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The influence of fermented putak on diet digestibility and growth performance of weanling pigs
Animal Feed Science and Technology 102 (2002) 217–224
Short communication
The influence of fermented putak on diet digestibility and growth performance of weanling pigs U. Ginting-Moenthe a , S. Chakeredza b , U. ter Meulen c,∗ a
c
Animal Husbandry Faculty, Nusa Cendana University, JL Adiscucipto, Kupang, Indonesia b Henderson Research Station, P.O. Bag 2004, Mazowe, Zimbabwe Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Georg-August University, 37077 Goettingen, Germany Received 27 December 2001; received in revised form 12 August 2002; accepted 12 August 2002
Abstract The use of fermented putak (prepared from the stalk of the palm tree; Corypha elata robx) as a substitute for maize meal in pig-fattening diets was evaluated in two experiments in the East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia. Boiled putak was fermented with Saccharomyces cerevisae for 2 weeks and incorporated into pig-fattening rations at zero (control), 100 g raw putak in place of maize meal (UFP), 100 g fermented putak in place of maize meal (LFP) and 200 g fermented putak in place of maize meal (HFP) kg−1 . In the first experiment, digestibility of the feeds was evaluated in a Latin Square design using four weaner pigs. In the second experiment, four groups of eight weaner pigs each were randomly allocated to the four diets in a complete randomised design and fed individually for 84 days. In the digestibility trial there were no significant (P > 0.05) differences in feed intakes which were in g per day: 450 (control), 460 (UFP), 448 (LFP) and 453 (HFP). However, there were significant (P < 0.05) differences in intake in the growth study. The intakes were in g per day: 752 (control), 581 (UFP), 828 (LFP) and 694 (HFP). There were significant (P < 0.05) depressions in nutrient digestibility on the UFP diet, whereas, the LFP ranked higher than the control except in organic matter digestibility. Apparent digestibility of crude protein was 0.697, 0.639, 0.705 and 0.694 while for crude fibre it was 0.672, 0.546, 0.680 and 0.657 on the control, UFP, LFP and HFP diets, respectively. Gains in body weight during the growth study were 247, 145, 263 and 211 g per day. Results from the study show that 100 g fermented putak kg−1 can be included in pig-fattening diets in place of maize meal with no deleterious effects on the animal, thus releasing the maize meal much needed for human consumption in the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara. © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Putak (Corypha elata robx); Saccharomyces cerevisae; Fermentation; Pig diets
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-551-393339/393346; fax: +49-551-393343. E-mail address: [email protected] (U. ter Meulen).
0377-8401/02/$ – see front matter © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 3 7 7 - 8 4 0 1 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 2 4 8 - 1
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U. Ginting-Moenthe et al. / Animal Feed Science and Technology 102 (2002) 217–224
1. Introduction Pig production in comparison to other important livestock enterprises in Indonesia (cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats) is increasing rapidly in the East Nusa Tenggara province. From 1994 to 1998, the pig population in the province has increased by 60% (Dinas Peternakan Provinsi, 1999). Maize, which constitutes about 700 g kg−1 of the total pig-fattening ration, is also the staple food for people in the East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia and its incorporation into pig diets is being inhibited by current high costs. To overcome this constraint, traditionally the people of East Nusa Tenggara province have prepared a feed called “putak” from the stalk of the palm tree which is called the gewang tree (Corypha elata robx) for use as a maize substitute in pig-fattening rations. On average, putak contains: 20–22.3 g crude protein kg−1 , 500–550 g starch kg−1 and 56–122.3 g crude fibre kg−1 (Ginting-Moenthe, 2000). Use of raw putak has resulted in significant increases in digestibility of diets and gain in body weight in ruminants while it has significantly depressed digestibility and intakes when included in pig diets (Mustafa, 1985 cited by Ginting-Moenthe, 2000). The Indonesian people have a long tradition of utilising the yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisae) in the fermentation process of their staple foodstuffs like rice and cassava. Use of a supplement of S. cerevisae in pig diets has increased feed utilisation and apparent protein digestibility in growing pigs (Gombos, 1991 cited by Ginting-Moenthe, 2000). However, little is known about large-scale application of this yeast, especially when used in putak fermentation. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the use of putak (either in raw form or fermented with S. cerevisae) in pig diets on diet digestibility and growth performance of weanling pigs. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Preparation of fermented putak Putak was obtained from the market in log form. The bark of the palm tree was removed and the stalk sliced into small pieces of approximately 0.5–1 cm thickness. These were boiled in water for 40 min, cooled and then fermented using S. cerevisae fungi. Viable yeast was obtained from the Indonesian Institute of Sciences Laboratory, Bogor, Indonesia, and was included at 750,000 cell units kg−1 of boiled putak. Incubation was carried out for 2 weeks. Thereafter, the putak was sun dried until the moisture content was approximately 100 g kg−1 and was then milled and included in the diets. 2.2. Diets Four diets with varying levels of putak were compounded to be isonitrogenous and isoenergetic. Putak meal was used to substitute for maize meal. The diets were: (i) diet with no putak, control; (ii) diet with 100 g raw putak (UFP) kg−1 ;(iii) diet with 100 g fermented
