The impact of values on salespeople's job responses: A cross-national investigation

ELSEVIER

The Impact of Values on Salespeople's Job Responses: A Cross-National Investigation Alan J. Dubinsky METROPOLITAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Masaaki Kotabe UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS

Chae Un Lim SOGANG UNIVERSITY

William Wagner UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI

Although prior research has considered the impact of individuals' values on employee job responses, few investigations have been directed toward assessing how values influence salespeople and none of the investigations has been cross-national. This article presents a values typology derived from social psychology and uses it to examine the impact of values on three critical job responses of sales personnel: job performance, organizational commitment, and motivation. The typology comprises seven value domains: enjoyment, security, achievement, self-direction, restrictive conformity, prosocial behavior, and maturity. Data were gathered from a survey of U.S. and Japanese field salespersons in the electronics industry. The seven value domains are hypothesized to be selectively related to the job responses under investigation. Moreover, the enjoyment, achievement, and self-direction domains are posited to have a stronger relationship with the job responses in the U.S. than in the Japanese sample. Security, restrictive conformity, and prosocial behavior domains are posited to have a stronger association with the job responses in the Japanese than in the U.S. sample. No difference between the two samples is hypothesized for the maturity~job response linkages. The findings, some of which were unexpected, indicate that values have some influence on the three job responses in the two samples. Few differences, though, werefound between U.S. andJapanesesalespeople. JBUSNRES1997.39.195-208 © 1997 Elsevier Science Inc.

he cultural milieus in which U.S. and Japanese employees find themselves are decidedly different. Indeed, these two nations are regarded as uniquely distinct on a cultural continuum (Hall, 1976). A distinguishing feature

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Address correspondence to Alan J. Dubinsky, Metropolitan State University, College of Management, 730 Hennepin Avenue, Minneapolis, MN 55403-1897. E-maih [email protected] Journal of Business Research 39, 195-208 (1997) © 1997 Elsevier Science Inc. 655 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10010

of the culture of these two countries is their value system (Alston, 1989; Ouchi, 1981). Prior research has found that the value orientations of the United States and Japan a r e dissimilar (Ronen and Shenkar, 1985). Given this dissimilarity in values, an interesting and important question for sales managers is whether values have a differential effect on U.S. and Japanese sales personnel vis-/:vis performance, organizational commitment, and motivation (three key job responses [Churchill, Ford, and Walker, 1993]). An answer to this question is virtually nonexistent, yet critical, because sales organizations have become and are likely to continue to become multi-cultural (e.g., Alston, 1989; West, 1989) as companies move into foreign markets. This multicultural phenomenon will require U.S. and Japanese sales managers to be adaptive to their host country environments. Failure to be accommodative may well result in reduced managerial influence because of the inherent culture employees bring to their jobs (Adler, Doktor, and Redding, 1986). The present study explores the influence of values on salespeople's performance, organizational commitment, and reward valences (a component of motivation) using a sample of industrial salespeople from the United States and Japan. To our knowledge, no published research has yet explored relationships between values and salesperson job responses in a cross-national setting. Knowledge of how specific values relate to critical job responses would be useful for recruiting, training, motivating, and communicating with salespeople. For example, if certain values were found to have a favorable impact on salesperson performance, sales recruiters could seek to hire individuals possessing such values. Similarly, training and communication programs could be directed at demonstrating how various ISSN 0148-2963/97/$17.00 PII S0148-2963(96)00204-4

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aspects of the organization (e.g., organizational climate) can accommodate (where pertinent) the salesperson's values. Moreover, management might need to modify its motivational package to complement salespeople's value structures. Also, some congruence would seem to be necessary between company values and values company salespeople exhibit.

Comparison of Japanese and U.S. Cultures In terms of cultural heritage, the Japanese have tended to be influenced by Confucianism and Buddhism, whereas the United States reflects a Judeo-Christian value system (Chung and Lee, 1989). As such, this has led the Japanese to emphasize loyalty, harmony, and adherence to group norms (Chung and Lee, 1989; Kang, 1989; Kim and Kim, 1989), thus subordinating themselves for the welfare of the group (Alston, 1981; Ouchi, 1981). In essence,Japan tends to have a group orientation (Hofstede, 1983). Conversely, the focus in the United States generally is on individualism (Ouchi, 1981). That is, U.S. employees typically have an individualistic orientation toward work (Chung and Lee, 1989; Hall, 1976; Hofstede, 1983), whereby they place their own self-interest ahead of the organization's. In contrast to their U.S. counterparts, the Japanese emphasize (Howard, Shudo, and Umeshima, 1983, p. 883): " . . . trusting, intimate, and subtle relationships. Indirection, ambiguity, and concern for human relationships prevail, and directness [and] confrontation . . . are avoided . . . . The Japanese are said to have a sense of interrelatedness as well as a wholistic concern for people . . . [and thus] value organizational over individual accomplishments. Also, in Japan family socialization stresses dependency and security in the culture (Cole, 1979; Kang, 1989). This orientation has resulted in institutionalized lifetime employment arrangements for Japanese employees. In Western cultures such as the United States, though, independence and autonomy seemingly foster an achievement ethic (Cole, 1979). Additionally, Japanese society tends to exhibit some inequalities, its members typically seek security and avoid risk, and it is heavily influenced by male social values. The Japanese have been found to have higher levels of these characteristics than their U.S. counterparts (Hofstede, 1983).

Background The Notion of Values The work that seemingly has had the greatest influence on values research (Spates, 1983) is that by Rokeach (1973). According to Rokeach (1973, p. 25), a value is: " . . . an enduring prescriptive or prospective belief that a specific mode of behavior or end-state of existence is preferred to an opposite mode of behavior or end-state. This belief transcends attitudes toward objects and toward situations . . . . "In essence, individ-

A.J. Dubinsky et al.

uals are said to have a preference for one value over other values in their value system (Ravlin and Meglino, 1989). Relatively little attention has been given to values in a selling context, which is surprising because scholars in psychology and organizational behavior aver that inclusion of values in studies could enhance understanding of people's attitudes and behaviors (Beatty et al., 1985; Kahle, 1985) and explain additional variance in employee job responses (Connor and Becker, 1979). Additionally, they propose that values are relevant variables to consider in an organizational setting given that workers bring their own set of values into their jobs (Brown, 1976; Ronen, 1978). Furthermore, Jackson and Tax (1995, p. 35) assert that "values represent basic beliefs which serve to define the salesforce and ultimately guide and motivate behavior." Indeed, previous studies have found that values influence a panoply of attitudes and behaviors (e.g., Beatty et al., 1985; Homer and Kahle, 1988; Rokeach, 1973).

