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The information needs of end-users of Sub-Saharan Africa in the digital information environment
ARTICLE IN PRESS The International Information & Library Review (2004) 36, 273–279
The International Information & Library Review www.elsevier.com/locate/iilr
The information needs of end-users of Sub-Saharan Africa in the digital information environment Gashaw Kebede Department of Information Science, Faculty of Informatics, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Summary The digital divide is severe in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The prevailing digital divide will continue to exist and define the characteristics of the digital information environment of the sub-region as it influences, along with other concerns, the information needs of end-users in the sub-region. The model of information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment and observations and theories from the literature of Library and Information Science (LIS) show that the information needs of end-users in SSA are for information content that is relevant for day-to-day tasks and that is adequately accessible and effectively usable within the capabilities of the information and communications technology (ICTs) that they possess and their level of skill in manipulating the ICTs. The model of the information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment presents the nature of user tasks, the state of electronic resources in use, and user experience in using the electronic resources as factors giving rise to information needs of end-users in a digital information environment. The principles of least effort, satisficing, utility and accessibility particularly give support to the argument of the paper: that end-users need information content that is adequately accessible and effectively usable within the capabilities of ICTs currently in use by the endusers concerned. Recognizing the nature of the information needs of the end-users of SSA will help in meeting their needs as well as in selecting appropriate interventions in addressing the digital divide in the sub-region. & 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
The phenomenon of the digital divide The information age is an era in which information, increasingly in a digital form, is the basis of the socioeconomic activities of societies. Information and communications technologies (ICTs) are the core tools through which information is captured, processed, stored, manipulated and exchanged in the information age. ICT is understood here as an ‘‘umbrella term for a range of technological applications such as computer hardware and software; digital broadcast technologies; telecommunications technologies such as mobile phones as E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Kebede). 1057-2317/$ - see front matter & 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.iilr.2003.10.011
well as electronic information resources such as the world-wide web and CD-ROMs’’ (Selwyn, n.d.). Unfortunately, not everyone is participating equally in this information age because access to ICTs varies among individuals, communities, and countries. While some individuals, communities and countries have adequate access to and effectively use ICTs, others do not. Consequently, the information age is marked by the existence of the so-called ‘‘digital divide’’ among individuals and communities within a country as well among countries. Defined in various ways, the digital divide describes the disparities between those individuals and communities that adequately access and effectively use ICTs and those that do not (British Educational
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Communications and Technology Agency, 2001). The disparities can be observed in relation to the following (British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2001; Selwyn, n.d.): *
*
*
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Access to technologies: Adequacy of physical and effective access to usable and appropriate ICTs varies among individuals, communities and countries. This includes their level of access to a powerful hardware, software and telecommunications infrastructure. Access to relevant and usable content: Availability of adequate, relevant and usable content for access and effective access to that relevant content varies among individuals, communities, and countries. This includes the availability of adequate relevant content in understandable and usable forms, (i.e., downloadable), in a known language and at a proper level of comprehension. Skills in utilizing ICTs: Sufficiency of skills, knowledge, and experience in effectively accessing and using ICTs varies. Supporting environment: Adequacy of the mechanisms that promote and facilitate utilization, development, and maintenance of ICTs varies. Attitude: Attitude as to the appropriateness, usefulness, and relevance of ICTs to one’s purposes varies. This includes the values and awareness of the use of ICTs held by end-users.
The digital divide and sub-Saharan Africa The digital divide is severe in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The state of the digital divide in the subregion can be gauged from the following selected ICT indicators: *
*
*
*
Internet users number 1 in 250–400 people, compared to 1 in 15 people as a world average, and 1 in 2 people for North America and Europe (Jensen, 2002). There are only 8 computers for every 1000 people (compared to 68 computers per 1000 as the world average and 360 per 1000 in the G8) (Ganitsky, 2003). The total amount of international outgoing Internet bandwidth is around 1500 Mbps in 2002 (with 400 Mbps for South Africa alone) (Jensen, 2002). Only 14 mainline telephone lines exist per 1000 people, compared to 655 per 1000 for G8 countries (Ganitsky, 2003).
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*
*
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*
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*
The content available on the Internet is often not relevant to the information needs of the end-users in SSA (Pigato, 2001). About 40% of the population is illiterate, and the vast majority of the population does not understand languages other than the local languages, making it difficult for them to read more than 80% of the content on the Internet, which is in the English language (Summer Institute of Linguistics International, 2004). About 70% of the population is rural, away from the basic infrastructure, ICT resources and services. The sub-region has the lowest human development index, and little of the population has access to training and education in ICT. The sub-region suffers from lack of basic infrastructure that supports the utilization, development, and adoption of ICTs. The majority of the countries of the sub-region lack a national ICT policy, with only 17 African countries having such a policy as of 2003 (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 2003).