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Table 1 Ingredient proportions and chemical composition (g kg−1 ) of the experimental rations with various levels of putak Ingredients
Diets Control
UFP
LFP
HFP
Maize meal Fish meal Rice bran Coconut cake Raw putak Fermented putak Pre-mixa
500 150 245 100 – – 5
450 150 245 100 50 – 5
450 150 245 100 – 50 5
400 150 245 100 – 100 5
Chemical composition Dry matter (DM) Ash Crude protein Crude fibre Ether extract Nitrogen free extract Calcium Phosphorus Gross energy (MJ kg−1 DM)
893.8 84.8 209.4 100.2 44.9 544.0 17.8 4.3 19.06
902.6 85.1 204.0 124.7 42.3 543.9 14.2 6.2 18.63
901.7 98.1 206.8 108.5 43.7 542.9 16.3 5.0 19.19
910.8 89.3 208.7 105.6 41.5 554.9 15.2 6.8 18.93
C, control; UFP, unfermented putak for 100 g of maize meal; LFP, fermented putak for 100 g of maize meal; and HFP, fermented putak for 200 g of maize meal. a Contained 6,000,000 IU Vitamin A, 100,000 IU Vitamin D3, 400 IU Vitamin E, 100 mg Vitamin B1, 250 mg Vitamin B2, 25 mg Vitamin B6, 600 mg Vitamin B12, 500 mg Vitamin K, 1250 mg Vitamin C, 300 mg Ca-d-pantothenate, 2000 mg niacin, 5000 mg choline chloride, 1000 mg iron, 6000 mg manganese, 10 mg iodine, 5000 mg zinc, 10 mg cobalt and 200 mg copper by formula.
putak (LFP) kg−1 ; and (iv) diet with 200 g fermented putak (HFP) kg−1 . Putak inclusion rate was calculated relative to that of the maize meal. The dietary composition and quality are presented in Table 1. These diets were used in two experiments: a digestibility study and a growth study. 2.2.1. Digestibility study 2.2.1.1. Animals and housing. Four weanling crossbred male pigs from one litter were used in this experiment. The live body weight at the start of the experiment was (mean ± S.D.) 12.7 ± 0.47 kg. The pigs were kept in individual pens measuring 75 cm × 50 cm, which were roofed and had concrete floors. The pens were equipped with water and feed troughs. 2.2.2. Experimental procedure 2.2.2.1. Experimental design. The pigs were used in a 4 × 4 Latin Square design with the four animals going through four periods of dietary treatments. Each period lasted for 12 days with 7 days adaptation and 5 days for sample collection.
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2.2.3. Feeding and sample collection The pigs were offered the feeds ad libitum at 20% more of the previous day’s intake. During sample collection, feed consumption and faecal output were measured per day and 10% sub-samples of feed offered and faeces voided were each collected, dried at 85 ◦ C overnight and stored pending analysis. 2.2.4. Growth study 2.2.4.1. Animals and housing. Thirty-two weanling pigs of the same age weighing 8.2 ± 0.422 kg initial live weight were used. All the animals were obtained from the Pig Station of the Agricultural Department in Kupang, Indonesia. All piglets were from one boar and six dams. The pigs were housed in individual pens measuring 75 cm × 50 cm. 2.2.5. Experimental procedure 2.2.5.1. Experimental design. The animals were randomly allocated to four groups of eight animals each in a completely randomised design. These groups were randomly allocated to the four dietary treatments. 2.2.6. Feeding and data collection The animals were offered the treatment diets ad libitum for 84 days. Feed was offered at 120% of the previous day’s intake. Feed intake was calculated daily and the animals were weighed weekly. 2.2.7. Chemical analysis Analyses of dry matter, crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract, ash, calcium, phosphorus and gross energy were as described by Naumann and Bassler (1976). Nitrogen free extract was obtained by difference. 2.2.8. Total digestible nutrients Total digestible nutrients were calculated using the formula: TDN = DCP + DCF + DNFE + (2.25DEE), where TDN is the total digestible nutrients (g kg−1 DM); DCP, the digestible crude protein (g kg−1 DM); DCF, the digestible crude fibre (g kg−1 DM); DNFE, the digestible nitrogen free extract (g kg−1 DM); and DEE, the digestible ether extract (g kg−1 DM). 2.3. Data analysis Data were analysed by analysis of variance according to the General Linear Models procedure of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 1996). The following model suitable for a Latin Square design was used for the digestibility study data: Yijkl = µ + Pi + Tj + Ak + eijkl where Yij kl is the measured response variable; µ, the general mean; Pi , the period effect; Tj , the dietary effect; Ak , the animal effect; and eij kl , the residual error.
