The Middle Pleistocene tunnel valley at Schöningen as a Paleolithic archive

Journal of Human Evolution xxx (2015) 1e9

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€ ningen as a Paleolithic The Middle Pleistocene tunnel valley at Scho archive €rg Lang a, *, Utz Bo € hner b, Ulrich Polom c, Jordi Serangeli d, Jutta Winsemann a Jo €t Hannover, Callinstraße 30, 30167 Hannover, Germany Institut für Geologie, Leibniz Universita €chsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege, Scharnhorststraße 1, 30175 Hannover, Germany Niedersa c Leibniz Institut für Angewandte Geophysik (LIAG), Stilleweg 2, 30655 Hannover, Germany d €t Tübingen, Burgsteige 11, 72070 Tübingen, Germany Institut für Ur- und Frühgeschichte, Eberhard Karls Universita a

b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 30 May 2013 Accepted 1 February 2015 Available online xxx

€ ningen represents one of the key sites for Lower Paleolithic archaeology in central Europe, where a Scho Middle to Late Pleistocene sedimentary succession, locally up to 45 m thick, has been preserved in an Elsterian tunnel valley. After deglaciation, the tunnel valley remained underfilled and provided the accommodation space for Holsteinian interglacial deposition and also kept the artifact-bearing strata below base level for subsequent erosion. The Holsteinian (MIS 9) succession consists of laterally and vertically stacked lacustrine delta systems, which were controlled by repeated lake-level changes. In the face of changing climatic and environmental conditions the long-lived interglacial lake provided an attractive site for animals and early humans. Artifacts were deposited on the subaerial delta plain and became embedded during lake-level rise. Although the area was considerably affected by erosion and glacitectonic deformation during the subsequent Saalian glaciation, the artifact-bearing Holsteinian strata were preserved in the deeper part of the tunnel valley. Tunnel valleys should be regarded as potential archives for interglacial deposits, which may contain important Paleolithic sites. Tunnel valleys may provide accommodation space and also have a high preservation potential. Interglacial lakes situated within underfilled tunnel valleys represented attractive sites for animals and early human hunter-gatherers. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Landscape evolution Archaeological horizons Geoarchaeology

Introduction € ningen represents an outstanding geological and archaeoScho logical archive where unique artifacts from the Lower Paleolithic have been recovered from Middle Pleistocene interglacial deposits. € ningen provides a very The Middle Pleistocene succession at Scho well-preserved, long-lasting archive for the period between the Elsterian and the Saalian glaciations (Figs. 1 and 2). In addition to the archaeological findings, there exists an extensive biostratigraphic data base, which includes palynological data (Urban et al., 1988, 1991, 2011; Urban, 1995, 2007; Urban and Sierralta, 2012) and analyses of plant remains (Jechorek, 2000), mollusks (Mania, 2007), mammals (van Kolfschoten, 1995, 2007, 2014), fish, rep€ hme, 2000, 2007). However, the intertiles, and amphibians (Bo pretation of this important environmental archive has long been

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Lang).

controversial. Previous geological models (Mania, 1998, 2006) interpreted the interglacial deposits as infills of abandoned fluvial channels. However, new geophysical and geological data clearly show that the interglacial succession was deposited within a longlived lake, which formed in an underfilled Elsterian tunnel valley (Lang et al., 2012). The stacking pattern of the interglacial deposits and the distribution of the archaeological sites are related to lakelevel fluctuations of the interglacial lake (Lang et al., 2012). These lake-level fluctuations have previously been recognized in the palaeo-ecological analysis of floral (Jechorek, 2000; Urban, 2007; € hme, 2000, 2007). Urban et al., 2011) and faunal associations (Bo The aim of this paper is to provide a synoptic overview of the €ningen geological setting and stratigraphic framework of the Scho sites. The emphasis is placed on the detailed reconstruction of the Middle Pleistocene interglacial depositional environments, the palaeogeography, and the relation to the archaeological sites. The significant impact of the geological setting on the formation and preservation of Paleolithic sites is discussed with regard to the new €ningen sites. insights from the Scho

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.02.004 0047-2484/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

€ ningen as a Paleolithic archive, Journal of Human Please cite this article in press as: Lang, J., et al., The Middle Pleistocene tunnel valley at Scho Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.02.004

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J. Lang et al. / Journal of Human Evolution xxx (2015) 1e9

Figure 1. A) Location of the study area in northern Germany and maximum extent of the Middle Pleistocene Fennoscandian ice advances (ice margins modified after Ehlers et al., €ningen open-cast mine eastwards of the Elm anticline. The positions of excavation sites 13-I, [2011]). B) Hill-shaded relief model of the study area, showing the location of the Scho 12-II, and 13-II are indicated by circles. The bold black lines indicate the measured seismic lines (S-1 and S-2). The dashed black line shows the outline of the 3D subsurface model. The digital elevation model (DEM) is based on data from the Landesamt für Geoinformation und Landentwicklung Niedersachsen (LGLN).

