measure was change from baseline in medication adherence following 90 days of daily tailored messaging. Differences in medication adherence across the entire study period were evaluated using repeated measure ANOVA, assessing between and within group differences as well as a group by time interaction.43 ANCOVA was conducted to control for baseline PDC values in examining potential changes from baseline to the end of the intervention. Fisher’s exact tests were used to evaluate the proportions of subjects attaining a PDC R80% across arms. Changes in health beliefs and attitudes, between and within groups, were compared using ANCOVA for those subjects returning the endpoint survey. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to describe potential relationships between demographic characteristics and particular health beliefs and attitudes. Survey data were analyzed using only those who completed both the baseline and endpoint assessments.
A total of 75 individuals were eligible and consented; ultimately, 48 subjects returned the baseline surveys and were randomized equally (Fig. 1). After the 3-month study period, 43 subjects completed and returned endpoint surveys. During the study, 1 subject was lost to follow-up due to death and the remaining 4 failed to return the endpoint survey after multiple attempts. Three of the 4 subjects lost to follow-up were control subjects, and 1 was randomized to the intervention. There were no differences in baseline characteristics between those lost to follow-up and those with complete data. Cohorts were similar at baseline although some marginal differences in demographics were observed (Table 1). Mean ages were not significantly different between groups (P ¼ 0.734) and the average across the entire study population was 47.0 (SD: 11.7). Just over half of subjects were married, and nearly all were either African American or White. Also, nearly all participants reported an annual household income of $75,000 or less with the vast majority reporting a value of $50,000 or less. Study cohorts were also similar in their mobile phone characteristics. Two-thirds of all subjects reported text messaging 10 times or less each day and a majority owned smartphones. Smartphone owners and those more regularly text messaging were more likely to be 49 years of age and under (both P ! 0.01), and basic cell phone owners reported significantly less daily texting (P ¼ 0.037). No significant differences were observed in phone ownership or operation across other demographic characteristics.
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Fig. 1. Study recruitment and enrollment.
Medication use At baseline, a majority of subjects (70%) were taking 1 or 2 anti-diabetic medications and the distribution of diabetes medications taken each day were nearly identical across cohorts. On a daily basis, the average number of doses was approximately 4 with no difference between study groups (P ¼ 0.637). The single most common medication taken was metformin (62%); however, both rapid (e.g. lispro, aspart) and long-acting (e.g. glargine, detemir) insulins were well represented (49% and 58%, respectively). Nearly all subjects (87%) were on oral medication only, insulin only, or a combination of oral and insulin therapy; a near equal distribution was observed between these regimens. While regimen characteristics were fairly similar between arms, more than twice as many subjects in the active arm were on an oral and insulin regimen. Among all subjects, the number of doses per day tended to decrease with age (r ¼ 0.31, P ¼ 0.036); those on an
oral only regimen tended to be aged 50 years and older while a majority of those on either insulin or both insulin and oral medications tended to be 49 years old and younger. Health beliefs and attitudes At baseline, no significant differences existed between treatments groups for any of the measured health beliefs and attitudes (all P O 0.05). Within both cohorts, average scores were highest for perceived severity and autonomous regulation for HBM and SDT constructs, respectively, and were maintained in the followup period. No differences in any mean levels were observed between genders while a negative relationship was observed between the number of medications and perceived barriers (r ¼ 0.42, P ¼ 0.004). Additionally, values for external regulation tended to increase with age (r ¼ 0.429, P ¼ 0.002) but no significant relationship was found between this construct and the
