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The impact of technological developments on the daily life of the elderly
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Technology in Society 29 (2007) 361–368 www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc
The impact of technological developments on the daily life of the elderly Yushi (Boni) Li, Amanda Perkins Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Philosophy, Northern Kentucky University, Nunn Dr. Highland Heights, KY 41099, USA
Abstract American society is becoming an aging society as the number of its elderly citizens continues to increase. Thus, it is crucial that US society address issues regarding the impact of advances in technology on the daily life of the elderly. Following a recent survey of the impact caused by technological developments on the daily life of the aging population in the Greater Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky area, the results showed that the majority of senior citizens view advances in technology in a positive light, as they believe such advancements will produce a better quality of life for themselves and for society in general. This relates directly to a belief that it is possible for the elderly to adopt the advanced skills needed to utilize new technologies. The majority of the elderly respondents also expressed a willingness to learn these skills, although they have not yet taken any steps toward this learning process. One purpose of our research is to determine the attitudes of the elderly population toward new technology, as well as the social factors that influence these attitudes (either positive or negative) toward learning. This study suggests ways to improve available learning opportunities for the elderly, and ideas for motivating and encouraging them to take the necessary steps toward actual learning. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Aging; Technological development; Senior citizens; Learning
1. Introduction America is currently dealing with issues regarding the impact of advances in technology on its everexpanding elderly population; elders now account for 12.25% of the total population [1]. Advances in technology have helped to decrease birth rates and lengthen life expectancies, with projections estimating an increase in the number of elderly to 20% of the total population by 2025. This means that one in every five Americans will be elderly. There are many issues involved with this dramatic increase, including the impact on their daily lives of rapid technology growth. The development of technology has, in general, provided people with a better quality, and more comfortable way, of life. When the radio was invented, for example, it dramatically changed people’s way of life; information could be shared, spreading rapidly and worldwide. With the development of the Internet and e-mail, the idea of the so-called ‘‘global village’’ has become a reality. Corresponding author. Tel.: +859 572 5281; fax: +859 572 6086.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. (Boni) Li). 0160-791X/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2007.04.004
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New technology is generally welcomed by most people. This is especially true for our current society, where information sharing and the invention of microchips have been a major cause of rapid change in the past few decades. There is no doubt that such technological advancement has brought about changes in other industrial fields, which has inevitably had an impact on every individual’s life. There are many ways to categorize the impacts of new developments in technology on people’s daily lives. For example, Ogburn [2] indicates that there are at least 150 effects directly attributable to the introduction of the radio, including education, religion, government, and politics, with comparable impacts from other inventions. Therefore, a single advancement in technology could become a major steppingstone leading not only to other inventions but also to changes in our social life, such as cultural patterns, power, and wealth [3]. It is no secret that rapid technological advancements, especially in the medical field, have helped to increase life expectancies in societies worldwide. However, technological advancements also help (or fail to help) alter other aspects of people’s ways of life. The people, who accept the changes, will more than likely benefit from them; those who reject or refuse the changes will fall behind and be excluded—possibly even suffer from such advancements. Today, most elderly people are considered to be in the ‘‘falling behind’’ category. 2. Theoretical framework Almost daily, the lives of the elderly are influenced by recent developments in technology, and most elderly people could benefit even more if they were not being excluded from the advancements and were better informed about them. Exclusion occurs over time, as individuals contemplate life as they grow older, become frustrated by feelings of exclusion, which can cause disengagement from social activities. Originally discussed by Cumming and Henry [4], the theory of disengagement states that with aging inevitably comes withdrawal, which results in decreased interaction between the elderly and society. During the process of disengagement, status withdrawal occurs first upon retirement or an individual’s inability to work. According to Hagen [5], status withdrawal is the disregard for one’s role within society and for their beliefs. If there is perceived disregard for their role in society, people become frustrated and eventually alienated from the rest of society. Disengagement is natural and occurs over time; by recognizing that one’s life space is decreasing, the elderly may spend more time in their homes, forfeit their right to drive, and begin to feel less capable of interacting in larger, more developed environments. Social disengagement can be the result of physical obstacles such as an illness or disability, but psychological factors also greatly influence an individual’s decision to disengage socially. Activity theory, in opposition to disengagement theory, states that normal aging involves maintaining middle-age activities and attitudes for as long as possible. This means one must substitute new activities for those he or she is forced to give up upon reaching retirement and older age. For example, rather than directly participating in many social activities or sports, one can become a spectator and attend the activities of their children and grandchildren. However, neither disengagement nor activity theory can fully explain why many age successfully while some do not, or the reasons why some choose to be active and others passive following retirement. Lemon, Bengtson, and Peterson [6] argue that there is a positive relationship between social activity and life satisfaction in old age. Longino and Kart [7] also found that those with greater life satisfaction are the ones who participate in activities involving a close network of friends and relatives. Generally speaking, this is because aging can never be predictably good or bad; therefore, psychological factors and the sociability of each aging individual will greatly influence their transition into old age. Based on the above theories, the questions are: why do some people withdraw earlier than others, and what type of person remains more active than another? According to Quadagno [8], there are many reasons why individuals withdraw from social activities. Quadagno indicates that people grow old in many different ways because of culture, social conditions, and personalities, which contribute to aging in a variety of ways. Sometimes, an individual’s withdrawal from social activities is related to changes that have made it difficult to continue being active. This study asks questions about who withdraws and why they withdraw from advancing their level of technological knowledge. We hypothesize that the individual’s background and perceived levels of technological knowledge play major roles in determining their attitudes toward technological advancements. These attitudes then directly influence their willingness to learn about new technologies. An elderly
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Background and Technological Knowledge of the Individual (Whether they are familiar with new technology, education, age, etc.)