Particularly when considering the socioeconomic status of an individual, community or a country as a primary basis for better access to ICTs, skills, support, and content, it is unlikely that SSA will be able to close the disparity (Keeble & Loader, 2001). SSA is the poorest region of the world in almost all measures. Past experience has also shown that despite myriads of measures being considered, the digital divide still continues to exist in one form or another, even in economically and technologically developed countries like the USA and the UK (Salinas, n.d.; Selwyn, n.d.). The fast developments in ICTs are also making the need for accessing newer technologies and the skills required to interact with the technologies a never ending process (British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2001; Salinas, n.d.). Thus, it is the view of this paper that the digital divide will continue to exist in SSA for years to come.
Information needs of end-users in SSA One of the consequences of the digital divide is that it hinders those without adequate technologies, content, skills, supporting environments and attitudes from playing an active part and becoming beneficiaries of the information age. This results in, among other things, differences in information behaviour (e.g., information need,
ARTICLE IN PRESS The information needs of end-users of Sub-Saharan Africa
use, communication and seeking) between those with adequate access and skills for effective use and those without. Those with differing capabilities of accessing and using ICTs engage in different kinds of information seeking, use, communication, and need behaviour. End-users’ technological and personal capabilities influence the nature of information that can fill in their gaps in knowledge and the path they have to follow when seeking and using the information. In connection with information needs, it has been indicated in the literature of Library and Information Science (LIS) that information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment are different from those of the print information environment (Buttenfield, 1999; Gashaw, 2002a, b; Liebscher, Abels, & Denman, 1997). This difference in the information needs of end-users can be attributed to the use of electronic information carriers in the electronic information environment. Here, the term information carriers refers to information channels and sources in which information content resides and is exchanged. For example, electronic information carriers are electronic channels, such as electronic networks, and electronic sources, such as CD-ROMs. Accordingly, in this paper electronic carriers and ICTs refer to the same types of information resources. The information needs of end-users in SSA are thus influenced by their positions in relation to the digital divide. Since the digital divide is highly likely to stay in SSA, the information needs of end-users in SSA and their information behaviour in general, have to be seen in light of the digital divide. As accessing and using information is the cornerstone of the information age, the information needs of end-users in SSA should be clearly identified and met. In depth knowledge of the information needs of end-users in SSA is thus one of the key issues for the sub-region in making the best out of developments in ICTs. For the purpose of understanding the information needs of SSA, reference to existing works on the nature of the information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment would be essential.
The model of information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment A model of the information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment has been developed with the main aim of better conceptualizing and understanding the essence of the information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment (Gashaw, 2002a, b).
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The model consists of three elements, namely, the nature of user tasks, the state of electronic resources and the level of user experience. User tasks refer to tasks or activities that end-users engage in on an everyday basis, including workrelated activities. The state of electronic resources refers to whether the relevant computing facilities and electronic information sources, such as CDROMs, exist in a given setting for use as well as whether these resources are actually accessible to the end-users in that setting. Level of user experience in this model specifically refers to the level of the end-users’ skills in using the features of the interfaces of existing computing facilities and electronic information sources to perform information seeking activities in the electronic information environment. Like most information needs models found in the literature of LIS (Allen, 1996; Dervin, 1992; Wilson, 1999), the elements of the model are factors that affect the information needs of end-users. While user tasks give rise to content needs, the state of electronic information resources and level of user experience determine the non-content needs of end-users in the electronic information environment. User tasks give rise to content needs because understanding and executing tasks require facts, figures, and ideas. Content needs refer to facts, figures, and ideas that end-users require to understand and execute tasks or activities that they encounter in daily life. Tasks or activities are mental and/or physical activities that individuals perform or pursue in their day-to-day lives, including work-related activities. Content-related needs occur when what one knows is less than he or she ought to know in order to understand and execute tasks at hand (Allen, 1996; Bystrom & Jarvelin, 1995; Ingwersen, 1996). If an individual does not know what it takes to understand and execute a given task, then the situation triggers a need for relevant facts, figures and ideas. Tasks or activities are generally unique to each physical setting in which each individual lives and works (Belkin & Vickery, 1985; Taylor, 1986; Wilson, 1999). The state of electronic information resources in use and level of user experience in manipulating the electronic resources give rise to non-content related needs because the nature of the electronic information resources determines how the relevant content should be made available and presented for end-users’ access and use. Content always resides in electronic carriers, and end-users have to effectively deal with the electronic carriers before they can actually get access to the content and use of it (Taylor, 1986; Vickery, 1997). Whatever happens between the end-users and the
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carriers affects whether the content is acquired and assimilated. If the content is not within the capabilities of the carriers in use by the end-users and the level of skills of the end-users, then the end-users will fail to access and use it. Consequently, in order for end-users to access and use relevant content, the content has to coincide with the nature of the carriers (such as the capabilities of the computer system in use) and the end-users’ skills in manipulating the carriers. Unless the content is accessible and usable within the limits of the existing carriers and skills of endusers, access and use of content that could resolve gaps in knowledge cannot take place. Unless the end-users’ particular preferences arising from their capabilities in carrying out accessing information content are met, the process of acquiring potentially relevant information content for fulfilling the knowledge gap is disrupted. Therefore, depending on the nature of the carriers currently in use and the level of personal skills to interact with the carriers, end-users have specific needs and preferences as to how the relevant information content has to be made available and presented for their access and use. These user preferences and specific options as a result of existing possibilities of access to information content constitute the carrier-related or noncontent needs of end-users. Non-content needs refer to end-users’ perception of how the relevant content should be made available so that adequate access and effective use of the content takes place. These needs are carrier-related, or non-content, needs because they arise from the state of the carriers currently in use. For information needs to be met, both the content and non-content aspects have to be fulfilled. One without the other keeps the need unfulfilled. As the above discussion points out, the information needs of end-users in SSA in the digital information environment are for content that is relevant to their daily activities and accessible and usable within the constraints of the digital divide that prevails in the sub-region.