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Table 1 Study population characteristics Characteristic
Demographics Age (mean, SD) Age group 21–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–64 Female Relationship status Single Living together Married Widowed Separated/divorced Race/ethnicity African American Hispanic Multiple Native American White Household income ($) 0–25,000 25,001–50,000 50,001–75,000 75,001–100,000 O100,000 Cohabitants (mean, SD) Mobile phone use Daily texting 1–10 11–20 21–30 31 or more Phone type Basic Smart Average monthly bill (mean, SD) Medication usea Diabetes medications (mean, SD) Daily dose (mean, SD) Therapy Oral only Insulin only Oral and insulin Other combinations Medication adherence (mean, SD)b
Tailored subjects (N ¼ 24)
Control (N ¼ 24) Count
P-value
Count
%
%
47.54
12.1
46.38
11.57
3 3 6 8 4 12
12.5 12.5 25 33.3 16.7 50
3 3 6 9 3 12
12.5 12.5 25 37.5 12.5 50
5 0 13 2 4
20.8 0 54.2 8.3 16.7
3 3 12 0 6
12.5 12.5 50 0 25
8 0 2 0 14
33.3 0 8.3 0 58.3
8 1 0 1 14
33.3 4.2 0 4.2 58.3
6 11 5 2 0 2.25
25 45.8 20.8 8.3 0 1.67
16 5 2 1
66.7 20.8 8.3 4.2
16 3 2 3
66.7 12.5 8.3 12.5
10 14 98.27
41.7 58.3 70.36
9 15 101.9
37.5 62.5 75.48
0.867
2.25
0.85
2.09
0.87
0.805
4.5
2.05
4.24
2.05
0.637 0.421
6 7 9 2 0.84
25.0 29.2 37.5 8.3 0.18
7 7 4 4 0.87
25.0 29.2 37.5 8.3 0.33
0.734 1.000
1.000 0.204
0.406
0.559 7 7 8 1 1 2.79
29.2 29.2 33.3 4.2 4.2 2.11
0.329 0.682
0.768
Values listed are count and proportion unless otherwise noted. a Two control subjects did not accurately report their current medication list. b Reported as the percent of days covered (PDC).
0.703
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Table 2 Subject health beliefs and attitudes Behavioral theory
Construct
Tailored Baseline
Endpoint
Baseline
Health belief modela
Perceived severity Perceived susceptibility Perceived benefits Perceived barriers Perceived competence Autonomous motivation External regulation
4.0 3.7 3.6 3.6 4.5 6.2 3.3
4.3 3.7 3.9 3.8 5.3 6.5 3.7
4.3 3.6 3.8 3.8 4.9 6.6 3.8
Self-determinationb
(0.53) (0.58) (0.59) (0.83) (1.51) (1.17) (1.32)
Control
(0.44) (0.57) (0.34) (0.63) (1.14) (0.49) (1.63)
(0.44) (0.73) (0.48) (0.68) (1.52) (0.43) (1.48)
P-value
Endpoint
Adjusted difference
4.2 3.6 3.8 3.8 5.0 6.3 3.6
0.10 0.01 0.20 0.09 0.57 0.17 0.36
0.447 0.968 0.169 0.646 0.077 0.363 0.406
(0.43) (0.53) (0.61) (0.79) (1.53) (0.70) (1.46)
Values are listed as mean (SD). At endpoint, 23 tailored subjects and 20 controls responded to survey items. a A post-hoc analysis indicated that, for this distribution, the study would have needed at least 203 subjects per arm to have O80% power to detect a difference in mean values between groups at a ¼ 0.05. b A post-hoc analysis indicated that, for this distribution, the study would have needed at least 308 subjects per arm to have O80% power to detect a difference in mean values between groups at a ¼ 0.05.
number of reported cohabitants (P ¼ 0.194) or by relationship status (P ¼ 0.231). Also, in spite of the observed differences in mean values, significant relationships between scores for autonomous motivation and external regulation were not seen at baseline. No significant changes in health beliefs and attitudes following the study period were observed between arms after adjusting for baseline values (Table 2); effects on perceived competence trended toward significance (P ¼ 0.077). Unadjusted tests indicated that statistically significant improvements in perceived benefits (P ¼ 0.02) and perceived competence (P ¼ 0.033) were seen in active arm subjects; comparisons between cohorts did not reach statistical significance (not shown). Analyses using mean value replacement and last value carried forward were also conducted but no appreciable differences in results were observed.