Attitudes toward technological advancement
Willingness to learn (Disengagement from or participation in social activities) Fig. 1. Causal model.
individual’s background and level of technological knowledge can also directly influence his or her willingness to learn. Aging people tend to define their life according to their past experiences, accomplishments, education, and even their age, which inevitably impacts the way they adapt to life when older. Therefore, an individual’s background, including age and level of education, becomes more important and directly influences the attitudes of the elderly when it comes to accepting and adopting new technology. Their level of willingness to learn (for the purpose of this study) dictates whether the elderly will disengage from or participate in social activities and adapt to societal advancements. An active lifestyle entails not only direct participation in social activities, but also a willingness to learn about and adopt new ideas and possible activities. Social isolation often results from a fear of the unknown, which can lead to unwillingness to learn about new things, including advancements in technology. By adopting an active lifestyle after retirement or upon reaching old age, the level of life satisfaction will be increased. Based on the above theories, the causal model shown in Fig. 1 was developed to illustrate why some individuals remain active in old age and others become socially isolated. The main focus is on the process and factors that most influence the attitudes of elderly people. When positive attitudes are produced by technological advancements, confidence and a willingness to learn occur. With this confidence and willingness to learn comes increased participation in social activities, which in turn slows the process of disengagement. Following the above model, it is hypothesized that:
the higher the level of education of the elderly individual, the more positive are his/her attitudes toward new technology, the higher the level of perceived technological knowledge, the more positive the attitudes will be toward technology, the more positive the attitudes toward technology, the higher the willingness to learn about new technology, the higher the level of education, the higher the willingness to learn about new technology, and the higher the level of perceived technological knowledge, the higher the willingness to learn.
3. Results (see also Appendix) This study was completed in the Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky area in 2005, and included 160 elder respondents aged 65 and older. The goal of the study was to collect data and information both from and for local residents and policymakers. The survey questions involved categorical measures and a few open-ended questions that sought detailed attitudes, pressures, and methods of preparation for the rapid growth in the technological community. Table 1 provides some background information on the 160 respondents, who ranged in age from 65 to 93 years old. The majority (75%) of the respondents were female, and 47% of all respondents had a high school education.
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Table 1 Background information of elder respondents 1. 2. 3. 4.
Age (years) Sex Marital status Education
65–70 (39%) Female (75%) Married (46%) Grade school (17%) (Jr. High and below)
71–80 (44%) Male (25%) Single (3%) High school (47%)
81–93 (17%) Widowed (44%) Some college (23%)
Divorced (7%) College graduate (13%)
Table 2 Opinions of elder respondents on technological advancement 1. Most frequently used technology 2. Familiarity with technology
Bar codes/credit cards (76%) Computers (45%) Very familiar (11%)
DVD/CD players (73%) ATM machines (38%) Familiar (29%)
Cellphone (64%) Digital camera (16%) Somewhat familiar (38%)
3. 4. 5. 6.
Great deal (42%) None at all (15%) Agree (68%) Agree (59%)
Somewhat (47%) Sometimes (66%) Undecided (16%) Undecided (18%)
None at all (11%) Very often (10%) Disagree (16%) Disagree (23%)
Affect on life Difficulties experienced Technology is helpful Willing to learn
Not familiar (22%) All the time (9%)
Table 2 provides some interesting comparisons. When asked about the kinds of technology used by the 160 survey respondents, a large majority used Bar Code Devices, DVD/CD players, and cellphones. The least-used devices were digital cameras and ATM machines. Slightly less than half of the respondents used computers. Approximately 39% felt very familiar or somewhat familiar with technological devices such as computers and ATM machines. The remaining respondents believe they struggle when using these devices, or cannot use them at all. This is exemplified by the fact that about 78% of respondents said that they preferred to go to the bank to withdraw/deposit money rather than use an ATM machine. Table 2 indicates that about 89% of the respondents believe that technology has affected their life in some way. Most participants responded that advances in technology had affected their way of life in a positive manner. The majority indicated that they experienced difficulties when using new technology. A majority agreed that new technology would help older people live longer and healthier lives. More than half expressed a willingness to learn about new technologies if offered the opportunity, and approximately the same number felt confident in their ability to learn how to use new technology as it is introduced to them. 4. Discussion and conclusions The results of this study show that the elderly view technology in the same way the general public, that is, they see technology as a positive and significant part of society that can and does help improve the quality of life for many people. Also, according to the results of this study, age was not found to be a significant factor influencing the willingness to learn about new technology. However, education was found to be a relatively important variable when analyzing the willingness of the elderly to learn about new technology. According to this study, if individuals possess more education (regardless of their age), the result in a more positive attitude toward technology and increased motivation to learn about new technology as it is introduced into society. The attitudes of the older adult population toward new technology and their willingness to learn are greatly influenced by factors such as familiarity, enjoyment, feelings of convenience, level of technological knowledge, and a basic understanding of computer terminology. In general, this means that as familiarity increases, and one enjoys using technology and feels a sense of convenience about it, the more positive will be the attitudes that are developed by the elderly, thus increasing their willingness to learn and accept new technology. Generally speaking, if the respondents felt that technology provides them with a better quality of life, if they have a generally positive feeling toward technology, and a feeling that it is possible for older adults to adopt
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technological skills, then their willingness to learn increases. Having said this, however, nearly half of all respondents in this study still have not taken any initiative to learn technological skills. After analyzing the results of this study, it became apparent that further research is needed in order to identify ways to encourage the elderly not only to recognize the importance of learning about new technology but also to take the initial steps necessary to begin this learning process. The process of learning about new technology, regardless of the type of learning experience—whether in a classroom or simply from family and friends—will help to increase social engagement and participation in activities. By taking an initiative to gain technological knowledge, the elderly becomes more socially interactive and less isolated. As their level of technological knowledge increases, their enjoyment and confidence with learning and using these skills will also increase. Encouraging the initial step toward learning brings with it great societal responsibilities. First, other members of society need to take the initiative to provide assistance to those older adults who are willing to learn. Local communities can assist in this learning process by providing programs, facilities, and volunteers. It is also the responsibility of community members and local policymakers to advertise and emphasize any and all opportunities available to the elderly should they want to learn. Second, a senior-friendly environment must be created in order to facilitate the needs of older adults, such as large-font computer programs for those with visual impairments, audio classrooms for the hearing impaired, simplified keyboards and computer programs, individualized learning programs to meet specific needs, etc. Technology advances continue to flood our society whether we are ready for them or not, making it extremely important to start this learning process today. America is moving towards becoming an aging society as its older population increases; at the same time, technological developments continue to become more sophisticated and advanced. The longer it takes to move up the curve of this learning process, the more disengaged seniors will become from society and the faster they will continue to fall behind. Today, this population may only need to know about certain computer programs that may make their life a little easier and more comfortable; however, technology will only become more complicated, and time makes the learning process even more difficult. Therefore, it becomes essential for American society to start this process and begin providing the opportunities necessary for the elderly population to increase their technological knowledge, social engagement, and interactions. Appendix A The following variables were examined:
Background information of the elder respondents, such as age, education; current level of knowledge about technology, such as their familiarity, enjoyment, perceived convenience of technology, knowledge of computer terminology, and their perceived knowledge about using new technology. Attitudinal variables, including how much the respondents feel that technology has affected their life, whether positively or negatively; whether it has provided a better overall quality of life; general feelings toward advances in technology; and whether it is possible for the elderly to adopt new technology. Social activities of the respondents in this study were measured by their desire to learn about new technology. The variables included in this category are willingness or refusal to learn, confidence in their ability to learn, whether there are options to learn, taking initiative to learn, and willingness to attend classes on using technology devices such as computers, etc.