Observations and theoretical support Although it is possible to argue that end-users’ needs that arise from the state of their electronic resources and their current level of ICT skills are to have adequate and up-to-date electronic tools to access all types of content, it is the argument of this paper that the end-users’ need is rather that the content be made available and presented
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within the constraints of the existing capabilities of the carriers that they are using. They need the content to be made available in such a way that it is still possible for them to be able to access and use it within the capabilities of their current carriers and level of skills. It is the view of this paper that end-users are rational beings who generally keep a realistic perspective, given the circumstances. End-users generally set expectations based on their prior experiences of what is possible (Faibisoff & Ely, 1978; Greene, 1990; Nicholas, 1996), which makes the desire for information content likely to fit the capabilities of existing ICTs. The fact that it has proved difficult to acquire all the current ICTs that make up the electronic information environment influences the beliefs of end-users that they have to manage with what they have at the moment. Therefore, end-users are rational, in that they know that certain things cannot be achieved. Observations supporting this view exist in the literature of LIS. For example, McCreadie and Rice note that ‘‘the degree of matching between what the user needs and can make use of most effectively and what and how the system makes available its resources, can strongly influence the degree to which the interaction leads to access’’ (Mc Creadie & Rice, 1999, p. 66). Similarly, Harman and Lunin note, ‘‘The underlying systems must provide the answers sought by the users in a manner that requires minimal or no training, and in a manner that is totally compatible with the information-seeking environment’’ (Harman & Lunin, 1992, p. 153). The view that end-users need relevant content that is accessible and usable within the capabilities of the carriers in use and dependent upon the level of their skills in interacting with the carriers is also supported by a number of theories, as the following paragraphs will show.
The principle of least effort The principle of least effort states that human beings prefer that which involves less effort on their part (Poole, 1985). In his discussions of the theory of least effort, Poole hypothesizes that users prefer to use accessible channels because the effort required to use them is less (1985). In the same line of thought, Nicholas states, ‘‘people will usually use what is the easiest and what is closest to hand, and not what is actually best or most appropriate. They will take the path of least resistance, providing they have a choice’’ (1996, p. 36). Rubin (1998) also notes that people will seek the most convenient sources to meet their
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information need, even when they realize that this source may produce information of lower quality than other sources. As the prevailing state of the digital divide in the sub-region is likely to continue, content that is accessible and usable with existing ICTs in the subregion is that which involves the least effort on the part of the end-users in SSA. The principle of least effort, thus, gives insight that what end-users in SSA need is content that is accessible and usable for the ICT resources that they have at their disposal.
with high utility, and not merely relevant documents, that the user wants and the retrieval system should retrieve. In agreement with Cooper, Schamber (1994) also argues that it is usable and relevant information sources and not merely relevant sources that end-users need. Here again, usable content under the circumstances of SSA, including the state of ICTs in use, is what would satisfy the information needs of end-users in SSA.
The principle of satisficing
The LIS literature further shows that accessibility of the information carrier and hence the content therein is the overriding factor in an end-user’s selection and use of an information carrier. Convenience and ease of access and use of information channels and sources have been shown to come before quality and amount of information content (Gerstberger & Allen, 1968; Klobas, 1995; Hertzum & Pejtersen, 2000; Leckie, Pettigrew & Sylvain, 1996; Taylor, 1991; Westbrook, 1997). Westbrook (1997), for example, states that one of the six basic principles of information seeking that holds fairly constant is that people tend to seek out information that is most accessible. These and other similar theories give support to the view that end-users need content that is adequately accessible and effectively usable within the capacities of the ICTs in use and within their current level of ICT skills.