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In the growth study, data on body weight changes were analysed using the analysis of covariance model: Yij = µ + Ti + αPij + eij , While the rest of the data were analysed using the completely randomised design model: Yij = µ + Ti + eij , In both the models, Yij is the response of pig j in treatment i; µ, the general mean; Ti , the treatment effect; α, the regression coefficient of the covariate; Pij , the pre-treatment average value; and eij , the random error. Differences between treatment means were assessed using Student’s t-tests. 3. Results 3.1. Composition of raw and fermented putak The composition of raw putak versus that fermented was (g kg−1 DM): 22.3 versus 89.2; 120.1 versus 119.7; 12.1 versus 10.6; 26.3 versus 25.3; and 817.5 versus 765.8 for crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract, ash and nitrogen free extract contents, respectively. Of note, was the increase in crude protein and a decrease in nitrogen free extract in fermented compared to raw putak. 3.2. Digestibility study 3.2.1. Feed intake and faecal output Feed intakes and faecal outputs were not significantly (P > 0.05) different across treatments. The average dry matter feed intakes across treatments were 450, 460, 448 and 453 g per day on the control, UFP, LFP and HFP diets, respectively. The respective dry matter faecal outputs were 188, 230, 189 and 210 g per day on the control, UFP, LFP and HFP diets. 3.2.2. Digestibility and total digestible nutrients There were no significant (P > 0.05) treatment differences on dry matter digestibility but significant (P < 0.05) differences in organic matter, crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract, nitrogen free extract, calcium, phosphorus and energy digestibility (Table 2). The UFP dietary treatment ranked least on all the constituents assessed for digestibility, followed by HFP, control and LFP dietary treatments. The total digestible nutrient (TDN) content of each of the dietary treatments: control, UFP, LFP and HFP were, respectively: 705, 634, 710 and 701 g kg−1 dry matter. 3.3. Growth study 3.3.1. Feed intake and growth performance Data from the growth study are presented in Table 3. There were significant (P < 0.05) differences in daily and total feed intakes across treatments. The dietary treatments could
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Table 2 The component digestibility coefficient of pig-fattening diets with various levels of putak Constituent
Dry matter Organic matter Crude protein Crude fibre Ether extract Nitrogen free extract Calcium Phosphorus Energy
Diets Control
UFP
LFP
HFP
0.680 0.693 0.697 0.672 0.695 0.682 0.626 0.618 0.631
0.669 0.601 0.639 0.546 0.609 0.620 0.551 0.550 0.557
0.687 0.693 0.705 0.680 0.705 0.745 0.657 0.695 0.667
0.671 0.654 0.694 0.657 0.699 0.722 0.638 0.618 0.656
SED
Significance
0.0146 0.0217 0.0105 0.0104 0.0126 0.0203 0.0214 0.0151 0.164
NS ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗
C, control; UFP, unfermented putak for 100 g of maize meal; LFP, fermented putak for 100 g of maize meal; and HFP, fermented putak for 200 g of maize meal. ∗∗ Significance at P < 0.01.