In Table 3, each individual’s level of education and age were examined and found to have no influence on the attitudinal variables of this study. The dependent variable ‘‘technology provides a better quality of life’’ is strongly and positively influenced by the other five independent variables: familiarity (how familiar the respondents are with technological devices), enjoyment (whether enjoy using a computer), convenience (whether they feel the technology is convenient), computer terms (whether they understand computer terminology), and knowledge (level of knowledge when it comes to using new technology). The amount of variance explained, as indicated by the R square, is 0.510, which is statistically significant at the 0.01, 0.05, and 0.10 levels. This means that the more the respondents felt familiarity, enjoyment, and
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Table 3 Regression analysis—background, technological knowledge, and attitudes Variables
(1)a
(2)a
(3)a
(4)a
(5)a
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Educationb Ageb Familiarityb Enjoymentb Convenienceb Comp. termsb Knowledgeb
0.105 0.096 0.096 0.003 0.257 0.082 0.196
0.141 0.206 0.301 0.977 0.002*** 0.316 0.040**
0.098 0.108 0.052 0.102 0.268 0.013 0.285
0.144 0.132 0.554 0.217 0.000*** 0.866 0.002***
0.096 0.020 0.152 0.170 0.198 0.126 0.261
0.118 0.755 0.058* 0.026** 0.004*** 0.073* 0.002***
0.022 0.105 0.269 0.308 0.077 0.084 0.040
0.794 0.239 0.015** 0.003*** 0.410 0.380 0.717
0.066 0.094 0.201 0.103 0.272 0.098 0.086
0.412 0.277 0.059* 0.301 0.003*** 0.294 0.422
R square Adjust R sq. Standard Error for Est.
0.329 0.297 0.55874 N ¼ 155
0.411 0.383 0.87284 N ¼ 154
0.510 0.486 0.74912 N ¼ 154
0.096 0.053 0.84580 N ¼ 153
0.131 0.090 88012 N ¼ 155
Notes: *significant at 0.10 level; **significant at 0.05 level; ***significant at 0.01 level. a Dependent variables: (1) ¼ technology affects life, (2) ¼ view technology in a positive way, (3) ¼ technology provides a better quality of life, (4) ¼ general feeling about technology, (5) ¼ possible for elders to adopt advanced skills. b Independent variables: education ¼ level of education, age, familiarity ¼ how familiar respondent is with technological devices, enjoyment ¼ whether respondent enjoys using a computer, convenience ¼ whether respondent feels technology is a convenience, computer terms ¼ whether respondent understands computer terms, knowledge ¼ level of knowledge when using new technology.
convenience with technology, and they possessed some knowledge of computers and other technology, the more they feel technology has improved their life. The dependent variable ‘‘technology affects life’’ is positively influenced by the independent variables of convenience and technological knowledge. The results indicate that increased feelings of convenience toward technology and possessing some level of technological knowledge tend to accompany an increase in positive attitudes toward the affect of technology on daily life. Next, the dependent variable concerning how the respondents view technology is positively and significantly influenced by both convenience and level of knowledge when it comes to using new technology. Increased convenience and technological knowledge tend to increase a positive view of technology. This dependent variable has a significant but negative relationship with the level of enjoyment and a positive relationship with the feeling of familiarity with technology. This means that more technological knowledge tends to lead to less enjoyment and more familiarity felt by the respondents. The last dependent variable concerning the possibility for elders to adopt advanced skills has positive relationships with both familiarity and convenience. This means that as feelings of familiarity and convenience toward technology increased, the respondents felt it was possible to adopt advanced skills. Table 4 includes five independent variables. Six dependent variables were developed to test the respondents’ willingness to learn about new technology. The dependent variable representing ‘‘willingness to learn’’ is significantly influenced by two independent variables: quality of life and the possibility of elders to adopt advanced skills. This means the more respondents feel that technology provides a better quality of life and that it is possible for elders to adopt advanced skills, the more willing they are to learn about new technologies. The amount of variance explained, as indicated by the R square, is 0.311, which is statistically significant at the 0.01 level. In contrast, the dependent variable ‘‘do not need to learn’’ is strongly and negatively influenced by quality of life and the possibility of elder people to adopt advanced skills. The dependent variable ‘‘having confidence to learn’’ is positively influenced by how technology affects life, quality of life provided by technology, and the possibility for the elderly to adopt advanced skills. This means that the more the respondents felt their quality of life was affected positively by technology and that it was possible to adopt advanced skills, the more confidence the respondents will have in their ability to learn. The independent variable concerning the possibility to adopt advanced skills is positively related to the feeling that there are many opportunities to learn.
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Table 4 Regression analysis—respondents’ attitudes and their willingness to learn about new technology Variables
(1)a
(2)a
(3)a
(4)a
(5)a
(6)a
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Affect lifeb Positive wayb Better lifeb General feelingb Adopt skillsb
0.071 0.144 0.308 0.024 0.214
0.465 0.129 0.001*** 0.736 0.004***
0.033 0.122 0.291 0.052 0.175
0.748 0.224 0.002*** 0.487 0.025**
0.172 0.079 0.450 0.062 0.139
0.074* 0.401 0.000*** 0.378 0.055*
0.175 0.121 0.047 0.116 0.141
0.105 0.249 0.633 0.145 0.084*
0.098 0.141 0.464 0.008 0.158
.312 0.137 0.000*** 0.916 0.034**
.31 0.283 0.189 0.078 0.177
.759 0.005*** 0.050** 0.302 0.024**
R square Adjust R sq. Standard Error for Est.