According to Marchionini (1995), satisficing is a psychological form of the law of diminishing returns, meaning that we do not seek optimal solutions to certain problems because the costs are too high, instead settling for solutions that are satisfactory given the cost. Marchionini agrees with this law by commenting that ‘‘this principle is clearly demonstrated in libraries whose users show high levels of satisfaction because they are able to find at least some relevant items with minimal investments of time and effort’’ (1995, p. 63). Marchionini earlier concludes that ‘‘It is well known that information seekers prefer colleagues or human sources to formal sources and proximate sources of information and easy-to-use systems. These preferences are powerful factors in information seeking and reflect natural human efforts to minimize costs, especially to seek the path of least cognitive resistance’’ (1995, p. 52). Similar findings have been reported from recent research on information needs of end-users where end-users preferred informal, proximate and easy-to-use information sources in their effort to fulfill their information needs (Pigato, 2001). Again the principle of satisficing reveals the tendency of human beings to go for the convenient option and what is believed to be possible and optimal under the circumstances. With the extremity of the digital divide poised to continue in the sub-region for the foreseeable future, having content that is accessible and usable with existing ICTs would be optimal for end-users in SSA.
The ‘‘principle’’ of accessibility
Conclusion Based on the model presented and the theories that support it, the information needs of end-users in SSA are for information content that is relevant for their daily tasks, adequately accessible and effectively usable within the capabilities of the ICTs that they have available and in which they are proficient. The poor state of ICTs and low levels of ICT skills of end-users in SSA condition them to experience information needs different from those of the end-users in the developed world. Specifically, the information needs of end-users in SSA include:
The ‘‘principle’’ of utility
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A number of writers have shown that the choice of channels and sources is on the basis of utility of the information content retrieved (Hertzum & Pejtersen, 2000; Cooper, 1973; Gerstberger & Allen, 1968; Rosenberg, 1967; Schamber, 1994). Cooper (1973) states that it is really documents
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Content relevant to understand and execute daily tasks in SSA; Content that is accessible through the capabilities of computers and networks available in SSA; Content that is accessible, (downloadable/ uploadable, viewable, readable, editable, etc.) within the congested and slow Internet connections;
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Content that can be manipulated, processed, viewed, read, edited, etc., with old versions of poor quality software widely used in SSA; Content that can be effectively accessed and used, given the low literacy level that the majority of end-users possess in terms of the treatment of subject matter, presentation, language, etc.; and Content that can be effectively accessed and used with the low level of ICT skills that the majority of end-users in SSA possess.
Recognition of the nature of information needs of the end-users in SSA as described above would have implications on the choice of solutions to address the digital divide in the sub-region. For example, formatting content in such a way that access and use of it within the constraints of the digital divide prevailing in SSA should be one major solution used to address the problems of the digital divide in the sub-region. Nevertheless, understanding the nature of the information needs of end-users in the subregion as described above is also the first step in meeting the information needs of end-users in SSA.
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Gerstberger, P. G., & Allen, T. J. (1968). Criteria used by research and development engineers in the selection of information sources. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 52(4), 272–279. Greene, A. (1990). What do we mean by user needs? British Journal of Academic Librarianship, 5(2), 65–78. Harman, D., & Lunin, L. F. (1992). Introduction and review on perspectives on human-computer interface. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 43(2), 153–155. Hertzum, M., & Pejtersen, A. M. (2000). The information-seeking practices of engineers: Searching for documents as well as for people. Information Processing and Management, 36(5), 761–778. Ingwersen, P. (1996). Cognitive perspectives of information retrieval interaction: Elements of cognitive IR theory. Journal of Documentation, 52(1), 3–50. Jensen, M. (2002). Information and communication technologies (ICTs) in Africa–A status report. Paper presented at the third task force meeting of the UN ICT Taskforce September 2002– October 2002. New York, United Nations headquarters. Retrieved from: www.unicttaskforce.org/thirdmeeting/ documents/jensenv6.doc. Keeble, L., & Loader, B.D. (2001). Challenging the digital divide? A preliminary review of online community support. CIRA: University of Teesside. Retrieved from: http://www.cira. org.uk/downloads/RowntreesReport.shtml. Klobas, J. E. (1995). Beyond information quality: Fitness for the purpose and electronic information use. Journal of Information Science, 21(2), 95–114. Leckie, G. J., Pettigrew, E., & Sylvain, C. (1996). Modeling the information seeking of professionals: A general model derived from research on engineers, health care professionals, and lawyers. The Library Quarterly, 66(2), 161–193. Liebscher, P., Abels, E. G., & Denman, D. W. (1997). Factors that influence the use of electronic networks by science and engineering faculty at small institutions, part II: Preliminary use indicators. Journal of the American Association for Information Science, 48(6), 496–507. Marchionini, G. (1995). Information seeking in electronic environments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McCreadie, M., & Rice, R. E. (1999). Trends in analysing access to information, part I: Cross-disciplinary conceptualizations of access. Information Processing Management, 35(1), 45–76. Nicholas, D. (1996). Assessing information needs: Tools and techniques. London: ASLIB. Pigato, M.A. (2001). Information and communication technology, poverty, and development in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Africa Region Working Paper Series No. 20. Retrieved from: http://www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/index.htm. Poole, H. (1985). Theories of middle range. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing. Rosenberg, V. (1967). Factors affecting the preferences of industrial personnel for information gathering methods. Information Storage and Retrieval, 3, 119–127. Rubin, R. E. (1998). Foundations of library and information science. New York: Neal-Schuman. Salinas, C. (n.d.). Trading cultures, communicating values, configuring images: Designing ‘‘flexible’’ web sites for online international communication. Retrieved from http:// communication.utsa.edu/salinas/research/conferences/itc/ itc.html. Schamber, L. (1994). Relevance and information behaviour. In M. E. Williams (Ed.), Annual review of information science technology, Vol. 29. (pp. 3–48). New York: Knowledge Indutry Publications.