Research on Salespeople's Values Admittedly, some work, albeit minimal, has explored values in a selling situation. Futrell and Sager (1982) found that, when compared to job tenure, sex, income, and education, salespeople's age was consistently the best predictor of six work values (e.g., importance of money, upward striving). Apasu and Buatsi (1983) developed a theoretical framework for using values to explain salesperson performance. Apasu (1987) studied the relationships among salespeople's value structures and their reward preferences. He discerned that salespersons with a secular values orientation placed greater importance on job security, promotion, and sense of accomplishment; those with a creativity values emphasis opted for personal growth rewards. Apasu, Ichikawa, and Graham ( 1987), using U.S. and Japanese samples, discovered that value congruence between salespersons and their managers generally was positively related to performance and job satisfaction and inversely associated with propensity to quit. Weeks, Chonko, and Kahle (1989) determined that the greater the congruence between manager and salesperson values, the higher the sales performance. Weeks and Kahle (1990) examined the relationship between values and salespeople's effort. They found that sales personnel who emphasized accomplishment- and excitement-oriented values were more likely to engage in entrepreneurial activities than sales personnel who perceived these two values to be less important. Swenson and Herche (1994) discovered a positive relationship between an achievement values orientation and salesperson performance; a hedonistic values emphasis, however, was observed to be unrelated to salesperson performance.

Study's Value Typology The theoretical underpinning for this study is based on the work of Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, p. 551) who "generated a comprehensive yet parsimonious typology of the content domains of values." They derived seven distinct value domains

Impact of Values on Salespeople's Job Responses

(using the work of Rokeach [1973]) predicated on three universal human requirements biological needs of an individual, social interactional requirements, and social institutional demands. The investigation assesses this values model relative to salesperson performance, organizational commitment, and motivation. This paradigm was selected for the current study for four reasons. First, it has theoretical and empirical support (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987, 1990). Second, the seven value domains tend to emerge in samples from seven different countries (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987, 1990). Third, prior research has found that the United States tends to be more of an "individualistic" country, but Japan tends to be more of a "collectivistic" nation (Hofstede, 1983). Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, 1990) posited and found that the seven value domains have either "individualistic," "collectivistic," or a "mixed" set of individualistic and collectivistic interests. Fourth, recent work on salesforce values (Swenson and Herche, 1994) has employed the Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, 1990) typology; the present study is thus compatible with that germane research. The enjoyment domain pertains to physiological satisfaction that is converted into socially recognized needs. Pleasure, sensuousness, and emotional gratification typify this domain. Relevant values include focusing on pleasure, a comfortable life, happiness, and cheerfulness. The security domain deals with physical survival and threat avoidance. Basic concern for physical and mental well-being of the individual, as well as maintenance of the group's (e.g., family's) or institution's (e.g., organization's, nation's) security, is paramount. Germane values for this facet are inner harmony, family security, national security, and a world at peace. Another domain pertains to achievement. Developing and using skills that assist in an individual's thriving and demonstrating competence in his or her milieu are of concern. Pertinent values include being capable and ambitious and achieving social recognition. A fourth domain is self-direction--a person's reliance on his or her capacity for independent thought and action. Independence characterizes this domain. Relevant values are being imaginative, independent, intellectual, and logical. The restrictive conformity domain entails the restriction of behaviors (or impulses) which might be an impediment to the interests of others. Focus here is on preventing harm to others or norm violations. Being obedient, polite, clean, and self-controlled are germane values. A sixth domain is prosocial, which deals with concern for the welfare of others so that the group (or institution) will survive. Eff/~rts are taken to enhance directly the well-being of others. Values pertaining to this domain include being helpful, forgiving, and loving, and emphasizing equality. The seventh domain is maturity. In this facet, through maturation, an individual gains an appreciation for and an understanding and acceptance of oneself, other people, and

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the world at large. Wisdom, broadmindedness, mature love, a world of beauty, and courageousness are relevant values.

Hypotheses The present study examines the relationships between each of the seven foregoing value domains and salesperson job performance, organizational commitment, and reward valences. To date, only one study has looked specifically at the influence of values on salespeople's motivation (Apasu, 1987) and performance (Swenson and Herche, 1994), and no published study has examined the impact of values on salespersons' organizational commitment. Performance refers to how well salespeople execute onthe-job behaviors, such as sales demonstrations, closing sales, and completing paperwork (Churchill, Ford, and Walker, 1993). People's values may well influence the actions in which they choose to engage (Weeks and Kahle, 1990) as well as the level of their performance (Swenson and Herche, 1994). Organizational commitment refers to one's identification with and involvement in an organization (Porter et al., 1974). A salesperson's values conceivably will influence his or her commitment (or attachment) to the organization (Jackson and Tax, 1995). Motivation is the amount of effort a salesperson desires to expend on each job activity (Walker, Churchill, and Ford, 1979). This level of effort expended is partially a function of the desirability of alternative rewards salespeople will receive for performing their jobs--referred to as "valence for rewards" (Vroom, 1964; Walker, Churchill, and Ford, 1979). In essence, a valence refers to a salesperson's desire to obtain additional amounts of a given reward. This study examined salespeople's valence for the following rewards: a 10% increase in pay; a 10% increase in job security; a promotion to a higher level job, a better territory, or larger account responsibility; increase an informal recognition for achievements; an increase in the amount of liking and respect on the job; an increase in the opportunities for personal growth and development; and an increase in feelings of worthwhile accomplishment. These seven rewards were selected because they represent a generalized set of rewards common to many sales jobs and because they have been utilized in prior sales force research (e.g., Ford, Churchill, and Walker, 1985; Cron, Dubinsky, and Michaels, 1988; Ingram and Bellenger, 1983). Rokeach (1973) theorizes that values serve a motivational function. Furthermore, Ronen (1978) avers that employees use their personal value system to evaluate an organization's reward system. Study hypotheses are developed below and summarized in Table 1.