0.311 0.288 1.04324 N ¼ 155
0.231 0.205 1.14054 N ¼ 155
0.326 0.304 0.89903 N ¼ 154
0.150 0.122 0.97271 N ¼ 154
0.312 0.289 0.88012 N ¼ 155
0.229 0.203 1.24442 N ¼ 154
Notes: *significant at 0.10 level, **significant at 0.05 level, ***significant at 0.01 level. a Dependent variables: (1) ¼ willing to learn, (2) ¼ do not need to learn, (3) ¼ have confidence to learn, (4) ¼ many opportunities to learn, (5) ¼ take initiative to learn, (6) ¼ attending classes to learn. b Independent variables: affect life ¼ technology affects life, positive way ¼ view technology in a positive way, better life ¼ technology provides a better quality of life, general feeling ¼ general feeling of technology, adopt skills ¼ possible for elders to adopt advanced skills.
The independent variables ‘‘technology provides a better quality of life’’ and ‘‘the possibility for elders to adopt advanced skills’’ are both negatively related to the dependent variable ‘‘taking the initiative to learn,’’ which shows that taking such an initiative tends to decrease even though most respondents felt that technology provides a better quality of life and that it is possible for seniors to adopt advanced skills. The last dependent variable is ‘‘attending classes to learn,’’ which is positively influenced by a positive view of technology, technology provides a better quality of life, and elders can adopt advanced skills. This means that the more the respondents felt positively about technology, felt that technology provides a better quality of life, and that it is possible for elders to adopt advanced skills, the more they are willing to attend classes to learn these skills. Table 5 examines the relationship between the respondents’ background information and their desire to learn about new technology. The individuals’ level of education significantly and positively influences their willingness to learn and their willingness to attend classes in order to learn. Age was found to influence only the individual’s confidence in learning about new technology, but not significantly. Familiarity negatively influences the respondents’ perceived opportunities to learn, meaning that the more familiar the individual is with technology, the perceived availability of opportunities to learn decreases. An individual’s enjoyment of computer use is significantly and positively influenced by whether or not they have taken an initiative to learn. This indicates that the more the respondents’ enjoy using computers, the more initiative they will take to learn about new technology. The independent variable ‘‘perceived convenience of technology’’ influences several dependent variables, including willingness or refusal to learn, perceived opportunities to learn, and confidence in their ability to learn. The perceived convenience of technology has a positive relationship with individuals’ willingness to learn about new technology and their confidence in learning. The variable also has a negative correlation with the respondents’ perceived opportunities to learn, meaning that although they feel technology is convenient, that they are willing to learn, and that they have confidence in learning, they still feel there are no opportunities to learn about new technology. Statistics in Table 5 also show that if the respondents’ understood some computer terminology, it strongly influenced their confidence in learning and the feeling that opportunities do exist for them to learn. The last independent variable, ‘‘the respondents’ level of knowledge when it comes to using technology,’’ strongly and positively influences the respondents’ willingness to learn, and their willingness to attend classes in order to gain technological knowledge. This variable, however, is also negatively related to whether or not the respondents have taken the initiative to learn advanced skills. This means that those who understand some
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Table 5 Regression analysis—background, the individual’s technological knowledge, and their willingness to learn about new technology Variables
(1)a
(2)a
(3)a
(4)a
(5)a
(6)a
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Educationb Ageb Familiarityb Enjoymentb Convenienceb Comp.Termsb Knowledgeb
0.277 0.110 0.011 0.028 0.165 0.062 0.267
0.000 *** 0.138 0.906 0.740 0.035** 0.435 0.004***
0.158 0.072 0.125 0.065 0.207 0.124 0.281
0.031** 0.355 0.191 0.473 0.013** 0.142 0.004***
0.116 0.138 0.151 0.003 0.152 0.206. 0.104
0.103 0.070* 0.107 0.976 0.060* 0.013** 0.274
0.025 0.020 0.197 0.042 0.155 0.216 0.174
0.758 0.819 0.068* 0.679 0.096* 0.023** 0.112
0.091 0.001 0.027 0.238 0.039 0.046 0.463
0.155 0.990 0.745 0.003*** 0.590 0.533 0.000***
0.241 0.106 0.003 0.065 0.058 0.029 0.206
0.002*** 0.203 0.980 0.492 0.507 0.746 0.046**
R square Adjust R sq. Standard Error for Est.
0.371 0.342 1.00171 N ¼ 154
0.295 0.261 1.10056 N ¼ 154
0.335 0.303 0.89638 N ¼ 153
0.103 0.060 0.99284 N ¼ 154
0.456 0.431 1.71170 N ¼ 155
0.216 0.179 1.24386 N ¼ 154
Notes: *significant at 0.10 level, ** significant at 0.05 level, ***significant at 0.01 level. a Dependent variables: (1) ¼ willing to learn, (2) ¼ do not need to learn, (3) ¼ have confidence to learn, (4) ¼ many opportunities to learn, (5) ¼ take initiative to learn, (6) ¼ attending classes to learn. b Independent variables: education ¼ respondent’s level of education, age ¼ respondent’s age, familiarity ¼ how familiar respondents are with technological devices, enjoyment ¼ whether enjoy using a computer, convenience ¼ whether respondent feels technology is convenient, computer terms ¼ whether respondent understands computer terms, knowledge ¼ level of knowledge when it comes to using new technology.
computer terminology are more willing to learn and attend classes to learn, but they may not have an immediate initiative to learn. References [1] Weeks J. Population. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group/Thomson Learning; 2005. [2] Ogburn W. The influence of invention and discovery. In: Recent social trends in the United States: report of the President’s Research Committee on Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1933. p. 122–66. [3] Goldhaber M. Reinventing technology: policies for democratic values. New York: Routledge; 1986. [4] Cumming E, Henry W. Growing old: the process of disengagement. New York: Basic Books; 1961. [5] Hagen E. On the theory of social change. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press; 1962. [6] Lemon B, Bengtson V, Peterson J. An exploration of the activity theory of aging: activity types and life satisfaction among in-movers to a retirement community. J Gerontol 1972;27:511–25. [7] Longino C, Kart G. Explicating activity theory: a formal replication. J Gerontol 1982;17:715–22. [8] Quadagno J. Aging and the life course. Boston: McGraw-Hill; 2005.
Yushi (Boni) Li is an associate professor of sociology at Northern Kentucky University. She teaches courses in sociology of aging, technology and social change, and population. Dr. Li’s research includes issues surrounding the elderly and their caregivers. She is interested in cross-cultural comparisons of younger adults, their parents’ opinions about their future living arrangements, and institutionalized care services.
Amanda Perkins received Bachelor degrees from Northern Kentucky University in sociology and criminal justice. Her research focuses on societal and aging issues. As a research assistant, she has co-authored a study of the technological impact on elderly people’s daily behavior.