Introduction to tunnel valleys Erosion by glaciers and glacial meltwater has the potential to provide accommodation space for glacigenic and inter- or postglacial deposition, especially in settings where accommodation space is generally low. Tunnel valleys are elongated subglacial incisions, which are eroded by meltwater under high hydrostatic  pressure and form anastomosing subglacial drainage networks (O Cofaigh, 1996; Huuse and Lykke-Andersen, 2000; Kehew et al., 2012; van der Vegt et al., 2012). Buried tunnel valleys are a typical feature of the Middle Pleistocene Elsterian glaciation across northern central Europe (Ehlers et al., 1984; Huuse and LykkeAndersen, 2000; Kluiving et al., 2003; Praeg, 2003; Lutz et al., 2009; Stackebrandt, 2009). Tunnel valley fills may typically be subdivided into a primary glacigenic fill and a secondary nonglacial fill (e.g., van der Vegt et al., 2012). Synglacial tunnel valley fills include glacifluvial and glacilacustrine deposits and till, which are deposited both subglacially and proglacially during deglaciation. Interglacial infills of tunnel valleys commonly comprise lacustrine deposits or, if the setting is at the interglacial coastline, paralic or marine deposits (Kuster and Meyer, 1979; Piotrowski, 1994; Janszen et al., 2012a; Kehew et al., 2012; Lang et al., 2012; van der Vegt et al., 2012). Setting €ningen open-cast mine (Fig. 1) is located within the The Scho southwestern rim syncline of a northwest-southeast-trending salt wall. Towards the west the rim syncline is bounded by the Elm anticline (up to 323 m a.s.l.), which comprises mostly Triassic limestone. The main infill of the rim syncline consists of an up to 366 m thick marginal marine lignite-bearing Paleogene succession (Brandes et al., 2012; Osman et al., 2013), which is unconformably overlain by up to 45 m thick Middle to Upper Pleistocene deposits (Elsner, 2003; Lang et al., 2012). The Pleistocene succession (Fig. 2) comprises Elsterian and Saalian glacifluvial, glacilacustrine, and subglacial deposits, Holsteinian and Eemian lacustrine deposits, and Weichselian loess and solifluidal deposits (Urban et al., 1988, 1991; Mania, 1998, 2006; Elsner, 2003; Wagner, 2011; Lang et al., 2012). In general, the age control of the Middle Pleistocene deposits in northern Germany is poor. The Elsterian glaciation is

correlated either with MIS 12 (Gibbard and Cohen, 2008; Ehlers et al., 2011) or MIS 10 (Litt et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2012). However, new studies indicate two separate ice advances into northern Germany during MIS 12 and MIS 10 (Roskosch et al., 2015), which is also supported by the occurrence of two separate tills €ningen, deposits of the (Eissmann, 2002; Litt et al., 2007). At Scho Elsterian glaciation and the subsequent interglacial were deposited and preserved in a tunnel valley (Lang et al., 2012). Previous studies observed a second, older Elsterian till in the basal part of the succession (Urban et al., 1991; Elsner, 2003), indicating a complex formation of the tunnel valley, as is also indicated by the multi-stage infill of the tunnel valley (Lang et al., 2012). The artifact-bearing interglacial deposits were numerically dated by means of 230Th/U-dating by Urban et al. (2011) and Sierralta et al. (2012) and correlated with MIS 9 (cf. Fig. 2). Younger lacustrine deposits were studied by Urban (1995, 2007) in the former northern field of the open-cast mine and were numerically dated to correlate with MIS 7 (Heijnis, 1992). The remnant tunnel valley was completely filled by glacilacustrine deposits and overlain by subglacial till during the Drenthe ice advance of the Saalian glaciation. The ice advances of the Saalian glaciation in northern Germany are generally correlated with MIS 6 (Litt et al., 2007; Ehlers et al., 2011). However, there is growing evidence of an earlier ice advance during MIS 8 (Beets et al., 2005; Kars et al., 2012; Roskosch et al., 2015). Interglacial deposits and archaeological sites € ningen, the deposits of the Middle Pleistocene ElsterAt Scho ian and Saalian glaciations are separated by an up to 7.5 m thick lacustrine succession. This succession was deposited by eastwards to southwards prograding delta systems into a lake, which formed within the remnant tunnel valley and was affected by repeated lake-level changes (Lang et al., 2012). These lake-level changes are attributed to climatic shifts during a persistent warm phase (Urban, 2007; Urban et al., 2011; Lang et al., 2012). Within the lacustrine deposits several Paleolithic archaeological sites were discovered, each containing several archaeological horizons. The main archaeological sites are referred to as sites 13-I, 12II, and 13-II (Fig. 1B; cf. Serangeli et al., 2012). Numerous other