baseline to the end of the intervention was 5.7% and 12.4% for active and control subjects, respectively. ANOVA analysis showed a significant overall time effect (F(1,18) ¼ 0.03, P ¼ 0.012), a non-significant cohort effect, and a nonsignificant cohort by time effect (Fig. 2). Individual tests indicated that the significant difference in mean PDC values occurred for both groups between values at baseline and at follow-up (both P ! 0.05), but no significant differences were achieved between groups at any time point. ANCOVA analysis showed an adjusted but nonsignificant difference in PDC values between groups from baseline through the active study period of 5.5% (P O 0.05); the resulting effect size was 0.034. Between groups, significant differences in mean PDC values over all 3 study periods were also not observed. Over time, the number of adherent subjects in the intervention arm did decline but not in a statistically significant fashion.
Medication adherence Complete pharmacy records over the three, 90day study periods were available for 20 subjects (10 in each cohort). At baseline, the mean PDC values were 84.4% (SD: 18.8) and 87.1% (SD: 19.8) for subjects in the intervention and control arms, respectively, and most subjects in both arms had achieved a PDC of at least 80%. No significant differences between arms were observed for either measure. Over the course of all 3 study periods, the mean PDC for all subjects was 77.2% (SD: 0.276). For both arms, mean PDC values declined between the 3 study periods; mean change from
Discussion The tailoring of messages is a novel method by which behavior change may be driven. Delivering tailored messages by mobile phone leverages a nearly ubiquitous communication channel that expands our ability to reach and engage patients between clinical encounters. This pilot study tested theory-based health belief and attitudes messages and treatment-specific tailored messages in a cohort of adults with uncontrolled diabetes from a single health system in western Michigan over a period of 3 months. Specifically, we aimed
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Fig. 2. Intervention impact on medication adherence. Values represent mean PDC for each time period. 20 subjects with complete pharmacy records for all time periods were analyzed. A post-hoc analysis indicated that, for this distribution, the study would have needed at least 678 subjects to detect a significant difference in mean values with at least 80% power at a ¼ 0.05.
to improve adherence to diabetes medications and alter condition- and treatment-specific health beliefs and attitudes by focusing message content on individual treatment regimens and baseline health belief levels. Results suggested that the intervention did not significantly improve participants’ anti-diabetic medication adherence or health beliefs and attitudes. However, some notable findings were observed that will be helpful in guiding future interventions. Compared to and controlled for baseline values, intervention subjects’ mean values for perceived competence trended toward significant improvement versus what was observed in control subjects. This potential impact may be the result of the messages employed: the majority of the content focused on reinforcing diabetes self-management and the internalization of the motivation to do so. As perceived competence has been suggested to facilitate goal attainment and provide individuals with need satisfaction, it may be hypothesized that this individual, specific finding may be reflective of the universal effect of the tailored messages used across concepts in spite of there being a lack of significant change in each concept.55 Since unadjusted, withingroup results suggested that significant improvement was realized in the intervention arm, further inquiry to better understand the way in which perceived competence may be incorporated into and altered by tailored text messages, specifically by the means employed, should be considered in future, larger investigations. Similarly, results suggested that subjects’ perceived benefits might be impacted by focusing
some messages on either medication-specific information or theory-driven content with an emphasis on the benefits of treatment adherence. When considering the content delivered, 1 in 5 messages focused on the benefits of treatment. Resultantly, we expected to see a more dramatic change in mean values from baseline. However, in spite of limited statistical power, this finding should be taken into consideration by future studies that may more precisely tailor medication information to each patient’s regimen, specifically the point at which they are in their treatment and to any changes made over time. To the authors’ knowledge, this was the first study to leverage tailored text messages to specifically focus on improving medication adherence in adults with diabetes. While multiple studies have investigated the impact that text messages and tailoring can have on adherence, the combined use of these two methods has been limited and either failed to individually tailor or did not fully describe how tailoring was accomplished. Importantly, this study adds both a precise description of how tailoring was achieved as well as an analysis of the intervention’s impact45; the results add to a body of literature demonstrating mixed effects from employing text messaging in encouraging medication adherence.56,57 Such a demonstration, in spite of clearly significant results, can help guide future studies aiming to employ similar methods. However, investigators should also consider the approaches taken by recent studies that demonstrated positive improvements in medication adherence,41–44 specifically those that