Technology in Society 29 (2007) 361–368 www.elsevier.com/locate/techsoc
The impact of technological developments on the daily life of the elderly Yushi (Boni) Li, Amanda Perkins Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Philosophy, Northern Kentucky University, Nunn Dr. Highland Heights, KY 41099, USA
Abstract American society is becoming an aging society as the number of its elderly citizens continues to increase. Thus, it is crucial that US society address issues regarding the impact of advances in technology on the daily life of the elderly. Following a recent survey of the impact caused by technological developments on the daily life of the aging population in the Greater Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky area, the results showed that the majority of senior citizens view advances in technology in a positive light, as they believe such advancements will produce a better quality of life for themselves and for society in general. This relates directly to a belief that it is possible for the elderly to adopt the advanced skills needed to utilize new technologies. The majority of the elderly respondents also expressed a willingness to learn these skills, although they have not yet taken any steps toward this learning process. One purpose of our research is to determine the attitudes of the elderly population toward new technology, as well as the social factors that influence these attitudes (either positive or negative) toward learning. This study suggests ways to improve available learning opportunities for the elderly, and ideas for motivating and encouraging them to take the necessary steps toward actual learning. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Aging; Technological development; Senior citizens; Learning
1. Introduction America is currently dealing with issues regarding the impact of advances in technology on its everexpanding elderly population; elders now account for 12.25% of the total population [1]. Advances in technology have helped to decrease birth rates and lengthen life expectancies, with projections estimating an increase in the number of elderly to 20% of the total population by 2025. This means that one in every five Americans will be elderly. There are many issues involved with this dramatic increase, including the impact on their daily lives of rapid technology growth. The development of technology has, in general, provided people with a better quality, and more comfortable way, of life. When the radio was invented, for example, it dramatically changed people’s way of life; information could be shared, spreading rapidly and worldwide. With the development of the Internet and e-mail, the idea of the so-called ‘‘global village’’ has become a reality. Corresponding author. Tel.: +859 572 5281; fax: +859 572 6086.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. (Boni) Li). 0160-791X/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2007.04.004
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New technology is generally welcomed by most people. This is especially true for our current society, where information sharing and the invention of microchips have been a major cause of rapid change in the past few decades. There is no doubt that such technological advancement has brought about changes in other industrial fields, which has inevitably had an impact on every individual’s life. There are many ways to categorize the impacts of new developments in technology on people’s daily lives. For example, Ogburn [2] indicates that there are at least 150 effects directly attributable to the introduction of the radio, including education, religion, government, and politics, with comparable impacts from other inventions. Therefore, a single advancement in technology could become a major steppingstone leading not only to other inventions but also to changes in our social life, such as cultural patterns, power, and wealth [3]. It is no secret that rapid technological advancements, especially in the medical field, have helped to increase life expectancies in societies worldwide. However, technological advancements also help (or fail to help) alter other aspects of people’s ways of life. The people, who accept the changes, will more than likely benefit from them; those who reject or refuse the changes will fall behind and be excluded—possibly even suffer from such advancements. Today, most elderly people are considered to be in the ‘‘falling behind’’ category. 2. Theoretical framework Almost daily, the lives of the elderly are influenced by recent developments in technology, and most elderly people could benefit even more if they were not being excluded from the advancements and were better informed about them. Exclusion occurs over time, as individuals contemplate life as they grow older, become frustrated by feelings of exclusion, which can cause disengagement from social activities. Originally discussed by Cumming and Henry [4], the theory of disengagement states that with aging inevitably comes withdrawal, which results in decreased interaction between the elderly and society. During the process of disengagement, status withdrawal occurs first upon retirement or an individual’s inability to work. According to Hagen [5], status withdrawal is the disregard for one’s role within society and for their beliefs. If there is perceived disregard for their role in society, people become frustrated and eventually alienated from the rest of society. Disengagement is natural and occurs over time; by recognizing that one’s life space is decreasing, the elderly may spend more time in their homes, forfeit their right to drive, and begin to feel less capable of interacting in larger, more developed environments. Social disengagement can be the result of physical obstacles such as an illness or disability, but psychological factors also greatly influence an individual’s decision to disengage socially. Activity theory, in opposition to disengagement theory, states that normal aging involves maintaining middle-age activities and attitudes for as long as possible. This means one must substitute new activities for those he or she is forced to give up upon reaching retirement and older age. For example, rather than directly participating in many social activities or sports, one can become a spectator and attend the activities of their children and grandchildren. However, neither disengagement nor activity theory can fully explain why many age successfully while some do not, or the reasons why some choose to be active and others passive following retirement. Lemon, Bengtson, and Peterson [6] argue that there is a positive relationship between social activity and life satisfaction in old age. Longino and Kart [7] also found that those with greater life satisfaction are the ones who participate in activities involving a close network of friends and relatives. Generally speaking, this is because aging can never be predictably good or bad; therefore, psychological factors and the sociability of each aging individual will greatly influence their transition into old age. Based on the above theories, the questions are: why do some people withdraw earlier than others, and what type of person remains more active than another? According to Quadagno [8], there are many reasons why individuals withdraw from social activities. Quadagno indicates that people grow old in many different ways because of culture, social conditions, and personalities, which contribute to aging in a variety of ways. Sometimes, an individual’s withdrawal from social activities is related to changes that have made it difficult to continue being active. This study asks questions about who withdraws and why they withdraw from advancing their level of technological knowledge. We hypothesize that the individual’s background and perceived levels of technological knowledge play major roles in determining their attitudes toward technological advancements. These attitudes then directly influence their willingness to learn about new technologies. An elderly
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Background and Technological Knowledge of the Individual (Whether they are familiar with new technology, education, age, etc.)