€ningen as a Paleolithic archive, Journal of Human Please cite this article in press as: Lang, J., et al., The Middle Pleistocene tunnel valley at Scho Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.02.004

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€ningen area, and in relation to the archaeological sites and horizons. Figure 2. Stratigraphic chart for the Pleistocene succession of Northwest Europe, Northern Germany, the Scho

€ningen bear fewer reMiddle Pleistocene open-air sites in Scho mains, but the evidence for human presence is unambiguous. At site 13-I several flint artifacts have been discovered, which were associated with bones of large mammals (Thieme, 1999). The site € ningen 13-II, level 4 may be considered as the most important Scho site for the discovery of eight spears, the remains of twenty butchered horses and ~1500 flint artifacts (Thieme, 1997, 1999, €ningen site 12 II, level 1, several possible 2007). From Scho wooden shafts, more than 1000 bones of large mammals, numerous fragments of wood, and several flint tools were recov€hner, 2012). Based on ered (Thieme, 1999, 2007; Serangeli and Bo the stratigraphic relationships site 13-I is considered older than sites 12-II and 13-II, which are probably of the same age (Mania, 1998, 2006; Lang et al., 2012). The numerical age of site 13-II was determined based on 230Th/U data to range from 280 to 350 ka (Sierralta et al., 2012) and 280 to 343 ka (Urban et al., 2011), thus correlating with MIS 9. The palynological data also point to a Holsteinian age, although the pollen assemblages are rather atypical (Urban et al., 2011). The part of the Holsteinian succession that contains sites 12-II and 13-II is referred to as Reinsdorf (Fig. 2; Urban, 1995, 2007; Urban et al., 2011). €ningen sites include flint The artifacts recovered at the Scho tools, possible wooden shafts, and the spears as well as numerous animal bones with cut- and impact-marks. These artifacts provide evidence for repeated hunting and butchering activities, requiring complex planning and traditions, and demonstrate a level of cultural evolution that has previously not been attributed to Lower Paleolithic humans (Thieme, 1997, 1999). In this context, a robust understanding of the geological and environmental context of the € ningen sites is fundamental for the research of the settlement Scho dynamics amongst Lower Paleolithic humans in northern central Europe.

€ ningen displays the diThe Elsterian tunnel valley at Scho mensions (up to 850 m wide, 40 m deep), undulating basal profile, and abrupt beginning typical of subglacial tunnel valleys (Fig. 3A; Lang et al., 2012). The tunnel valley trends NNW to SSE in the northern part and bends to the southwest when leaving the rim syncline (Fig. 3A, B). The seismic sections and the subsurface model show that the tunnel valley is shallower and flat-bottomed with very steep, stepped margins in the north, where it is incised into unconsolidated marginal marine Paleogene deposits, and deeper and more V-shaped in the south, where it is incised into Triassic mudand limestones (Fig. 4). The incision of tunnel valleys is favored by easily erodible substrates (Huuse and Lykke-Andersen, 2000; Stackebrandt, 2009; Janszen et al., 2012b), such as the unconsolidated Paleogene infill of the rim syncline. Within fine-grained sediments with low permeabilities, high pressure gradients between the meltwater channel and the substratum may trigger liquefaction and thus further enhance the erosion (Hooke and Jennings, 2006; Boulton et al., 2007; Janszen et al., 2012b). The differences in geometry along the tunnel valley match examples for tunnel valleys incised into substrates with different erodibilities (Janszen et al., 2012b; Moreau et al., 2012). The unconsolidated Paleogene rimsyncline infill allowed for a flat-bottomed incision, while the Triassic bedrock shows a more V-shaped geometry (Fig. 4). € ningen tunnel valley consists of crossThe basal infill of the Scho stratified pebbly sand and gravel, which is interpreted as meltwater deposit. These deposits are unconformably overlain by massive diamicton, representing subglacial till (Fig. 3B). During the retreat of the Elsterian ice sheet, fine-grained glacilacustrine deposits were shed into the tunnel valley from northerly directions (Fig. 5A; Lang et al., 2012).