Table 3 Growth performance of pigs offered diets with various levels of putak Parameter
Number of animals Feeding period (days) Initial weight (kg) Final weight (kg) Change in weight (kg) Gain (g per day) Feed intake (g per day) Total feed intake (kg) Feed conversion ratio
Diet Control
UFP
LFP
HFP
8 84 8.42 30.7 22.3 247 752 67.7 3.19
8 84 8.20 21.3 13.1 145 581 52.3 4.01
8 84 8.20 31.9 23.7 262 828 74.5 3.15
8 84 7.96 26.9 19.0 210 694 62.4 3.30
SED
Significance
0.29 0.63 0.55 6.1 13.9 12.7 0.098
NS ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗
C, control; UFP, unfermented putak for 100 g of maize meal; LFP, fermented putak for 100 g of maize meal; and HFP, fermented putak for 200 g of maize meal. ∗∗∗ Significance at P < 0.001.
be ranked as LFP > control > HFP > UFP. The trends were the same in terms of gain per day, gains over the whole period and feed conversion efficiency.
4. Discussion The cost of pig production is largely determined by the cost of the energy source since a typical fattening ration for pigs consists of 750 g carbohydrate kg−1 . In Indonesia, particularly in East Nusa Tenggara province, maize meal is used as the major source of energy but it is also the staple food for human beings in the province. In addition, its cost is becoming prohibitive, thereby threatening the viability of pig-fattening enterprises in the province. Putak,
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which is found in abundance in the country and has high carbohydrate content comparable to that of maize, was evaluated as a maize substitute in this study. When used in raw form, putak has depressed intake and resultant performance of pigs (Mustafa, 1985 cited by Ginting-Moenthe, 2000). This has been attributed to palatability problems of raw putak and a depression in digestibility resulting from high fibre content. Fermentation with, for example, S. cerevisae was seen as one option for improving its utilisation. Fermenting putak with S. cerevisae can result in: improved diet palatability, creation of a gut environment conducive to cellulolytic microbial proliferation, and increased fibre degradability (Mayer, 1994). The yeast cells used in this study had a viability of 75×1010 colony forming units g−1 (Ginting-Moenthe, 2000). Fermentation led to improved crude protein content but a decrease in the nitrogen free extract component. Intake of the diet with raw putak (UFP) was lower than that of the control, whereas, the diet with the low level of fermented putak (LFP) led to increased dry matter intakes. The intake on HFP diet was higher than on the UFP. This was true on the growth study but in the digestibility study, no significant differences in intake were observed although there was a tendency for a depression in intake on the UFP dietary treatment. The depression in intake on UFP could have been due to a depression in digestibility due to the intact fibre or to some probable antinutrients, which might be present in raw putak. Nutrient digestibility values were least on the UFP diet which lends support to this argument. This diet also had the highest crude fibre content. On the diets with fermented putak, intake could have been improved by a combined effect of improved palatability and digestibility. During fermentation of diets with S. cerevisae, pyruvate is produced in glycolysis. Ethanol is produced from pyruvate and can form esters which are linked to improved diet palatability (Wenzel, 1994). However, production of ethanol was not assessed in the current study but nutrient digestibility values on both the LFP and HFP diets were significantly higher than on the UFP diet. The lower intakes on HFP than on LFP could have been due to differences in quality of carbohydrate from maize meal and putak. Further work in this regard needs to be conducted. Feed conversion efficiency was best on LFP and poorest on UFP. The response on UFP could again be explained through a probable depression in intake mediated through a poor palatability and low digestibility. With low intakes, more nutrients are then partitioned to maintenance instead of growth. 5. Conclusion It is concluded that fermented putak can be economically included in pig-fattening diets at 100 g maize meal kg−1 with no deleterious effects on animal performance. While farmers would find it profitable to harvest and use putak in pig rations in place of maize meal, a programme involving planting of putak trees possibly as a plantation, should be an integral part of the extension message to the farmers. References Dinas Peternakan Provinsi, Nusa Tenggara Timur, 1999. Laporan Tahunan. Kupang, Indonesia.
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Ginting-Moenthe, U., 2000. The influence of fermented putak in pig diets on diet digestibility and growth performance of weanling pigs. Ph.D. Dissertation, Georg-August University, Goettingen, Germany. ISBN 3-89873-126-X, pp. 91. Mayer, E.A., 1994. The physiology of gastric emptying. In: Johnson, L.R., Alpers, D.H., Christensen, J., Jacobson, E.D., Walsh, J.H. (Eds.), Physiology of Gastrointestinal Tract, 3rd ed. Raven Press, New York, pp. 929–976. Naumann, K., Bassler, R., 1976. Die chemische Untersuchung von Futtermitteln. Methodenbuch Bd. III, Verlag, Neumann, Neudamn. SAS, 1996. SAS/STAT. User’s Guide (Release 6.11). SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC, USA. Wenzel, T.J., 1994. Function on regulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex from yeast Saccharomyces cerevisae. Diss. Pasmans offset drukkerij. B.J. Den Haag, p. 114.