Value Domain~Job Response Relationships ENJOYMENT. Salespeople whose value orientation revolves around enjoyment focus on pleasure, happiness, and comfort (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987). These "secular" values tend to

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Table 1. Hypothesized Relationshipsbetween Value Domains and Salesperson Work Outcomes

Value Domains

Enjoyment (U>J) Security (J>U) Achievement (U>J) Self-direction (U>J) Restrictiveconformity (J>U) Prosocial (J>U) Maturity (U=J)

Salesperson Work Outcomes Reward Valences Job Organizational Job Formal Likingand Personal Feelingsof Performance Commitment Pay Security Promotion Recognition Respect Growth Accomplishment + + +

+ -

+ + +

+ + +

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

--

+

-+

+

+

+

--

+ +

_

+

+

+

+

+

+

Note: Symbols in parentheses denote whether the hypothesized relationship is expected to be stronger (>) in one country relative to the other (U = U.S., Japan = Japan) or statistically comparable (=).

emphasize nonwork related issues and thus distract sales personnel from the job. Such sales personnel are more likely to attend to intrapersonal, rather than organizational, matters (Apasu and Buatsi, 1983). With diminished attention on their jobs, performance is likely to suffer (Swenson and Herche, 1994). Some evidence suggests that leisure is inversely related to managers' success (England and Lee, 1974). Salespeople emphasizing the enjoyment domain would have less concern for their job because their work could detract from realizing the pleasure and excitement they seek. So, they are likely to be less committed to their company (Kahle, 1983). Furthermore, enjoyment-oriented values should be positively related to salespeople's valence for pay, job security, and a promotion, because these rewards conceivably foster a pleasurable lifestyle, Conversely, Apasu (1987) posited and found their secular values are inversely related to valences for feelings of accomplishment and personal growth and development. Values associated with security relate to maintaining personal and organizational integrity and welfare (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987). By performing well, salespeople conceivably will be able to attend to their physical and emotional needs (through receiving monetary and nonmonetary rewards) and assist their company in satisfying its goals and requirements. Security-oriented sales personnel emphasize personal and organizational protection. Thus, they are likely to feel responsible for ensuring their own and the collectivity's safety; augmented responsibility has been suggested as being positively related to salesperson organizational commitment (Chonko, 1986). Salespeople with a concern about security should have higher valences for pay, job security, a promotion, formal recognition, and liking and respect. Receiving these rewards may help sales personnel attend to their security consciousness within and outside of the organization. SECURITY.

An achievement orientation deals with competence and personal success (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987). This perspective can induce salespeople to perform well; doing otherwise may cause feelings of "shame about personal inadequacy" (Rokeach, 1973, p. 8). Achievement values have been found to be positively related to salesperson performance (Swenson and Herche, 1994). The achievement-oriented salesperson is likely to have higher valences for pay, a promotion, formal recognition, liking and respect, personal growth and development, and feelings of accomplishment. Receipt of these rewards typically denotes job success. Apasu (1987) found a positive relationship between achievement-oriented values and a salesperson's preference for a pay increase, a promotion, and sense of accomplishment. Emphasizing achievement also likely leads to taking risks and upending the status quo (and thus reducing security), which may be unsettling (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987). Such salespeople may well have lower valences for security given their risk-taking nature. ACHIEVEMENT.

SELF-DIREa'ION. Values associates with self-direction pertain to relying on one's own capabilities for making decisions and taking action (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987). Salespeople often work alone and thus are left to their own devices to solve problems. This independence might help them in ultimately ascertaining (through their trial and error) what selling approaches are most effective in their particular selling situation, which should conduce to enhanced performance. Self-direction "directly contradicts.., dependence on social expectations [of the groupl" (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987). Self-directed sales personnel typify "lone wolves" who act independently and exhibit low levels of organizational commitment (Ingram, Lee, and Lucas, 1991). The self-directed salesperson basically gives diminished attention to the organization and those within it. As such, sales personnel with a self-directed orientation are likely to have a lower valence for formal recognition (because "signifi-

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Impact of Values on Salespeople's Job Responses

cant others" in the company may be of reduced concern) and a higher valence for personal growth and development and feelings of accomplishment (because use of one's own capabilities could aid in receiving these two rewards through realizing job success). RESTRICTIVECONFORMITYANDPROSOCIALBEHAVIOR. Restrictive conformity entails values that pertain to self-restriction of one's impulses and behavior in order not to harm other's interests. Prosocial behavior values focus on protection or enhancement of the commonweal (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987). Salespeople emphasizing these domains are likely to be highly interpersonally oriented (Apasu and Buatsi, 1983) and be adaptive to the various needs of their constituencies (e.g., managers, peers, customers). In fact, research has found that salesperson behaviors which promote the effective functioning of the organization (MacKenzie, Podsakoff, and Fetter, 1993) and are customer oriented (Saxe and Weitz, 1982; Swenson and Herche, 1994) are positively related to sales performance. Chonko (1986, p. 22) posits that organizational commitment involves reciprocity: " . . . individuals should help those who have helped them [e.g., prosocial behavior] . . . and individuals should not harm those who have helped them ]e.g., restrictive conformity] 2 Engaging in such behaviors may well imply that these individuals accept the goals of the organization; after all, employees tend to be attracted to firms whose values are consistent with their own (Posner, 1992). Psychologists have proposed that need for affiliation may be converted into prosocial values (Korman, 1974; Maslow, 1959; McClelland, 1951). Consequently, salespeople emphasizing prosocial values are likely to have higher valences for linking and respect.

MATURITY. Values related to maturity pertain to an individual's appreciation and acceptance of oneself and the world around him or her. In essence, this orientation betokens a "self-actualized" person (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987). In an attempt to "be all that they can be," such salespeople will conceivably direct their efforts at performing effectively. A job conceivably can afford self-actualized (i.e., "maturitydriven") sales personnel an opportunity to be fulfilled. Such individuals are likely to feel that "investing" in the job is worth the return in terms of self-fulfillment. "Investment" in the job may be a means of linking salespersons with their organization (resulting in enhanced organizational commitment) (Chonko, 1986). if salespeople are directed at the maturity value domain, they should have higher valences for liking and respect (an indication of coworker admiration). Also, self-actualization is regarded as a higher-order need (Maslow, 1959; Rokeach, 1973). So, salespeople emphasizing maturity values conceivably will have higher valences for personal growth and development and for feelings of accomplishment, two higher-order needs (which self-actualization should enhance).