Attitudes toward technological advancement
Willingness to learn (Disengagement from or participation in social activities) Fig. 1. Causal model.
individual’s background and level of technological knowledge can also directly influence his or her willingness to learn. Aging people tend to define their life according to their past experiences, accomplishments, education, and even their age, which inevitably impacts the way they adapt to life when older. Therefore, an individual’s background, including age and level of education, becomes more important and directly influences the attitudes of the elderly when it comes to accepting and adopting new technology. Their level of willingness to learn (for the purpose of this study) dictates whether the elderly will disengage from or participate in social activities and adapt to societal advancements. An active lifestyle entails not only direct participation in social activities, but also a willingness to learn about and adopt new ideas and possible activities. Social isolation often results from a fear of the unknown, which can lead to unwillingness to learn about new things, including advancements in technology. By adopting an active lifestyle after retirement or upon reaching old age, the level of life satisfaction will be increased. Based on the above theories, the causal model shown in Fig. 1 was developed to illustrate why some individuals remain active in old age and others become socially isolated. The main focus is on the process and factors that most influence the attitudes of elderly people. When positive attitudes are produced by technological advancements, confidence and a willingness to learn occur. With this confidence and willingness to learn comes increased participation in social activities, which in turn slows the process of disengagement. Following the above model, it is hypothesized that:
the higher the level of education of the elderly individual, the more positive are his/her attitudes toward new technology, the higher the level of perceived technological knowledge, the more positive the attitudes will be toward technology, the more positive the attitudes toward technology, the higher the willingness to learn about new technology, the higher the level of education, the higher the willingness to learn about new technology, and the higher the level of perceived technological knowledge, the higher the willingness to learn.
3. Results (see also Appendix) This study was completed in the Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky area in 2005, and included 160 elder respondents aged 65 and older. The goal of the study was to collect data and information both from and for local residents and policymakers. The survey questions involved categorical measures and a few open-ended questions that sought detailed attitudes, pressures, and methods of preparation for the rapid growth in the technological community. Table 1 provides some background information on the 160 respondents, who ranged in age from 65 to 93 years old. The majority (75%) of the respondents were female, and 47% of all respondents had a high school education.
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Table 1 Background information of elder respondents 1. 2. 3. 4.
Age (years) Sex Marital status Education
65–70 (39%) Female (75%) Married (46%) Grade school (17%) (Jr. High and below)
71–80 (44%) Male (25%) Single (3%) High school (47%)
81–93 (17%) Widowed (44%) Some college (23%)
Divorced (7%) College graduate (13%)
Table 2 Opinions of elder respondents on technological advancement 1. Most frequently used technology 2. Familiarity with technology
Bar codes/credit cards (76%) Computers (45%) Very familiar (11%)
DVD/CD players (73%) ATM machines (38%) Familiar (29%)
Cellphone (64%) Digital camera (16%) Somewhat familiar (38%)
3. 4. 5. 6.
Great deal (42%) None at all (15%) Agree (68%) Agree (59%)
Somewhat (47%) Sometimes (66%) Undecided (16%) Undecided (18%)
None at all (11%) Very often (10%) Disagree (16%) Disagree (23%)
Affect on life Difficulties experienced Technology is helpful Willing to learn
Not familiar (22%) All the time (9%)
Table 2 provides some interesting comparisons. When asked about the kinds of technology used by the 160 survey respondents, a large majority used Bar Code Devices, DVD/CD players, and cellphones. The least-used devices were digital cameras and ATM machines. Slightly less than half of the respondents used computers. Approximately 39% felt very familiar or somewhat familiar with technological devices such as computers and ATM machines. The remaining respondents believe they struggle when using these devices, or cannot use them at all. This is exemplified by the fact that about 78% of respondents said that they preferred to go to the bank to withdraw/deposit money rather than use an ATM machine. Table 2 indicates that about 89% of the respondents believe that technology has affected their life in some way. Most participants responded that advances in technology had affected their way of life in a positive manner. The majority indicated that they experienced difficulties when using new technology. A majority agreed that new technology would help older people live longer and healthier lives. More than half expressed a willingness to learn about new technologies if offered the opportunity, and approximately the same number felt confident in their ability to learn how to use new technology as it is introduced to them. 4. Discussion and conclusions The results of this study show that the elderly view technology in the same way the general public, that is, they see technology as a positive and significant part of society that can and does help improve the quality of life for many people. Also, according to the results of this study, age was not found to be a significant factor influencing the willingness to learn about new technology. However, education was found to be a relatively important variable when analyzing the willingness of the elderly to learn about new technology. According to this study, if individuals possess more education (regardless of their age), the result in a more positive attitude toward technology and increased motivation to learn about new technology as it is introduced into society. The attitudes of the older adult population toward new technology and their willingness to learn are greatly influenced by factors such as familiarity, enjoyment, feelings of convenience, level of technological knowledge, and a basic understanding of computer terminology. In general, this means that as familiarity increases, and one enjoys using technology and feels a sense of convenience about it, the more positive will be the attitudes that are developed by the elderly, thus increasing their willingness to learn and accept new technology. Generally speaking, if the respondents felt that technology provides them with a better quality of life, if they have a generally positive feeling toward technology, and a feeling that it is possible for older adults to adopt
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technological skills, then their willingness to learn increases. Having said this, however, nearly half of all respondents in this study still have not taken any initiative to learn technological skills. After analyzing the results of this study, it became apparent that further research is needed in order to identify ways to encourage the elderly not only to recognize the importance of learning about new technology but also to take the initial steps necessary to begin this learning process. The process of learning about new technology, regardless of the type of learning experience—whether in a classroom or simply from family and friends—will help to increase social engagement and participation in activities. By taking an initiative to gain technological knowledge, the elderly becomes more socially interactive and less isolated. As their level of technological knowledge increases, their enjoyment and confidence with learning and using these skills will also increase. Encouraging the initial step toward learning brings with it great societal responsibilities. First, other members of society need to take the initiative to provide assistance to those older adults who are willing to learn. Local communities can assist in this learning process by providing programs, facilities, and volunteers. It is also the responsibility of community members and local policymakers to advertise and emphasize any and all opportunities available to the elderly should they want to learn. Second, a senior-friendly environment must be created in order to facilitate the needs of older adults, such as large-font computer programs for those with visual impairments, audio classrooms for the hearing impaired, simplified keyboards and computer programs, individualized learning programs to meet specific needs, etc. Technology advances continue to flood our society whether we are ready for them or not, making it extremely important to start this learning process today. America is moving towards becoming an aging society as its older population increases; at the same time, technological developments continue to become more sophisticated and advanced. The longer it takes to move up the curve of this learning process, the more disengaged seniors will become from society and the faster they will continue to fall behind. Today, this population may only need to know about certain computer programs that may make their life a little easier and more comfortable; however, technology will only become more complicated, and time makes the learning process even more difficult. Therefore, it becomes essential for American society to start this process and begin providing the opportunities necessary for the elderly population to increase their technological knowledge, social engagement, and interactions. Appendix A The following variables were examined:
Background information of the elder respondents, such as age, education; current level of knowledge about technology, such as their familiarity, enjoyment, perceived convenience of technology, knowledge of computer terminology, and their perceived knowledge about using new technology. Attitudinal variables, including how much the respondents feel that technology has affected their life, whether positively or negatively; whether it has provided a better overall quality of life; general feelings toward advances in technology; and whether it is possible for the elderly to adopt new technology. Social activities of the respondents in this study were measured by their desire to learn about new technology. The variables included in this category are willingness or refusal to learn, confidence in their ability to learn, whether there are options to learn, taking initiative to learn, and willingness to attend classes on using technology devices such as computers, etc.