Short communication
The influence of fermented putak on diet digestibility and growth performance of weanling pigs U. Ginting-Moenthe a , S. Chakeredza b , U. ter Meulen c,∗ a
c
Animal Husbandry Faculty, Nusa Cendana University, JL Adiscucipto, Kupang, Indonesia b Henderson Research Station, P.O. Bag 2004, Mazowe, Zimbabwe Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Georg-August University, 37077 Goettingen, Germany Received 27 December 2001; received in revised form 12 August 2002; accepted 12 August 2002
Abstract The use of fermented putak (prepared from the stalk of the palm tree; Corypha elata robx) as a substitute for maize meal in pig-fattening diets was evaluated in two experiments in the East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia. Boiled putak was fermented with Saccharomyces cerevisae for 2 weeks and incorporated into pig-fattening rations at zero (control), 100 g raw putak in place of maize meal (UFP), 100 g fermented putak in place of maize meal (LFP) and 200 g fermented putak in place of maize meal (HFP) kg−1 . In the first experiment, digestibility of the feeds was evaluated in a Latin Square design using four weaner pigs. In the second experiment, four groups of eight weaner pigs each were randomly allocated to the four diets in a complete randomised design and fed individually for 84 days. In the digestibility trial there were no significant (P > 0.05) differences in feed intakes which were in g per day: 450 (control), 460 (UFP), 448 (LFP) and 453 (HFP). However, there were significant (P < 0.05) differences in intake in the growth study. The intakes were in g per day: 752 (control), 581 (UFP), 828 (LFP) and 694 (HFP). There were significant (P < 0.05) depressions in nutrient digestibility on the UFP diet, whereas, the LFP ranked higher than the control except in organic matter digestibility. Apparent digestibility of crude protein was 0.697, 0.639, 0.705 and 0.694 while for crude fibre it was 0.672, 0.546, 0.680 and 0.657 on the control, UFP, LFP and HFP diets, respectively. Gains in body weight during the growth study were 247, 145, 263 and 211 g per day. Results from the study show that 100 g fermented putak kg−1 can be included in pig-fattening diets in place of maize meal with no deleterious effects on the animal, thus releasing the maize meal much needed for human consumption in the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara. © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Putak (Corypha elata robx); Saccharomyces cerevisae; Fermentation; Pig diets
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-551-393339/393346; fax: +49-551-393343. E-mail address: [email protected] (U. ter Meulen).
0377-8401/02/$ – see front matter © 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 3 7 7 - 8 4 0 1 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 2 4 8 - 1
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1. Introduction Pig production in comparison to other important livestock enterprises in Indonesia (cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats) is increasing rapidly in the East Nusa Tenggara province. From 1994 to 1998, the pig population in the province has increased by 60% (Dinas Peternakan Provinsi, 1999). Maize, which constitutes about 700 g kg−1 of the total pig-fattening ration, is also the staple food for people in the East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia and its incorporation into pig diets is being inhibited by current high costs. To overcome this constraint, traditionally the people of East Nusa Tenggara province have prepared a feed called “putak” from the stalk of the palm tree which is called the gewang tree (Corypha elata robx) for use as a maize substitute in pig-fattening rations. On average, putak contains: 20–22.3 g crude protein kg−1 , 500–550 g starch kg−1 and 56–122.3 g crude fibre kg−1 (Ginting-Moenthe, 2000). Use of raw putak has resulted in significant increases in digestibility of diets and gain in body weight in ruminants while it has significantly depressed digestibility and intakes when included in pig diets (Mustafa, 1985 cited by Ginting-Moenthe, 2000). The Indonesian people have a long tradition of utilising the yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisae) in the fermentation process of their staple foodstuffs like rice and cassava. Use of a supplement of S. cerevisae in pig diets has increased feed utilisation and apparent protein digestibility in growing pigs (Gombos, 1991 cited by Ginting-Moenthe, 2000). However, little is known about large-scale application of this yeast, especially when used in putak fermentation. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the use of putak (either in raw form or fermented with S. cerevisae) in pig diets on diet digestibility and growth performance of weanling pigs. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Preparation of fermented putak Putak was obtained from the market in log form. The bark of the palm tree was removed and the stalk sliced into small pieces of approximately 0.5–1 cm thickness. These were boiled in water for 40 min, cooled and then fermented using S. cerevisae fungi. Viable yeast was obtained from the Indonesian Institute of Sciences Laboratory, Bogor, Indonesia, and was included at 750,000 cell units kg−1 of boiled putak. Incubation was carried out for 2 weeks. Thereafter, the putak was sun dried until the moisture content was approximately 100 g kg−1 and was then milled and included in the diets. 2.2. Diets Four diets with varying levels of putak were compounded to be isonitrogenous and isoenergetic. Putak meal was used to substitute for maize meal. The diets were: (i) diet with no putak, control; (ii) diet with 100 g raw putak (UFP) kg−1 ;(iii) diet with 100 g fermented