Cross-National Hypotheses When examining the relationships between values and salesperson job responses, of particular interest in this study is a determination of whether the relationships differ between U.S. and Japanese sales personnel. Given that the United States and Japan have different "national characters" (Clark, 1990), the investigated relationships may differ in degree, if not in kind, between the two samples. In essence, the unique respective situations confronting U.S. and Japanese salespeople may mediate the values/job response linkages. As noted earlier, Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, 1990) posited and generally found that their seven value domains could be categorized into individualistic and collectivistic (group) "interests." The value domains serving individualistic interests are self-direction, achievement, and enjoyment. These three domains should be less relevant in Japan than in the United States. Relying extensively on one's own abilities (self-direction) could impair group harmony, unity, and success. Focusing on personal success (achievement) could lead to directing efforts toward personal goal accomplishment and to ignoring (or at least diminishing) the group's welfare. Although Japanese employees are beginning to show an increasing interest in nonwork activities (enjoyment), they traditionally have been extremely work oriented (Mallaby, 1994). Given U.S. employees' individualistic perspective (Hofstede, 1983), these three domains seem particularly pertinent in the United States. In fact, previous research has found that U.S. sales personnel tend to emphasize values that pertain to these three domains more than do their Japanese counterparts (Apasu, Ichikawa, and Graham, 1987). The value domains that serve collectivistic interests are security, prosocial, and restrictive conformity (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987, 1990). Conceivably, these domains should be more pertinent in Japan than in the United States. Protecting the integrity of oneself and one's group (security) would entail engaging in behaviors that foster group maintenance. Actively promoting the welfare of the group (prosocial) clearly enhances group harmony and unity. Refraining from behavior that impairs the commonweal (restrictive conformity) can assist in maintaining group solidarity. The individualistic orientation in the United States may well make these three domains less germane in the United States than in Japan. In fact, prior research has found that Japanese sales personnel tend to emphasize more values pertaining to these three domains than do their U.S. counterparts (Apasu, Ichikawa, and Graham,

1987). The maturity domain is considered to serve both individualistic and collectivistic interests (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987, 1990). This is understandable given that a self-actualization orientation could assist in either personal or group goal attainment (i.e., neither kind of goal necessarily needs to be subordinated to self-actualize). So, this domain appears to be equally germane in both the United States and Japan. Prior work has found that both U.S. and Japanese salespeople tend to place

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a relatively equal emphasis on values dealing with the maturity domain (Apasu, Ichikawa, and Graham, 1987). The foregoing discussion suggests, then, that relationships between values and the job responses of interest here may differ between U.S. and Japanese sales personnel (see "Values Domain" column in Table 1). In particular, the relationships with the individualistic value domains (self-direction, achievement, enjoyment) and the job responses are likely to be stronger in the U.S. sample. The associations with the collectivistic value domains (security, prosocial, restrictive conformity) and job responses are likely to be stronger in the Japanese than in the U.S. sample. And for the maturity domain (which serves both kinds of interests), there is likely to be no difference between the U. S. and Japanese samples in the value/job response linkages.

Method Sample The sample comprised sales personnel from the electronics industry in the United States and Japan. Salespeople from only one industry were surveyed to hold constant the type of products sold. Prior research has found that job responses can vary across sales settings (Churchill et al., 1985; Comer and Dubinsky, 1985). Questionnaires were distributed through company mail to salespeople operating in the United States (three firms) and Japan (three firms). Management in each company strongly encouraged sales personnel to participate in the study. A total of 340 questionnaires were distributed to the U.S. sample; 218 usable questionnaires were returned for a response rate of 64.1%. In the Japanese sample, 220 out of a possible 350 questionnaires were returned, for a response rate of 62.9%. In the U.S. sample, mean respondent age was 37.6 years. Mean sales position and company tenure were 4.0 and 6.4 years, respectively. Almost 50% had at least a bachelor's degree. Over 70% were male. Approximately one-quarter were married. In the Japanese sample, mean respondent age was 29.2 years. Mean sales position and company tenure were 4.8 and 6.8 years, respectively. Approximately three-fourths had at least a bachelor's degree. Over four-fifths were male. Thirtynine percent were married.

Measures The original questionnaire was developed in English. The questionnaire was translated into Japanese and back translated into English by Japanese nationals to maintain consistency in meaning and content (Adler, 1983; Sekaran, 1983). Salespeople's values were measured using the NoLeach Value Survey (RVS) (Rokeach 1973). It is a frequently used instrument for assessing values (Braithwaite and Scott, 1991) and has been employed in cross-national studies (see

VALUES.

A.J. Dubinsky et al.

reviews by Munson and Mclntyre [1978] and Spates [1983]), including one in the selling arena using U.S. and Japanese sales personnel (Apasu, Ichikawa, and Graham, 1987). The RVS contains 36 values; prior research shows that this list of values tends to be comprehensive (Braithwaite and Scott, 1991). Moreover, it has been shown to be reliable and valid (see review by Braithwaite and Scott [1991]). Respondents were asked to indicate the importance of each value on a 7-point scale (1 = very unimportant and 7 = very important). This approach has been used in prior research and has been found to be an appropriate means of measuring values (e.g., Feather, 1973; Munson and Mclntyre, 1978). Scales were constructed for each of the seven value domains based on Schwartz and Bilsky's (1987, 1990) theoretical and empirical work (which employed the RVS). The structure of these value domains has been found to be generally consistent with a priori expectations and similar across seven countries (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987, 1990), thus demonstrating sufficient validity. To measure job performance, respondents were asked to evaluate themselves--from 1 = poor to 5 = excellent--relative to other company sales personnel doing similar work on 10 job dimensions (e.g., profitability of sales, sales development effort). This scale has been used in prior sales force research (Yammarino and Dubinsky, 1990). A meta-analysis found that self-report ("subjective") measures appear to be as adequate for assessing salesperson performance as "objective" indicators (Churchill et al., 1985). JOB RESPONSES.

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT. A 15-item scale developed by Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979) measured organizational commitment. The scale has been utilized in prior salesforce research (e.g., Michaels et al., 1988). Respondents recorded their responses on a 7-point scale (1 = very strongly disagree and 7 = very strongly agree).

To measure valences, respondents were asked how desirable (1 = very undesirable and 7 = very desirable) each of the aforementioned rewards was. This format is similar to that used in previous salesforce motivation research (Tyagi, 1985). The seven valences were used individually in subsequent analyses, which is compatible with some prior work on salespeople's reward valences (Churchill, Ford, and Walker, 1979; Ford, Churchill, and Walker, 1985; Ingram and Bellenger, 1983). VALENCES.