In Table 3, each individual’s level of education and age were examined and found to have no influence on the attitudinal variables of this study. The dependent variable ‘‘technology provides a better quality of life’’ is strongly and positively influenced by the other five independent variables: familiarity (how familiar the respondents are with technological devices), enjoyment (whether enjoy using a computer), convenience (whether they feel the technology is convenient), computer terms (whether they understand computer terminology), and knowledge (level of knowledge when it comes to using new technology). The amount of variance explained, as indicated by the R square, is 0.510, which is statistically significant at the 0.01, 0.05, and 0.10 levels. This means that the more the respondents felt familiarity, enjoyment, and
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Table 3 Regression analysis—background, technological knowledge, and attitudes Variables
(1)a
(2)a
(3)a
(4)a
(5)a
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Educationb Ageb Familiarityb Enjoymentb Convenienceb Comp. termsb Knowledgeb
0.105 0.096 0.096 0.003 0.257 0.082 0.196
0.141 0.206 0.301 0.977 0.002*** 0.316 0.040**
0.098 0.108 0.052 0.102 0.268 0.013 0.285
0.144 0.132 0.554 0.217 0.000*** 0.866 0.002***
0.096 0.020 0.152 0.170 0.198 0.126 0.261
0.118 0.755 0.058* 0.026** 0.004*** 0.073* 0.002***
0.022 0.105 0.269 0.308 0.077 0.084 0.040
0.794 0.239 0.015** 0.003*** 0.410 0.380 0.717
0.066 0.094 0.201 0.103 0.272 0.098 0.086
0.412 0.277 0.059* 0.301 0.003*** 0.294 0.422
R square Adjust R sq. Standard Error for Est.
0.329 0.297 0.55874 N ¼ 155
0.411 0.383 0.87284 N ¼ 154
0.510 0.486 0.74912 N ¼ 154
0.096 0.053 0.84580 N ¼ 153
0.131 0.090 88012 N ¼ 155
Notes: *significant at 0.10 level; **significant at 0.05 level; ***significant at 0.01 level. a Dependent variables: (1) ¼ technology affects life, (2) ¼ view technology in a positive way, (3) ¼ technology provides a better quality of life, (4) ¼ general feeling about technology, (5) ¼ possible for elders to adopt advanced skills. b Independent variables: education ¼ level of education, age, familiarity ¼ how familiar respondent is with technological devices, enjoyment ¼ whether respondent enjoys using a computer, convenience ¼ whether respondent feels technology is a convenience, computer terms ¼ whether respondent understands computer terms, knowledge ¼ level of knowledge when using new technology.
convenience with technology, and they possessed some knowledge of computers and other technology, the more they feel technology has improved their life. The dependent variable ‘‘technology affects life’’ is positively influenced by the independent variables of convenience and technological knowledge. The results indicate that increased feelings of convenience toward technology and possessing some level of technological knowledge tend to accompany an increase in positive attitudes toward the affect of technology on daily life. Next, the dependent variable concerning how the respondents view technology is positively and significantly influenced by both convenience and level of knowledge when it comes to using new technology. Increased convenience and technological knowledge tend to increase a positive view of technology. This dependent variable has a significant but negative relationship with the level of enjoyment and a positive relationship with the feeling of familiarity with technology. This means that more technological knowledge tends to lead to less enjoyment and more familiarity felt by the respondents. The last dependent variable concerning the possibility for elders to adopt advanced skills has positive relationships with both familiarity and convenience. This means that as feelings of familiarity and convenience toward technology increased, the respondents felt it was possible to adopt advanced skills. Table 4 includes five independent variables. Six dependent variables were developed to test the respondents’ willingness to learn about new technology. The dependent variable representing ‘‘willingness to learn’’ is significantly influenced by two independent variables: quality of life and the possibility of elders to adopt advanced skills. This means the more respondents feel that technology provides a better quality of life and that it is possible for elders to adopt advanced skills, the more willing they are to learn about new technologies. The amount of variance explained, as indicated by the R square, is 0.311, which is statistically significant at the 0.01 level. In contrast, the dependent variable ‘‘do not need to learn’’ is strongly and negatively influenced by quality of life and the possibility of elder people to adopt advanced skills. The dependent variable ‘‘having confidence to learn’’ is positively influenced by how technology affects life, quality of life provided by technology, and the possibility for the elderly to adopt advanced skills. This means that the more the respondents felt their quality of life was affected positively by technology and that it was possible to adopt advanced skills, the more confidence the respondents will have in their ability to learn. The independent variable concerning the possibility to adopt advanced skills is positively related to the feeling that there are many opportunities to learn.
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Table 4 Regression analysis—respondents’ attitudes and their willingness to learn about new technology Variables
(1)a
(2)a
(3)a
(4)a
(5)a
(6)a
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Affect lifeb Positive wayb Better lifeb General feelingb Adopt skillsb
0.071 0.144 0.308 0.024 0.214
0.465 0.129 0.001*** 0.736 0.004***
0.033 0.122 0.291 0.052 0.175
0.748 0.224 0.002*** 0.487 0.025**
0.172 0.079 0.450 0.062 0.139
0.074* 0.401 0.000*** 0.378 0.055*
0.175 0.121 0.047 0.116 0.141
0.105 0.249 0.633 0.145 0.084*
0.098 0.141 0.464 0.008 0.158
.312 0.137 0.000*** 0.916 0.034**
.31 0.283 0.189 0.078 0.177
.759 0.005*** 0.050** 0.302 0.024**
R square Adjust R sq. Standard Error for Est.