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Table 1 Ingredient proportions and chemical composition (g kg−1 ) of the experimental rations with various levels of putak Ingredients
Diets Control
UFP
LFP
HFP
Maize meal Fish meal Rice bran Coconut cake Raw putak Fermented putak Pre-mixa
500 150 245 100 – – 5
450 150 245 100 50 – 5
450 150 245 100 – 50 5
400 150 245 100 – 100 5
Chemical composition Dry matter (DM) Ash Crude protein Crude fibre Ether extract Nitrogen free extract Calcium Phosphorus Gross energy (MJ kg−1 DM)
893.8 84.8 209.4 100.2 44.9 544.0 17.8 4.3 19.06
902.6 85.1 204.0 124.7 42.3 543.9 14.2 6.2 18.63
901.7 98.1 206.8 108.5 43.7 542.9 16.3 5.0 19.19
910.8 89.3 208.7 105.6 41.5 554.9 15.2 6.8 18.93
C, control; UFP, unfermented putak for 100 g of maize meal; LFP, fermented putak for 100 g of maize meal; and HFP, fermented putak for 200 g of maize meal. a Contained 6,000,000 IU Vitamin A, 100,000 IU Vitamin D3, 400 IU Vitamin E, 100 mg Vitamin B1, 250 mg Vitamin B2, 25 mg Vitamin B6, 600 mg Vitamin B12, 500 mg Vitamin K, 1250 mg Vitamin C, 300 mg Ca-d-pantothenate, 2000 mg niacin, 5000 mg choline chloride, 1000 mg iron, 6000 mg manganese, 10 mg iodine, 5000 mg zinc, 10 mg cobalt and 200 mg copper by formula.
putak (LFP) kg−1 ; and (iv) diet with 200 g fermented putak (HFP) kg−1 . Putak inclusion rate was calculated relative to that of the maize meal. The dietary composition and quality are presented in Table 1. These diets were used in two experiments: a digestibility study and a growth study. 2.2.1. Digestibility study 2.2.1.1. Animals and housing. Four weanling crossbred male pigs from one litter were used in this experiment. The live body weight at the start of the experiment was (mean ± S.D.) 12.7 ± 0.47 kg. The pigs were kept in individual pens measuring 75 cm × 50 cm, which were roofed and had concrete floors. The pens were equipped with water and feed troughs. 2.2.2. Experimental procedure 2.2.2.1. Experimental design. The pigs were used in a 4 × 4 Latin Square design with the four animals going through four periods of dietary treatments. Each period lasted for 12 days with 7 days adaptation and 5 days for sample collection.
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2.2.3. Feeding and sample collection The pigs were offered the feeds ad libitum at 20% more of the previous day’s intake. During sample collection, feed consumption and faecal output were measured per day and 10% sub-samples of feed offered and faeces voided were each collected, dried at 85 ◦ C overnight and stored pending analysis. 2.2.4. Growth study 2.2.4.1. Animals and housing. Thirty-two weanling pigs of the same age weighing 8.2 ± 0.422 kg initial live weight were used. All the animals were obtained from the Pig Station of the Agricultural Department in Kupang, Indonesia. All piglets were from one boar and six dams. The pigs were housed in individual pens measuring 75 cm × 50 cm. 2.2.5. Experimental procedure 2.2.5.1. Experimental design. The animals were randomly allocated to four groups of eight animals each in a completely randomised design. These groups were randomly allocated to the four dietary treatments. 2.2.6. Feeding and data collection The animals were offered the treatment diets ad libitum for 84 days. Feed was offered at 120% of the previous day’s intake. Feed intake was calculated daily and the animals were weighed weekly. 2.2.7. Chemical analysis Analyses of dry matter, crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract, ash, calcium, phosphorus and gross energy were as described by Naumann and Bassler (1976). Nitrogen free extract was obtained by difference. 2.2.8. Total digestible nutrients Total digestible nutrients were calculated using the formula: TDN = DCP + DCF + DNFE + (2.25DEE), where TDN is the total digestible nutrients (g kg−1 DM); DCP, the digestible crude protein (g kg−1 DM); DCF, the digestible crude fibre (g kg−1 DM); DNFE, the digestible nitrogen free extract (g kg−1 DM); and DEE, the digestible ether extract (g kg−1 DM). 2.3. Data analysis Data were analysed by analysis of variance according to the General Linear Models procedure of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 1996). The following model suitable for a Latin Square design was used for the digestibility study data: Yijkl = µ + Pi + Tj + Ak + eijkl where Yij kl is the measured response variable; µ, the general mean; Pi , the period effect; Tj , the dietary effect; Ak , the animal effect; and eij kl , the residual error.