Reconstruction of the depositional environment

Lacustrine deposition during the Holsteinian (MIS 9)

A new depositional model for the Pleistocene succession of € ningen based on the integration of outcrop sections, 744 Scho borehole logs, and two high-resolution 2D shear wave seismic reflection lines was presented by Lang et al. (2012). All sedimentological and geophysical data sets were integrated into a highresolution 3D geological subsurface model (GOCAD®) to reconstruct the spatial distribution of facies associations and the largescale depositional architecture.

After final deglaciation the tunnel valley remained underfilled and a lake formed within the basin. The interglacial deposits comprise organic-rich silt and fine-grained sand, peat, and gyttja, which are interpreted as representing fine-grained lacustrine delta and lake-bottom deposits (Fig. 5BeD; Lang et al., 2012). Lakebottom, prodelta, and delta-front deposits consist of massive, planar-parallel or ripple cross-laminated silt and fine-grained sand, which were deposited by low-energy turbulent flows and

Formation of a tunnel valley beneath the Elsterian ice sheet

€ ningen as a Paleolithic archive, Journal of Human Please cite this article in press as: Lang, J., et al., The Middle Pleistocene tunnel valley at Scho Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.02.004

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Figure 3. Perspective views into the 3D subsurface model (5x vertical exaggeration). View is from the southeast. The location of the model area is given in Fig. 1B. The length of the frontal edge of the model is indicated; however, the scales are distorted due to the perspective view. A) Geometry of the base of the Pleistocene unconformity, showing a deeply incised trough interpreted as representing an Elsterian tunnel valley. Contour lines are in 5 m intervals. B) Distribution of Elsterian and Holsteinian deposits upon the base of the Pleistocene unconformity, showing clearly that these deposits are restricted to the tunnel valley. In the west the base of the Pleistocene rises towards the Elm anticline. The locations of the three main archaeological sites (13-I, 12-II, and 13-II) are indicated.

Figure 4. Perspective view of the two shear-wave seismic sections. View is from the southwest. The base of the tunnel valley is shallower and flat in line S-1, and deeper and Vshaped in line S-2. The differences in geometry are probably caused by the different erodibility of the unconsolidated Paleogene sediments (line S-1) and the Mesozoic bedrock (line S-2). A more detailed interpretation of the seismic facies is provided by Lang et al. (2012). For locations see Fig. 1B.

suspension fall-out. In outcrop, the distinction between delta-front and prodelta deposits is difficult due to the gradational transition between these environments, typical for fine-grained deltas (cf. Tye and Coleman, 1989; Rajchl et al., 2008), and is further complicated by the intense synsedimentary deformation. However, the seismic image of the lacustrine succession shows clinoforms indicative of delta-front progradation (Figs. 4 and 6A). Deltaeplain deposits include ripple cross-laminated fine-grained sand, massive or planar parallel-laminated silt, and peat and gyttja. Ripple cross-laminated sand either represents the infill of distributary channels or mouth-

bar deposit, while silt, peat, and gyttja indicate deposition in interdistributary bays in a swampy delta-plain setting (Treese and Wilkinson, 1982; Tye and Coleman, 1989; Rajchl et al., 2008). However, the distinction between channel-fill and mouth-bar deposits was hampered by intense synsedimentary deformation. The delta systems formed on the western shore of the interglacial lake, while deposits from the eastern shore are absent. Several small streams were probably fed from springs on the eastern flank of the Elm ridge (Fig. 6B), similar to the modern situation. The springs along the Elm ridge are located at elevations of 170e200 m a.s.l.

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Figure 5. A) Fining-upwards succession of coarse- and fine-grained glacilacustrine deposits (Elsterian), unconformably overlain by organic-rich lacustrine deposits (Holsteinian; site 12-II). The visible part of the leveling staff is 5.6 m long. B) Massive silt of the prodelta is unconformably overlying thin, peat-rich delta plain deposits. A flame structure, comprising delta plain deposits, intruded into the overlying prodelta deposits due to dewatering (site 13-II, level 2). Trowel blade for scale is 15 cm long. C) Polygonal pattern of mud cracks in lacustrine silt of the early interglacial, indicating subaerial exposure during lake-level lowstand. The deposits are overlain by organic-rich lacustrine deposits, pointing to subsequent transgression. The mud cracks can probably be correlated with the unconformity separating the deposits of sites 13-I and 13-II. Signboard for scale is 25 cm wide. D) Light grey lake-bottom deposits of the early Holsteinian are unconformably overlain by more organic-rich delta front and delta plain deposits of parasequence PS-1 (site 12-II, level 1). Roots within the lake-bottom deposits (arrows) are truncated and indicate emersion during lake-level lowstand. The unconformity displays intense deformation by loading and dewatering. The outcrop wall is ~1.7 m high. E) Bovidae skull (cf. Bubalus) recovered from the base of parasequence PS-1 (site 12-II, level 1). The scale bar in the front is 40 cm long. F) Interglacial lacustrine deposits intruding as mud diapirs into overlying Saalian meltwater deposits. The vergence of the mud diapir and related thrust faults is towards the southeast, indicating proglacial deformation during the Saalian glacial advance. The pushcart for scale is ~75 cm wide.