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Selwyn, N. (n.d.). Defining the ‘‘digital divide’’: Developing a theoretical understanding of inequalities in the information age. Retrieved from http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/socsi/ict. Summer Institute of Linguistics International. (2004). International Literacy Day, September 7, 2001 Facts about illiteracy. Retrieved from http://www.sil.org/literacy/litFacts.htm. Taylor, R. S. (1986). Value-added processes in information systems. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing. Taylor, R. S. (1991). Information use environment. In B. Dervin, & M. J. Voigt (Eds.), Progress in communication science, Vol. 10. (pp. 217–255). Norwood, NJ: Ablex, Publishing.
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The International Information & Library Review www.elsevier.com/locate/iilr
The information needs of end-users of Sub-Saharan Africa in the digital information environment Gashaw Kebede Department of Information Science, Faculty of Informatics, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Summary The digital divide is severe in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The prevailing digital divide will continue to exist and define the characteristics of the digital information environment of the sub-region as it influences, along with other concerns, the information needs of end-users in the sub-region. The model of information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment and observations and theories from the literature of Library and Information Science (LIS) show that the information needs of end-users in SSA are for information content that is relevant for day-to-day tasks and that is adequately accessible and effectively usable within the capabilities of the information and communications technology (ICTs) that they possess and their level of skill in manipulating the ICTs. The model of the information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment presents the nature of user tasks, the state of electronic resources in use, and user experience in using the electronic resources as factors giving rise to information needs of end-users in a digital information environment. The principles of least effort, satisficing, utility and accessibility particularly give support to the argument of the paper: that end-users need information content that is adequately accessible and effectively usable within the capabilities of ICTs currently in use by the endusers concerned. Recognizing the nature of the information needs of the end-users of SSA will help in meeting their needs as well as in selecting appropriate interventions in addressing the digital divide in the sub-region. & 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
The phenomenon of the digital divide The information age is an era in which information, increasingly in a digital form, is the basis of the socioeconomic activities of societies. Information and communications technologies (ICTs) are the core tools through which information is captured, processed, stored, manipulated and exchanged in the information age. ICT is understood here as an ‘‘umbrella term for a range of technological applications such as computer hardware and software; digital broadcast technologies; telecommunications technologies such as mobile phones as E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Kebede). 1057-2317/$ - see front matter & 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.iilr.2003.10.011
well as electronic information resources such as the world-wide web and CD-ROMs’’ (Selwyn, n.d.). Unfortunately, not everyone is participating equally in this information age because access to ICTs varies among individuals, communities, and countries. While some individuals, communities and countries have adequate access to and effectively use ICTs, others do not. Consequently, the information age is marked by the existence of the so-called ‘‘digital divide’’ among individuals and communities within a country as well among countries. Defined in various ways, the digital divide describes the disparities between those individuals and communities that adequately access and effectively use ICTs and those that do not (British Educational
ARTICLE IN PRESS 274
Communications and Technology Agency, 2001). The disparities can be observed in relation to the following (British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2001; Selwyn, n.d.): *
*
*
*
*
Access to technologies: Adequacy of physical and effective access to usable and appropriate ICTs varies among individuals, communities and countries. This includes their level of access to a powerful hardware, software and telecommunications infrastructure. Access to relevant and usable content: Availability of adequate, relevant and usable content for access and effective access to that relevant content varies among individuals, communities, and countries. This includes the availability of adequate relevant content in understandable and usable forms, (i.e., downloadable), in a known language and at a proper level of comprehension. Skills in utilizing ICTs: Sufficiency of skills, knowledge, and experience in effectively accessing and using ICTs varies. Supporting environment: Adequacy of the mechanisms that promote and facilitate utilization, development, and maintenance of ICTs varies. Attitude: Attitude as to the appropriateness, usefulness, and relevance of ICTs to one’s purposes varies. This includes the values and awareness of the use of ICTs held by end-users.