RELIABILITIES. All multi-item scales were summed to arrive at a respondent's scale score. Reliability (coefficient alpha) for each of these scales was computed. Table 2 shows the reliability coefficient for each multi-item scale, the mean and standard deviation for each of the study's constructs, as well as the correlation coefficient between each study variable within each sample (United States, upper entry; Japan, lower entry). The scales generally demonstrate adequate reliability (Nunnally, 1978).

Impact of Values on Salespeople's Job Responses

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201

T a b l e 2. Intercorrelation Matrix and Summary Statistics of Study Variables* 3

4

5

6

7

8

1

2

0.57 0.74 0.57 0.55 0.49 0.60 0.43 0.59 0.45 0.70 0.48 0.72

-0.48 0.54 0.50 0.56 0.52 0.62 0.68 0.78 0.71 0.74

0.56 0.71 0.56 0.72 0.51 0.57 0.60 0.63

0.56 0.68 0.43 0.67 0.58 0.70

0.57 0.69 0.52 0.66

0.71 0.81

0.18 0.02 0.23 0.10

0.18 0.03 0.19 0.19

0.30 0.17 0.28 0.17

0.28 0.12 0.19 0.08

0.12 0.16 0.25 0.10

0.18 0.05 0.20 0.11

0,24 0,03 0.18 0.00

0.24 0.23

0.22 0.38 0.29 0.27 0.18 0.27 0.27 0.20 0.30 0.42 0.33 0.40 0.27 0.42

0.25 0.28 0.37 0.31 0.18 0.30 0.14 0.22 0.14 0.36 0.28 0.37 0.23 0.40

0.23 0.15 0.17 0.17 0.24 0.28 0.28 0.23 0.35 0.31 0.39 0.33 0.32 0,36

0.22 0.16 0.25 0.15 0.16 0.24 0.25 0.15 0.20 0.20 0.25 0.29 0.21 0.29

0.13 0.17 0.29 0.25 0.12 0.25 0.15 0.22 0.18 0.33 0.30 0.20 0.21 0.30

0.25 0.21 0.29 0.24 0.19 0.23 0.15 0.24 0.21 0.31 0.36 0.31 0.33 0.32

0.30 0.23 0.25 0.22 0.22 0.25 0.20 0.16 0.13 0.33 0.40 0.35 0.31 0.38

0.06 0.11 0.01 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.27 0.01 0.16 0.02 0.16 0.08 0.06 0.04

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Independent Variables 1. Enjoyment 2. Security 3. Achievement 4. Self-direction 5. Restrictive conformity 6. Prosocial 7. Maturity Dependent Variables 8. Job performance 9. Organizational commitment Reward valences: 10. Pay 11. Job security 12. Promotion 13. Formal recognition 14. Liking and respect 15. Personal growth 16. Feelings of accomplishment Mean Standard deviation Alpha

-----

-

-

-

-

0.18 0.17 0.19 0.26 0.28 0.24 0.24 0.23 0.18 0.24 0.24 0.20 0.19 0.36

-0.34 0.57 0.21 0.55 0.35 0.37 0.36 0.49 0.41 0.52 0.46 0.50

-0.22 0.53 0.33 0.36 0.31 0.53 0.38 0.51 0.37 0.52

-0.31 0.52 0.22 0.45 0.49 0.47 0.30 0.56

-0.57 0.40 0.48 0.32 0.45 0.36

-0.42 - 0.66 0.50 0.68 0.64 0.73

25.46 31.74 18.28 24.66 22.97 35.62 30.95 38.64 74.92 6.51 5.78 5.80 5.73 5.56 6.11 6.21 23.89 28.65 16.74 23.17 22.10 33.95 28.54 30.18 64.79 5.13 1.82 5.04 4.53 5.43 5.64 5.52 2.55 2.90 2.10 2.97 3.64 4.75 3.30 5.38 17.72 1.07 1.34 1.38 1.32 1.27 1.05 1.02 3.25 4.01 2.87 3.44 3.64 4.56 3.79 6.91 11.20 1.48 1.25 1.30 1.33 1.25 1.23 1.21 0.66 0.64 0.65 0.79 0.78 0.79 0.75 0.81 0.92 N . A . N . A . N . A . N . A . N . A . N . A . N . A . 0.79 0.77 0.82 0.85 0.83 0.84 0.80 0.90 0.86

Note: The two entriesfor eachvariablewithina columnare for the U.S.sample(upperentry)and the Japanesesample(lowerentry),respectively. *r/> 138, p < .05:r/> .181, p < .01

Data Analysis Data were analyzed using multiple regression. Each dependent variable (job response) was regressed individually across the seven value domains. (The potential influence of age and education on the hypothesized relationships was also examined. These two variables had virtually no significant impact [p > .05] on the posited associations.) Prior to regression analyses, an examination was made for possible muhicollinearity among the independent variables by computing variance inflation factors. All were less than 3.0, which is within an acceptable range (Montgomery and Peck, 1982). To examine variations between the U.S. and Japanese samples, tests were

made for significant differences between standardized beta coefficients (Cohen and Cohen, 1983) for each corresponding pair of regression equations (e.g., the seven value domains and job performance for the United States versus Japan).

Results Prior to conducting the regression analyses, an examination was made to determine whether there was a difference between the U.S. and Japanese salespeople's mean scores on each of the seven value domains. Existence of differences would suggest that "country" does have an influence on salesperson

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Table 3. Regression Analysis Results: Beta Coefficients, F-Value, and Adjusted R2

Independent Job Organizational Variable Performance Commitment Enjoyment Security Achievement Self-direction Restrictive conformity Prosocial Maturity F-Value Adjusted R2

-0.04 -0.02 0.01 -0.25 0.25 b 0.18 0.18 ~ 0.03 - 0.15 0.19" 0.02 0.08 0.06 -0.11 3.91 t' 1.88 0.09 0.03

0.15 -0.03* -0.01 0.41 b --0.00 0.10 0.15

Dependent Variables Reward Valences Job Formal Liking and Personal Feelings of Security Promotion Recognition Respect Growth Accomplishment

Pay 0.06 0.44 b* 0.16 0.04 0.11 -0.16 --

0.16 0.10 0.3D 0.26 b -0.07 -0.04 --

.

.

0.03 0.01 0.07 0.18 0.19 a 0.18 a -.

.

--

--

-0.03 0.15 0.2P 0.19 0.14 -0.07 .