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In the growth study, data on body weight changes were analysed using the analysis of covariance model: Yij = µ + Ti + αPij + eij , While the rest of the data were analysed using the completely randomised design model: Yij = µ + Ti + eij , In both the models, Yij is the response of pig j in treatment i; µ, the general mean; Ti , the treatment effect; α, the regression coefficient of the covariate; Pij , the pre-treatment average value; and eij , the random error. Differences between treatment means were assessed using Student’s t-tests. 3. Results 3.1. Composition of raw and fermented putak The composition of raw putak versus that fermented was (g kg−1 DM): 22.3 versus 89.2; 120.1 versus 119.7; 12.1 versus 10.6; 26.3 versus 25.3; and 817.5 versus 765.8 for crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract, ash and nitrogen free extract contents, respectively. Of note, was the increase in crude protein and a decrease in nitrogen free extract in fermented compared to raw putak. 3.2. Digestibility study 3.2.1. Feed intake and faecal output Feed intakes and faecal outputs were not significantly (P > 0.05) different across treatments. The average dry matter feed intakes across treatments were 450, 460, 448 and 453 g per day on the control, UFP, LFP and HFP diets, respectively. The respective dry matter faecal outputs were 188, 230, 189 and 210 g per day on the control, UFP, LFP and HFP diets. 3.2.2. Digestibility and total digestible nutrients There were no significant (P > 0.05) treatment differences on dry matter digestibility but significant (P < 0.05) differences in organic matter, crude protein, crude fibre, ether extract, nitrogen free extract, calcium, phosphorus and energy digestibility (Table 2). The UFP dietary treatment ranked least on all the constituents assessed for digestibility, followed by HFP, control and LFP dietary treatments. The total digestible nutrient (TDN) content of each of the dietary treatments: control, UFP, LFP and HFP were, respectively: 705, 634, 710 and 701 g kg−1 dry matter. 3.3. Growth study 3.3.1. Feed intake and growth performance Data from the growth study are presented in Table 3. There were significant (P < 0.05) differences in daily and total feed intakes across treatments. The dietary treatments could
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Table 2 The component digestibility coefficient of pig-fattening diets with various levels of putak Constituent
Dry matter Organic matter Crude protein Crude fibre Ether extract Nitrogen free extract Calcium Phosphorus Energy
Diets Control
UFP
LFP
HFP
0.680 0.693 0.697 0.672 0.695 0.682 0.626 0.618 0.631
0.669 0.601 0.639 0.546 0.609 0.620 0.551 0.550 0.557
0.687 0.693 0.705 0.680 0.705 0.745 0.657 0.695 0.667
0.671 0.654 0.694 0.657 0.699 0.722 0.638 0.618 0.656
SED
Significance
0.0146 0.0217 0.0105 0.0104 0.0126 0.0203 0.0214 0.0151 0.164
NS ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗ ∗∗
C, control; UFP, unfermented putak for 100 g of maize meal; LFP, fermented putak for 100 g of maize meal; and HFP, fermented putak for 200 g of maize meal. ∗∗ Significance at P < 0.01.
Table 3 Growth performance of pigs offered diets with various levels of putak Parameter
Number of animals Feeding period (days) Initial weight (kg) Final weight (kg) Change in weight (kg) Gain (g per day) Feed intake (g per day) Total feed intake (kg) Feed conversion ratio
Diet Control
UFP
LFP
HFP
8 84 8.42 30.7 22.3 247 752 67.7 3.19
8 84 8.20 21.3 13.1 145 581 52.3 4.01
8 84 8.20 31.9 23.7 262 828 74.5 3.15
8 84 7.96 26.9 19.0 210 694 62.4 3.30
SED
Significance
0.29 0.63 0.55 6.1 13.9 12.7 0.098
NS ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗
C, control; UFP, unfermented putak for 100 g of maize meal; LFP, fermented putak for 100 g of maize meal; and HFP, fermented putak for 200 g of maize meal. ∗∗∗ Significance at P < 0.001.
be ranked as LFP > control > HFP > UFP. The trends were the same in terms of gain per day, gains over the whole period and feed conversion efficiency.