The digital divide and sub-Saharan Africa The digital divide is severe in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The state of the digital divide in the subregion can be gauged from the following selected ICT indicators: *
*
*
*
Internet users number 1 in 250–400 people, compared to 1 in 15 people as a world average, and 1 in 2 people for North America and Europe (Jensen, 2002). There are only 8 computers for every 1000 people (compared to 68 computers per 1000 as the world average and 360 per 1000 in the G8) (Ganitsky, 2003). The total amount of international outgoing Internet bandwidth is around 1500 Mbps in 2002 (with 400 Mbps for South Africa alone) (Jensen, 2002). Only 14 mainline telephone lines exist per 1000 people, compared to 655 per 1000 for G8 countries (Ganitsky, 2003).
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The content available on the Internet is often not relevant to the information needs of the end-users in SSA (Pigato, 2001). About 40% of the population is illiterate, and the vast majority of the population does not understand languages other than the local languages, making it difficult for them to read more than 80% of the content on the Internet, which is in the English language (Summer Institute of Linguistics International, 2004). About 70% of the population is rural, away from the basic infrastructure, ICT resources and services. The sub-region has the lowest human development index, and little of the population has access to training and education in ICT. The sub-region suffers from lack of basic infrastructure that supports the utilization, development, and adoption of ICTs. The majority of the countries of the sub-region lack a national ICT policy, with only 17 African countries having such a policy as of 2003 (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 2003).
Particularly when considering the socioeconomic status of an individual, community or a country as a primary basis for better access to ICTs, skills, support, and content, it is unlikely that SSA will be able to close the disparity (Keeble & Loader, 2001). SSA is the poorest region of the world in almost all measures. Past experience has also shown that despite myriads of measures being considered, the digital divide still continues to exist in one form or another, even in economically and technologically developed countries like the USA and the UK (Salinas, n.d.; Selwyn, n.d.). The fast developments in ICTs are also making the need for accessing newer technologies and the skills required to interact with the technologies a never ending process (British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, 2001; Salinas, n.d.). Thus, it is the view of this paper that the digital divide will continue to exist in SSA for years to come.
Information needs of end-users in SSA One of the consequences of the digital divide is that it hinders those without adequate technologies, content, skills, supporting environments and attitudes from playing an active part and becoming beneficiaries of the information age. This results in, among other things, differences in information behaviour (e.g., information need,
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use, communication and seeking) between those with adequate access and skills for effective use and those without. Those with differing capabilities of accessing and using ICTs engage in different kinds of information seeking, use, communication, and need behaviour. End-users’ technological and personal capabilities influence the nature of information that can fill in their gaps in knowledge and the path they have to follow when seeking and using the information. In connection with information needs, it has been indicated in the literature of Library and Information Science (LIS) that information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment are different from those of the print information environment (Buttenfield, 1999; Gashaw, 2002a, b; Liebscher, Abels, & Denman, 1997). This difference in the information needs of end-users can be attributed to the use of electronic information carriers in the electronic information environment. Here, the term information carriers refers to information channels and sources in which information content resides and is exchanged. For example, electronic information carriers are electronic channels, such as electronic networks, and electronic sources, such as CD-ROMs. Accordingly, in this paper electronic carriers and ICTs refer to the same types of information resources. The information needs of end-users in SSA are thus influenced by their positions in relation to the digital divide. Since the digital divide is highly likely to stay in SSA, the information needs of end-users in SSA and their information behaviour in general, have to be seen in light of the digital divide. As accessing and using information is the cornerstone of the information age, the information needs of end-users in SSA should be clearly identified and met. In depth knowledge of the information needs of end-users in SSA is thus one of the key issues for the sub-region in making the best out of developments in ICTs. For the purpose of understanding the information needs of SSA, reference to existing works on the nature of the information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment would be essential.
The model of information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment A model of the information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment has been developed with the main aim of better conceptualizing and understanding the essence of the information needs of end-users in the electronic information environment (Gashaw, 2002a, b).