-0.01 0.27 a 0.40 ~ 0.14" --

0.12 0.29 b --

0.11 0.29 b

0.21 b

0.18 b 0.16 -0.04 -0.01

0.11 b -0.09 -0.03

.

0.00 0.05 0.12 0.01 -0.45 ~* 3.05 b 3.4P 0.06 0.07

.

.

.

.

5.89 b 11.75 b 0.06 0.i4

.

. .

12.05 b 7.28 b 0.13 0.09

. 4.88 ~ 7.98 b 0.05 0.10

. 7.00 b 4.66 b 0.08 0.05

0.16 -0.05 0.22 a 0.06* 8.66 b 8.20 b 0.13 0.13

-0.26 b 0.08 13.97 b 10.03 b 0.20 0.15

0.17 a 0.12 7.87 b 12.19 0.11 0.18

Note: The two entriesfor each variableor regressionequationwithin a columnare for the U.S.sample(upperentry)and the Japanesesamle(lowerentry),respectively. (--) = no hypothesizedrelationship. * = A significantdifference(i9 < .05) existsbetweenthe U.S.and Japanesebetacoefficients.

' p ~<.05.

~'p <~ .01.

values and, therefore, investigating differences between the two groups vis-a-vis values/job response relationships would appear warranted. For all seven value domains, t-test results indicated that U.S. mean scores were significantly greater (p < .01) than the Japanese mean scores (see value domain means in Table 2). These findings led to analyzing the data separately for each sample. Results of the study are shown in Table 3. Reported are the standardized beta coefficients for each independent variable on each dependent variable, as well as the respective F-value and adjusted R= (coefficient of determination) for each equation within each sample (United States, upper entry; Japan, lower entry). In addition, significant differences (p < .05) between the U.S. and Japanese beta coefficient for a particular value/job response relationship are indicated.

U.S. Sample W h e n regressing j o b performance across the seven value domains, 9% of the variance was explained. As expected, achievement and self-direction were significantly (p < . 05), positively associated with U.S. salesperson performance. Although the overall model for organizational commitment was significant and explained 6% of the variance in that variable, none of the six domains posited as being related to organizational commitment manifested a significant beta coefficient. Evidently, U.S. salespeople's organizational commitment is not influenced individually by any of the value domains.

W h e n examining the results concerning the value domain/ valence linkages in the U.S. sample, few significant relationships appeared. Unexpectedly, enjoyment, security, and achievement were unrelated to valence for pay. As hypothesized, the security domain was positively related to valence for j o b security; similarly, achievement was positively associated with valence for a promotion and formal recognition. Explained variance for these three models was 13, 5, and 8%, respectively. Thirteen percent of the variance in valence for liking and respect was explained by the value domains in that model. As expected, achievement was positively related to this valence. Maturity, however, was found to be inversely associated with liking and respect, which was opposite the hypothesized relationship. As anticipated, the achievement and maturity domains were positively related to valence for personal growth and for feelings of accomplishment. These two domains explained 20 and 11% of the variance, respectively, in the two valences.

Japanese Sample The overall j o b performance model was not significant (p > .05). So, none of the seven value domains evidently is related to Japanese salesperson performance. The coefficient of determination for the organizational commitment model was 7%. As hypothesized, the security domain was positively associated with this variable; unexpectedly, however, the maturity do-

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Impact of Values on Salespeople's Job Responses

main was negatively related to organizational commitment, contrary to the hypothesis. As was the case in the U.S. sample, few significant (p < .05) relationships were observed between value domains and reward valences in the Japanese sample. As expected, enjoyment was positively associated with valence for pay. Similarly, the security domain was positively related to valence for job security. Also, as hypothesized, achievement was positively related to valence for a promotion. The coefficient of determination for these models was 14, 9, and 10%, respectively. Although the overall equation for formal recognition was significant, no posited value domain exhibited a significant beta coefficient. So, individually, the proposed value domains evidently do not affect Japanese salespeople's valence for formal recognition. As anticipated, security was found to be positively associated with the valence for liking and respect, with 13% of the variance explained in this model. Contrary to the hypothesis, enjoyment was positively associated with valence for personal growth and feelings of accomplishment. The explained variance in these two equations was 15 and 18%, respectively.

Inter-Country Differences Six significant (p < .05) differences were detected when comparing the magnitudes of corresponding pairs of U.S. and Japanese beta coefficients. The differences occurred in the job performance, organizational commitment, and valence for pay and liking and respect models. The equations for valence for job security, a promotion, formal recognition, personal growth, and feelings of accomplishment exhibited no significant differences between the beta coefficients of the two samples. As hypothesized, the magnitude of the relationship between job performance and restrictive conformity was larger in the Japanese sample than in the U.S. sample (beta = .19 versus - . 15). A somewhat similar situation prevailed in the organizational commitment model. As anticipated, the enjoyrnent/organizational commitment relationship was stronger in the U.S. than in the Japanese sample. Also, the association between maturity and organizational commitment was stronger in the Japanese sample than in the U.S. sample; no difference, however, was expected. The relationship between the enjoyment domain and valence for pay was stronger in the Japanese than in the U.S. sample. The opposite situation, however, was anticipated. The achievement and the maturity domains were more strongly related to valence for liking and respect in the U.S. than in the Japanese sample. The achievement/liking and respect result was hypothesized; no difference, though, was expected regarding the maturity/valence for liking and respect linkage.

Discussion The purpose of the present investigation was to determine the impact of personal values on three crucial job responses

of U.S. and Japanese sales personnel. Although several hypotheses were not supported, the results still provide some evidence that values do have an influence on salespeople's job performance, organizational commitment, and valences for rewards (see summary of findings in Table 4). What is particularly striking about the results is the contradictory findings (relative to the posited hypotheses) that emerged in certain instances (which will be subsequently discussed). The enjoyment value domain had an influence on Japanese salespeople's job responses, but not on those of the U.S. sales personnel. Perhaps Japanese employees' relatively recent emphasis on pursuing more nonwork activities (Mallaby, 1994) partially explains this situation. The security domain was related to both groups' desire for more job security, which makes intuitive sense. The achievement domain affected several job responses of U.S. salespersons but only one of their Japanese counterparts. Achievement-oriented values focus on personal competence and success. The individualistic orientation in the United States (where an individual's goals are superordinate relative to the organization's) versus the group orientation in Japan (where personal goals are subordinated to those of the group) may partially account for this result. Self-direction, prosocial, and restrictive conformity domains had minimal influence on salesperson job responses in either sample. Perhaps salespeople self-select themselves into their positions because they can work alone and rely on themselves in the field; if so, then the self-direction/job responses linkages could be vitiated. Also, given the affiliative estrangement in the sales job, possibly prosocial and restrictive conformity behaviors may be somewhat less relevant than in nonsales positions. The maturity domain was found to have some effect on salesperson work outcomes, particularly in the U.S. sample. Given the autonomy and variety in many sales jobs, feelings of self-actualization may well be realized, which could explain this finding.