4. Discussion The cost of pig production is largely determined by the cost of the energy source since a typical fattening ration for pigs consists of 750 g carbohydrate kg−1 . In Indonesia, particularly in East Nusa Tenggara province, maize meal is used as the major source of energy but it is also the staple food for human beings in the province. In addition, its cost is becoming prohibitive, thereby threatening the viability of pig-fattening enterprises in the province. Putak,
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which is found in abundance in the country and has high carbohydrate content comparable to that of maize, was evaluated as a maize substitute in this study. When used in raw form, putak has depressed intake and resultant performance of pigs (Mustafa, 1985 cited by Ginting-Moenthe, 2000). This has been attributed to palatability problems of raw putak and a depression in digestibility resulting from high fibre content. Fermentation with, for example, S. cerevisae was seen as one option for improving its utilisation. Fermenting putak with S. cerevisae can result in: improved diet palatability, creation of a gut environment conducive to cellulolytic microbial proliferation, and increased fibre degradability (Mayer, 1994). The yeast cells used in this study had a viability of 75×1010 colony forming units g−1 (Ginting-Moenthe, 2000). Fermentation led to improved crude protein content but a decrease in the nitrogen free extract component. Intake of the diet with raw putak (UFP) was lower than that of the control, whereas, the diet with the low level of fermented putak (LFP) led to increased dry matter intakes. The intake on HFP diet was higher than on the UFP. This was true on the growth study but in the digestibility study, no significant differences in intake were observed although there was a tendency for a depression in intake on the UFP dietary treatment. The depression in intake on UFP could have been due to a depression in digestibility due to the intact fibre or to some probable antinutrients, which might be present in raw putak. Nutrient digestibility values were least on the UFP diet which lends support to this argument. This diet also had the highest crude fibre content. On the diets with fermented putak, intake could have been improved by a combined effect of improved palatability and digestibility. During fermentation of diets with S. cerevisae, pyruvate is produced in glycolysis. Ethanol is produced from pyruvate and can form esters which are linked to improved diet palatability (Wenzel, 1994). However, production of ethanol was not assessed in the current study but nutrient digestibility values on both the LFP and HFP diets were significantly higher than on the UFP diet. The lower intakes on HFP than on LFP could have been due to differences in quality of carbohydrate from maize meal and putak. Further work in this regard needs to be conducted. Feed conversion efficiency was best on LFP and poorest on UFP. The response on UFP could again be explained through a probable depression in intake mediated through a poor palatability and low digestibility. With low intakes, more nutrients are then partitioned to maintenance instead of growth. 5. Conclusion It is concluded that fermented putak can be economically included in pig-fattening diets at 100 g maize meal kg−1 with no deleterious effects on animal performance. While farmers would find it profitable to harvest and use putak in pig rations in place of maize meal, a programme involving planting of putak trees possibly as a plantation, should be an integral part of the extension message to the farmers. References Dinas Peternakan Provinsi, Nusa Tenggara Timur, 1999. Laporan Tahunan. Kupang, Indonesia.
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Ginting-Moenthe, U., 2000. The influence of fermented putak in pig diets on diet digestibility and growth performance of weanling pigs. Ph.D. Dissertation, Georg-August University, Goettingen, Germany. ISBN 3-89873-126-X, pp. 91. Mayer, E.A., 1994. The physiology of gastric emptying. In: Johnson, L.R., Alpers, D.H., Christensen, J., Jacobson, E.D., Walsh, J.H. (Eds.), Physiology of Gastrointestinal Tract, 3rd ed. Raven Press, New York, pp. 929–976. Naumann, K., Bassler, R., 1976. Die chemische Untersuchung von Futtermitteln. Methodenbuch Bd. III, Verlag, Neumann, Neudamn. SAS, 1996. SAS/STAT. User’s Guide (Release 6.11). SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC, USA. Wenzel, T.J., 1994. Function on regulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex from yeast Saccharomyces cerevisae. Diss. Pasmans offset drukkerij. B.J. Den Haag, p. 114.