0.311 0.288 1.04324 N ¼ 155
0.231 0.205 1.14054 N ¼ 155
0.326 0.304 0.89903 N ¼ 154
0.150 0.122 0.97271 N ¼ 154
0.312 0.289 0.88012 N ¼ 155
0.229 0.203 1.24442 N ¼ 154
Notes: *significant at 0.10 level, **significant at 0.05 level, ***significant at 0.01 level. a Dependent variables: (1) ¼ willing to learn, (2) ¼ do not need to learn, (3) ¼ have confidence to learn, (4) ¼ many opportunities to learn, (5) ¼ take initiative to learn, (6) ¼ attending classes to learn. b Independent variables: affect life ¼ technology affects life, positive way ¼ view technology in a positive way, better life ¼ technology provides a better quality of life, general feeling ¼ general feeling of technology, adopt skills ¼ possible for elders to adopt advanced skills.
The independent variables ‘‘technology provides a better quality of life’’ and ‘‘the possibility for elders to adopt advanced skills’’ are both negatively related to the dependent variable ‘‘taking the initiative to learn,’’ which shows that taking such an initiative tends to decrease even though most respondents felt that technology provides a better quality of life and that it is possible for seniors to adopt advanced skills. The last dependent variable is ‘‘attending classes to learn,’’ which is positively influenced by a positive view of technology, technology provides a better quality of life, and elders can adopt advanced skills. This means that the more the respondents felt positively about technology, felt that technology provides a better quality of life, and that it is possible for elders to adopt advanced skills, the more they are willing to attend classes to learn these skills. Table 5 examines the relationship between the respondents’ background information and their desire to learn about new technology. The individuals’ level of education significantly and positively influences their willingness to learn and their willingness to attend classes in order to learn. Age was found to influence only the individual’s confidence in learning about new technology, but not significantly. Familiarity negatively influences the respondents’ perceived opportunities to learn, meaning that the more familiar the individual is with technology, the perceived availability of opportunities to learn decreases. An individual’s enjoyment of computer use is significantly and positively influenced by whether or not they have taken an initiative to learn. This indicates that the more the respondents’ enjoy using computers, the more initiative they will take to learn about new technology. The independent variable ‘‘perceived convenience of technology’’ influences several dependent variables, including willingness or refusal to learn, perceived opportunities to learn, and confidence in their ability to learn. The perceived convenience of technology has a positive relationship with individuals’ willingness to learn about new technology and their confidence in learning. The variable also has a negative correlation with the respondents’ perceived opportunities to learn, meaning that although they feel technology is convenient, that they are willing to learn, and that they have confidence in learning, they still feel there are no opportunities to learn about new technology. Statistics in Table 5 also show that if the respondents’ understood some computer terminology, it strongly influenced their confidence in learning and the feeling that opportunities do exist for them to learn. The last independent variable, ‘‘the respondents’ level of knowledge when it comes to using technology,’’ strongly and positively influences the respondents’ willingness to learn, and their willingness to attend classes in order to gain technological knowledge. This variable, however, is also negatively related to whether or not the respondents have taken the initiative to learn advanced skills. This means that those who understand some
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Table 5 Regression analysis—background, the individual’s technological knowledge, and their willingness to learn about new technology Variables
(1)a
(2)a
(3)a
(4)a
(5)a
(6)a
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Beta
sig T
Educationb Ageb Familiarityb Enjoymentb Convenienceb Comp.Termsb Knowledgeb
0.277 0.110 0.011 0.028 0.165 0.062 0.267
0.000 *** 0.138 0.906 0.740 0.035** 0.435 0.004***
0.158 0.072 0.125 0.065 0.207 0.124 0.281
0.031** 0.355 0.191 0.473 0.013** 0.142 0.004***
0.116 0.138 0.151 0.003 0.152 0.206. 0.104
0.103 0.070* 0.107 0.976 0.060* 0.013** 0.274
0.025 0.020 0.197 0.042 0.155 0.216 0.174
0.758 0.819 0.068* 0.679 0.096* 0.023** 0.112
0.091 0.001 0.027 0.238 0.039 0.046 0.463
0.155 0.990 0.745 0.003*** 0.590 0.533 0.000***
0.241 0.106 0.003 0.065 0.058 0.029 0.206
0.002*** 0.203 0.980 0.492 0.507 0.746 0.046**
R square Adjust R sq. Standard Error for Est.
0.371 0.342 1.00171 N ¼ 154
0.295 0.261 1.10056 N ¼ 154
0.335 0.303 0.89638 N ¼ 153
0.103 0.060 0.99284 N ¼ 154
0.456 0.431 1.71170 N ¼ 155
0.216 0.179 1.24386 N ¼ 154
Notes: *significant at 0.10 level, ** significant at 0.05 level, ***significant at 0.01 level. a Dependent variables: (1) ¼ willing to learn, (2) ¼ do not need to learn, (3) ¼ have confidence to learn, (4) ¼ many opportunities to learn, (5) ¼ take initiative to learn, (6) ¼ attending classes to learn. b Independent variables: education ¼ respondent’s level of education, age ¼ respondent’s age, familiarity ¼ how familiar respondents are with technological devices, enjoyment ¼ whether enjoy using a computer, convenience ¼ whether respondent feels technology is convenient, computer terms ¼ whether respondent understands computer terms, knowledge ¼ level of knowledge when it comes to using new technology.
computer terminology are more willing to learn and attend classes to learn, but they may not have an immediate initiative to learn. References [1] Weeks J. Population. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group/Thomson Learning; 2005. [2] Ogburn W. The influence of invention and discovery. In: Recent social trends in the United States: report of the President’s Research Committee on Social Trends. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1933. p. 122–66. [3] Goldhaber M. Reinventing technology: policies for democratic values. New York: Routledge; 1986. [4] Cumming E, Henry W. Growing old: the process of disengagement. New York: Basic Books; 1961. [5] Hagen E. On the theory of social change. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press; 1962. [6] Lemon B, Bengtson V, Peterson J. An exploration of the activity theory of aging: activity types and life satisfaction among in-movers to a retirement community. J Gerontol 1972;27:511–25. [7] Longino C, Kart G. Explicating activity theory: a formal replication. J Gerontol 1982;17:715–22. [8] Quadagno J. Aging and the life course. Boston: McGraw-Hill; 2005.
Yushi (Boni) Li is an associate professor of sociology at Northern Kentucky University. She teaches courses in sociology of aging, technology and social change, and population. Dr. Li’s research includes issues surrounding the elderly and their caregivers. She is interested in cross-cultural comparisons of younger adults, their parents’ opinions about their future living arrangements, and institutionalized care services.
Amanda Perkins received Bachelor degrees from Northern Kentucky University in sociology and criminal justice. Her research focuses on societal and aging issues. As a research assistant, she has co-authored a study of the technological impact on elderly people’s daily behavior.