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The model consists of three elements, namely, the nature of user tasks, the state of electronic resources and the level of user experience. User tasks refer to tasks or activities that end-users engage in on an everyday basis, including workrelated activities. The state of electronic resources refers to whether the relevant computing facilities and electronic information sources, such as CDROMs, exist in a given setting for use as well as whether these resources are actually accessible to the end-users in that setting. Level of user experience in this model specifically refers to the level of the end-users’ skills in using the features of the interfaces of existing computing facilities and electronic information sources to perform information seeking activities in the electronic information environment. Like most information needs models found in the literature of LIS (Allen, 1996; Dervin, 1992; Wilson, 1999), the elements of the model are factors that affect the information needs of end-users. While user tasks give rise to content needs, the state of electronic information resources and level of user experience determine the non-content needs of end-users in the electronic information environment. User tasks give rise to content needs because understanding and executing tasks require facts, figures, and ideas. Content needs refer to facts, figures, and ideas that end-users require to understand and execute tasks or activities that they encounter in daily life. Tasks or activities are mental and/or physical activities that individuals perform or pursue in their day-to-day lives, including work-related activities. Content-related needs occur when what one knows is less than he or she ought to know in order to understand and execute tasks at hand (Allen, 1996; Bystrom & Jarvelin, 1995; Ingwersen, 1996). If an individual does not know what it takes to understand and execute a given task, then the situation triggers a need for relevant facts, figures and ideas. Tasks or activities are generally unique to each physical setting in which each individual lives and works (Belkin & Vickery, 1985; Taylor, 1986; Wilson, 1999). The state of electronic information resources in use and level of user experience in manipulating the electronic resources give rise to non-content related needs because the nature of the electronic information resources determines how the relevant content should be made available and presented for end-users’ access and use. Content always resides in electronic carriers, and end-users have to effectively deal with the electronic carriers before they can actually get access to the content and use of it (Taylor, 1986; Vickery, 1997). Whatever happens between the end-users and the
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carriers affects whether the content is acquired and assimilated. If the content is not within the capabilities of the carriers in use by the end-users and the level of skills of the end-users, then the end-users will fail to access and use it. Consequently, in order for end-users to access and use relevant content, the content has to coincide with the nature of the carriers (such as the capabilities of the computer system in use) and the end-users’ skills in manipulating the carriers. Unless the content is accessible and usable within the limits of the existing carriers and skills of endusers, access and use of content that could resolve gaps in knowledge cannot take place. Unless the end-users’ particular preferences arising from their capabilities in carrying out accessing information content are met, the process of acquiring potentially relevant information content for fulfilling the knowledge gap is disrupted. Therefore, depending on the nature of the carriers currently in use and the level of personal skills to interact with the carriers, end-users have specific needs and preferences as to how the relevant information content has to be made available and presented for their access and use. These user preferences and specific options as a result of existing possibilities of access to information content constitute the carrier-related or noncontent needs of end-users. Non-content needs refer to end-users’ perception of how the relevant content should be made available so that adequate access and effective use of the content takes place. These needs are carrier-related, or non-content, needs because they arise from the state of the carriers currently in use. For information needs to be met, both the content and non-content aspects have to be fulfilled. One without the other keeps the need unfulfilled. As the above discussion points out, the information needs of end-users in SSA in the digital information environment are for content that is relevant to their daily activities and accessible and usable within the constraints of the digital divide that prevails in the sub-region.
Observations and theoretical support Although it is possible to argue that end-users’ needs that arise from the state of their electronic resources and their current level of ICT skills are to have adequate and up-to-date electronic tools to access all types of content, it is the argument of this paper that the end-users’ need is rather that the content be made available and presented
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within the constraints of the existing capabilities of the carriers that they are using. They need the content to be made available in such a way that it is still possible for them to be able to access and use it within the capabilities of their current carriers and level of skills. It is the view of this paper that end-users are rational beings who generally keep a realistic perspective, given the circumstances. End-users generally set expectations based on their prior experiences of what is possible (Faibisoff & Ely, 1978; Greene, 1990; Nicholas, 1996), which makes the desire for information content likely to fit the capabilities of existing ICTs. The fact that it has proved difficult to acquire all the current ICTs that make up the electronic information environment influences the beliefs of end-users that they have to manage with what they have at the moment. Therefore, end-users are rational, in that they know that certain things cannot be achieved. Observations supporting this view exist in the literature of LIS. For example, McCreadie and Rice note that ‘‘the degree of matching between what the user needs and can make use of most effectively and what and how the system makes available its resources, can strongly influence the degree to which the interaction leads to access’’ (Mc Creadie & Rice, 1999, p. 66). Similarly, Harman and Lunin note, ‘‘The underlying systems must provide the answers sought by the users in a manner that requires minimal or no training, and in a manner that is totally compatible with the information-seeking environment’’ (Harman & Lunin, 1992, p. 153). The view that end-users need relevant content that is accessible and usable within the capabilities of the carriers in use and dependent upon the level of their skills in interacting with the carriers is also supported by a number of theories, as the following paragraphs will show.