Resultsfor Job Performance u.s. sales personnel who strive for personal success (achievement) and especially rely on their own abilities (self-direction) seemingly are better performers. Salespersons tend to be physically, psychologically, and socially apart from other company personnel; need to be flexible and innovative in their nonroutine job; and require great persistence and self-motivation (Dubinsky et al., 1986). Being internally driven to succeed and having an ability to use one's own devices might well be conducive to sales effectiveness, given the selling milieu in which the salesperson works. Perhaps the five other value domains were unrelated to U.S. salespeople's performance because personal characteristics (which values would be considered) tend to be relatively weak predictors of salesperson performance (Churchill et al., 1985). None of the seven value domains was associated with Japanese salespeople's job performance. A possible rationale for this finding pertains to the Japanese work paradigm which

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Table 4. Summary of Study Results

Organizational Job Value Domain Performance Commitment Enjoyment

Security Achievement

U:ns J:ns

U:ns J:ns

U:ns J:ns U: +

U:ns J:+

u>j

J:ns

Self-direction Restrictive conformity Prosocial Maturity

U: + J:ns U:ns J:ns J>U U:ns J:ns U:ns J:ns

Pay U:ns J:+ J>U U:ns J:ns U:ns J:ns

Salesperson Work Outcomes Reward Valences Job Formal Likingand Personal Feelingsof Security Promotion Recognition Respect Growth Accomplishment U:ns J:ns

U:ns J:ns

u:+ J:+ U:ns J:ns

U:ns J:ns u:+ J:+

U:ns J:ns U:ns J:ns U:ns J:ns U:ns J:-(R) J>U

U:ns J:ns u+ J:ns

U:ns J:+ U:+ J:ns U>J

U:ns J:ns

U:ns J:+(R)

U:ns J:+(R)

U:+

U:+

J:ns

J:ns

U:ns

U:ns

J:ns

J:ns

U:+ J:ns

U:+ J:ns

U:ns J:ns U:-(R) J:ns W>J

Note: U = United States; J = Japan. The symbol following the country denotes whether the value domain and work outcome are positively (+), negatively (-), or not significantly (ns) related in the country of interest. An (R) following a symbol indicates that the observed relationship is opposite that which was hypothesized. Significant differences between countries are denoted by U > J and J > U.

involves a group orientation utilizing consensual decision making. This approach entails employees' working together to achieve a common goal, not the personal goals of its members, as tasks are assigned to a group rather than divided among the members of the group. Although each member makes a contribution, the end result is from the group, not from any one individual. This group orientation may have vitiated the values/individual performance relationship in the Japanese sample.

Results for Organizational Commitment Surprisingly, none of the value domains individually was found to be related to salesperson organizational commitment in the U.S. sample. Perhaps organizational commitment in the United States is influenced more by variables external to the individual (e.g., compensation program, availability of alternative jobs, nature of the position) than by personal characteristics (e.g., values). Indeed, prior research has found that personal characteristics tend to be unrelated to U.S. salesperson organizational commitment (e.g., Bashaw and Grant, 1994). Japanese sales personnel with values anchored toward security had higher organizational commitment. The Japanese traditionally are very concerned about protecting their personal integrity and that of the organization's (the security value domain). This regard for security allows for relatively smooth

social interaction and institutional functioning (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987), thus fostering group harmony and unity. Being solicitous about the organization can seemingly augment one's commitment. Unexpectedly, maturity was found to be inversely, rather than positively, associated with Japanese salespeople's organizational commitment. Moreover, this relationship (beta = -.45) was significantly greater than the corresponding relationship in the U.S. sample (beta = .01); no difference, however, was hypothesized. The group orientation in Japan may explain these results. Salespeople emphasizing the maturity domain tend to be self-actualizers (Schwartz and Bilsky, 1987). Self-actualizing entails focusing on personal needs and goals, not necessarily those of the organization. Such individuals, then, would not be demonstrating the requisite concern for the group or the employer, thus impairing the employee/ organization link.

Results for Valence for Rewards Very few relationships were found between the value domains and salesperson reward valences in either sample. These results, although unanticipated, are compatible with prior research which found that personal characteristics (e.g., need for achievement, need for self-actualization) tend to be unrelated to salesperson valences for various rewards (Churchill, et al. 1979, 1985; Ingram and Bellenger, 1983).

Impact of Values on Salespeople's Job Responses

Japanese sales personnel whose values were anchored in enjoyment had a higher valence for a pay increase, and surprisingly, this relationship was stronger in the Japanese than in the U.S. sample; the opposite situation was hypothesized. Contemporary work life in Japan may explain this finding. Traditionally, Japanese employees' lives have tended to revolve around work (as mandated by management), and lifetime employment has been common. The current situation finds Japanese workers placing far greater emphasis on leisure time activities (partially for purposes of health) and also being less likely to be provided with long-term job security (Mallaby, 1994). So, Japanese salespersons might be desirous of receiving a pay increase so that they can continue to engage in pleasurable pursuits and also to attend partially to their concerns about reduced job security. For both samples, sales personnel focusing on security values were particularly desirous of receiving more job security, as hypothesized. Given that additional job security would provide enhanced protection within and outside of the organization, these findings seem logical. U.S. salespersons who were success oriented (achievement domain) had higher valences for a promotion (which is consistent with the findings of Apasu [1987]) and formal recognition. Japanese salespersons who were high on the achievement domain also had higher valences for a promotion (but not for formal recognition). Both of these rewards are typically bestowed on individuals who had performed well; moreover, they are public pronouncements about a job well done. In essence, they denote success, which an achievement-oriented salesperson seeks. U.S. salespeople who focused on achievement also had a higher valence for liking and respect, and that association was stronger in the U.S. than in the Japanese sample. Enhanced liking and respect from coworkers can be a sign of their admiration for a salesperson's accomplishments; as such, it is an indicator of job success. Surprisingly, U.S. salespersons whose values were anchored on the maturity domain had a lower valence for liking and respect (and this association was stronger in the U.S. than in the Japanese sample). Selfactualized salespersons are likely to feel that they are at the pinnacle of what they can be. So, they may not be particularly influenced by, and thus place less emphasis on, what colleagues think of them. Japanese salespeople who emphasized security values had a higher valence for liking and respect. By receiving support and warmth from coworkers, they may view their work situations as being less threatening. Consequently, feelings of security could be enhanced. U.S. salespeople who emphasized values pertaining to the achievement and maturity domains had higher valences for personal growth and feelings of accomplishment. (The achievement/feelings of accomplishment linkage was also obtained by Apasu [1987]). These two higher-order rewards are likely to be realized when salespeople are successful (achieve-