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focused on adults with diabetes.58 Considering the extent of nonadherence, myriad reasons for this behavior, and lack of consistency in what has proven to be effective, future studies may benefit from an individualized yet multifaceted approach that builds off of what has been observed to date. Limitations This study was limited by its small sample size, similar to many mobile health investigations to date; several subjects were lost to follow-up and less than half had reliable pharmacy claims data, further reducing the sample size for analysis. As a pilot study, the aim of this research was to examine the potential for several types of messages to influence health beliefs and medicationtaking, and while the sample size limits statistical interpretation the results still provide guidance on how particular tailored text messages may be used during the diabetes treatment process. Additionally, the types of messages employed were constructed based on their previously observed influence on adherence while also providing education on reported medications. However, research on medication taking has uncovered myriad reasons for nonadherence, only some of which were the focus of this investigation. Thus, the influence of the tailored messages may have been limited if their focus did not match the needs of the enrolled population. The influence of the messages may have also been impacted by how long each subject had been treated for diabetes: more established patients may not have benefited as much as those who were recently diagnosed. Also, the intervention only lasted 3 months and may not have been long enough to make a significant impact on either health beliefs or adherence. To examine adherence, pharmacy claims data were used to track the refilling of diabetes medications; however, a significant discrepancy existed between the medications being taken as listed by each subject and those for which a claim was observed. Considering the wide availability of generic medications through pharmacies offering discount programs, it is possible that some oral medications were filled in this manner and, therefore, could not be tracked by insurance claims data. As a result, the impact of the intervention on the taking of some medications could not be measured. Similarly, the use of PDC as an adherence metric, while widely used and accepted, is an indirect measure of medication-taking behavior: this method cannot confirm that a prescription filled
led to medication being taken by each subject. Additionally, adjustments to insulin dosing may not be accurately measured by PDC, leading to a bias in how adherence was measured for subjects taking this class of medication. Finally, the study population consisted of mostly insured subjects; therefore, the results may not be generalizable to populations lacking or with dissimilar coverage. Conclusion The tailoring of treatment- and conditionspecific text messages remains an area of opportunity to improve medication adherence, increase patient knowledge, and provide motivation to patients with diabetes and other conditions. Future research should seek to improve information exchange between patients and providers, enroll large cohorts of subjects, and improve the tailoring of the messages to further individualize the intervention, advance patient engagement, and, potentially, lead to significant behavior change over time. Acknowledgments This research was sponsored by an award from the University of Michigan Rackham Graduate School and by Grant Number R36 HS021976 from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). John Piette is a VA Senior Research Career Scientist and received additional support from NIH Grant #P30DK092926. The contents of this publication are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of AHRQ. The study authors wish to thank Jason Barnum, PharmD (Mercy Health Partners) for his assistance with identifying potentially eligible subjects and Katie S. Kaminski, PharmD (University of North Carolina Hospitals) for her assistance with recruiting subjects for the intervention. The authors of this paper reported no financial disclosures. All authors contributed to the development of the intervention and revising of the manuscript; JG managed the operations of the intervention and conducted all analyses; and RB, SR, LA, JP, and KF provided methodological guidance. References 1. Krueger KP, Berger BA, Felkey B. Medication adherence and persistence: a comprehensive review. Adv Ther 2005;22:313–356.
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