The principle of least effort The principle of least effort states that human beings prefer that which involves less effort on their part (Poole, 1985). In his discussions of the theory of least effort, Poole hypothesizes that users prefer to use accessible channels because the effort required to use them is less (1985). In the same line of thought, Nicholas states, ‘‘people will usually use what is the easiest and what is closest to hand, and not what is actually best or most appropriate. They will take the path of least resistance, providing they have a choice’’ (1996, p. 36). Rubin (1998) also notes that people will seek the most convenient sources to meet their
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information need, even when they realize that this source may produce information of lower quality than other sources. As the prevailing state of the digital divide in the sub-region is likely to continue, content that is accessible and usable with existing ICTs in the subregion is that which involves the least effort on the part of the end-users in SSA. The principle of least effort, thus, gives insight that what end-users in SSA need is content that is accessible and usable for the ICT resources that they have at their disposal.
with high utility, and not merely relevant documents, that the user wants and the retrieval system should retrieve. In agreement with Cooper, Schamber (1994) also argues that it is usable and relevant information sources and not merely relevant sources that end-users need. Here again, usable content under the circumstances of SSA, including the state of ICTs in use, is what would satisfy the information needs of end-users in SSA.
The principle of satisficing
The LIS literature further shows that accessibility of the information carrier and hence the content therein is the overriding factor in an end-user’s selection and use of an information carrier. Convenience and ease of access and use of information channels and sources have been shown to come before quality and amount of information content (Gerstberger & Allen, 1968; Klobas, 1995; Hertzum & Pejtersen, 2000; Leckie, Pettigrew & Sylvain, 1996; Taylor, 1991; Westbrook, 1997). Westbrook (1997), for example, states that one of the six basic principles of information seeking that holds fairly constant is that people tend to seek out information that is most accessible. These and other similar theories give support to the view that end-users need content that is adequately accessible and effectively usable within the capacities of the ICTs in use and within their current level of ICT skills.
According to Marchionini (1995), satisficing is a psychological form of the law of diminishing returns, meaning that we do not seek optimal solutions to certain problems because the costs are too high, instead settling for solutions that are satisfactory given the cost. Marchionini agrees with this law by commenting that ‘‘this principle is clearly demonstrated in libraries whose users show high levels of satisfaction because they are able to find at least some relevant items with minimal investments of time and effort’’ (1995, p. 63). Marchionini earlier concludes that ‘‘It is well known that information seekers prefer colleagues or human sources to formal sources and proximate sources of information and easy-to-use systems. These preferences are powerful factors in information seeking and reflect natural human efforts to minimize costs, especially to seek the path of least cognitive resistance’’ (1995, p. 52). Similar findings have been reported from recent research on information needs of end-users where end-users preferred informal, proximate and easy-to-use information sources in their effort to fulfill their information needs (Pigato, 2001). Again the principle of satisficing reveals the tendency of human beings to go for the convenient option and what is believed to be possible and optimal under the circumstances. With the extremity of the digital divide poised to continue in the sub-region for the foreseeable future, having content that is accessible and usable with existing ICTs would be optimal for end-users in SSA.
The ‘‘principle’’ of accessibility
Conclusion Based on the model presented and the theories that support it, the information needs of end-users in SSA are for information content that is relevant for their daily tasks, adequately accessible and effectively usable within the capabilities of the ICTs that they have available and in which they are proficient. The poor state of ICTs and low levels of ICT skills of end-users in SSA condition them to experience information needs different from those of the end-users in the developed world. Specifically, the information needs of end-users in SSA include:
The ‘‘principle’’ of utility
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A number of writers have shown that the choice of channels and sources is on the basis of utility of the information content retrieved (Hertzum & Pejtersen, 2000; Cooper, 1973; Gerstberger & Allen, 1968; Rosenberg, 1967; Schamber, 1994). Cooper (1973) states that it is really documents
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Content relevant to understand and execute daily tasks in SSA; Content that is accessible through the capabilities of computers and networks available in SSA; Content that is accessible, (downloadable/ uploadable, viewable, readable, editable, etc.) within the congested and slow Internet connections;
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Content that can be manipulated, processed, viewed, read, edited, etc., with old versions of poor quality software widely used in SSA; Content that can be effectively accessed and used, given the low literacy level that the majority of end-users possess in terms of the treatment of subject matter, presentation, language, etc.; and Content that can be effectively accessed and used with the low level of ICT skills that the majority of end-users in SSA possess.
Recognition of the nature of information needs of the end-users in SSA as described above would have implications on the choice of solutions to address the digital divide in the sub-region. For example, formatting content in such a way that access and use of it within the constraints of the digital divide prevailing in SSA should be one major solution used to address the problems of the digital divide in the sub-region. Nevertheless, understanding the nature of the information needs of end-users in the subregion as described above is also the first step in meeting the information needs of end-users in SSA.
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