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205

ment oriented) and tend to self-actualize (maturity); also, the more they are realized, the more they are desired (Walker, Churchill, and Ford, 1979). Thus, success and personal enhancement should conduce to having favorable feelings about oneself. Interestingly, Japanese sales personnel whose values were anchored in the enjoyment domain had higher valences for personal growth and liking and respect; a negative relationship was hypothesized. The nature of the current work environment in Japan may explain this situation. As noted earlier, engaging in pleasurable activities (such as leisure pursuits) on a wide scale is a recent phenomenon in Japan. The relative novelty and uniqueness of this undertaking might well lead to increased feelings of personal development and feelings of accomplishment for Japanese sales personnel.

Summary In conclusion, salespeople's values seem to have some impact on their j o b performance, organizational commitment and reward valences. Perhaps the effect is not large because previous empirical work has found that personal characteristics tend to be unrelated to salesperson performance (Churchill et al., 1985), organizational commitment (e.g., Bashaw and Grant, 1994), and reward valences (e.g., Churchill, Ford, and Walker, 1979, 1985; Ingram and Bellenger, 1983). The influence that is present, though, occurs in both U.S. and Japanese salesforces. The results do show, however, that there are relatively few differences between U.S. and Japanese sales personnel vis-a-vis the values/work outcome linkages examined here. The paucity of inter-country differences may be partially explained based on a recent article. Fukuyama (1995) argues that the two nations may be more similar than is thought, at least with respect to how their organizations have developed. He avers that both countries are "high trust" societies, wherein members of a society are able to trust one another. Trust has led to social cooperation, which has fostered the formation of new groups and associations (such as economic organizations) in both the United States and Japan. Perhaps this social cooperation found within organizations serves to reduce the potential impact of personal values on job responses of sales personnel. Moreover, maybe this organizational similarity between the two countries also vitiates differences between the value/work outcome linkages of their salespeople.

Managerial Implications Results of this study suggest that sales managers need to be somewhat attentive to their salespeople's value orientations. U.S. sales managers must be cognizant of their domestic U.S. and host Japanese salespersons' value systems. Similarly, Japanese sales managers should be aware of their domestic Japanese and host U.S. sales personnel's value structures. Given that values seemingly have an impact on performance, organi-

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zational commitment, and reward valences, paying heed to salesperson values appears warranted. To determine individuals' value orientations, sales managers could administer values scales (like the one used here-Rokeach [1973] as in Schwartz and Bilsky [1987, 1990]) to potential and current sales personnel. Surveying sales recruits might reveal whether the firm's organizational systems, processes, and environment can accommodate recruits' value structures. A firm's inability to complement a recruit's value system conceivably would lead to conflict (Jackson and Tax, 1995) and thus may be a reason for rejecting the candidate from employment consideration. Assessing the value orientations of present salesforce members may help identify effective performers (e.g., U.S. salespeople whose values apparently are anchored in achievement and self-direction) or be suggestive of whether the current reward system is satisfactory or needs modification (e.g., achievement-oriented sales personnel prefer promotions and formal recognition). In addition to using values questionnaires with current salespeople, sales managers might indirectly discern the salesforce members' value structures through interacting with the salespersons in various settings over time. Engaging in such interaction could indicate to sales managers what their salespersons' predilections are. Similar information might also be obtained through the use of one-on-one or group discussions that focus on salespeople's work and life preferences. Armed with this values information, sales managers could then inform salespeople with certain value anchorings how the organization can accommodate their particular value orientation. For example, salespeople with achievement-oriented values might be shown how a promotion is readily attainable in the company (thus satisfying their valence for promotion). Or management might articulate for salesforce members emphasizing security-related values how the company attends to their need for security through its benefits program.

Limitations and Future Research The present study has certain limitations that are suggestive of future research directions. Data were collected in only one industry and two countries. Subsequent efforts could employ additional industries and countries to see if the findings obtained here are generalizable to other selling situations and countries. Furthermore, samples using industrial purchasing personnel might be employed to investigate the other half of the buyer-seller dyad and to determine whether a purchaser's values influence the buyer-seller situation. The current investigation considered the impact of values on three job responses of sales personnel. Future work could employ other job responses than those used here. Potential variables might include both affective (e.g., job satisfaction, job involvement, affiliative estrangement) and behavioral (e.g., turnover, absenteeism) dimensions. Also, this study considered only one kind of employee commitment, organizational

A.J. Dubinsky et al.

commitment. Further studies could include alternate kinds of commitment, such as family, job, and career. Moreover, this research considered a unidimensional (overall) measure of salesperson performance; subsequent efforts could be directed at employing multidimensional aspects of performance. Additionally, researchers could use other kinds of reward valences than those employed here and tailor them to salespeople in each country of interest. Relatively weak results were obtained in the Japanese sample. Perhaps the Schwartz and Bilsky typology (1987, 1990) is not particularly amenable to a Japanese context. Scholars in organizational behavior caution against wholesale use of Western-based models in non-Western countries (e.g., Adler, Doktor, and Redding, 1986). Future empirical work may seek to develop a values model that is tailored to an Asian setting. Finally, the current work considered the impact of personal (or social) values on salesperson work outcomes. Future explorations could examine the influence of salespeople's work values (values pertaining specifically to the job) on work outcomes. Examples of work values could include moral importance of work, importance of friends over work and pride in work (Futrell and Sager, 1982). The authorsgratefullyacknowledgeWilliamD. Murryand FrancisJ. Yammarino (SUNY-Binghamton)for theirvaluableinput and the anonymousreviewers and Michel Larochefor their helpful suggestions on earlier versions of this article.

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