Their locations are controlled by differences in rock permeabilities between Triassic limestones and mudstones and faults (Behrend, 1927; Look, 1984). The water from springs in the Elm is very rich in calcium carbonate derived from the Triassic limestones (Huckriede, 1967). Sequence stratigraphic analysis of the interglacial lacustrine succession relates the lateral and vertical stacking pattern of the delta systems to repeated lake-level changes in the order of 4e6 m (Lang et al., 2012), which can probably be correlated with the climatic fluctuations reconstructed from palynological data by Urban (1995, 2007). For seismic section S-1 (Fig. 4), which comprises the archaeological sites 13-I and 13-II, four unconformity-bounded seismic-stratigraphic units were defined by Lang et al. (2012). The unconformities are related to lake-level falls in the order of 4e6 m, each followed by a transgression

(Fig. 6A). During the life-span of the lake early humans repeatedly inhabited the shoreline and left artifacts on the delta plains. In outcrop, sites 12-II and 13-II both display an internal stack of five shallowing-upwards successions (parasequences, PS), which are interpreted as representing high-frequency lake-level changes with magnitudes of 1e3 m (Fig. 6A). Each shallowing-upwards succession is bounded by flooding surfaces and comprises deposits of the prodelta or delta front in the lower parts, overlain by deposits of the delta plain (Fig. 5BeE). Archaeological findings mostly occur in deposits of the delta plain, indicating activities of early humans at the lake margin. The artifacts were deposited on the subaerial delta plain (Fig. 6C). Subsequent lake-level rises transgressed the delta plain and caused the embedding of the artifacts in lacustrine deposits (Fig. 6C) and thus allowed for their

€ ningen as a Paleolithic archive, Journal of Human Please cite this article in press as: Lang, J., et al., The Middle Pleistocene tunnel valley at Scho Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.02.004

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Figure 6. A) Reconstructed lake-level curve for the Holsteinian succession, based on the stacking pattern of the delta deposits in the seismic section S-1 (modified after Lang et al., 2012). The reconstruction of the minor lake-level fluctuations is based on the parasequences observed in the outcrops at sites 12-II and 13-II. The parasequences correspond to the internal archaeological horizons of these sites. The positions of the main archaeological horizons are indicated to illustrate how the formation of the individual sites relates to the lake-level fluctuations. B) Palaeogeographic reconstructions of the Holsteinian lake. The delta systems were shed by surface run-off from the Elm, probably fed by springs. The left map shows a reconstruction of the maximum lake extent during the early Holsteinian when site 13-I formed. “Hol” in the northern part of the lake indicates the location of Holsteinian lake-marginal deposits previously described by Urban et al. (1988, 1991). The right map shows the late Holsteinian (“Reinsdorf”; cf. Urban, 1995) delta systems 12-II and 13-II, which unconformably overlie the early Holsteinian deltas. The lake extent is outlined on the hill-shaded relief model (DEM data by LGLN). The eastern part of the Elm has a maximum elevation of 290 m a.s.l. Note that the modern landscape east of the Elm is heavily modified by mining activity. C) Schematic cross-section of delta system 13-II, illustrating the embedding of the artifacts. Artifacts originate from the activity of early humans on the subaerially exposed delta plain. Subsequent lake-level rise causes the embedding of the artifacts in lacustrine deposits.

preservation. The occurrence of these small-scale shallowing-upward successions was previously observed by Urban (2007) and related to climatic fluctuations between stadial and interstadial conditions. Within the individual shallowing-upwards successions the assemblages of plants indicate increasing terrestrialization (Urban, 2007; Urban et al., 2011). The diversity of fish, amphibian, and reptile species also indicates changing ecological and hydro€ hme, 2000), which correlate well with the logical conditions (Bo reconstructed high-frequency lake-level fluctuations. The €ningen (Fig. 6B) has been maximum extent of the lake at Scho reconstructed from the 3D subsurface model and the seismic

section, assuming a maximum lake-level of 105 m a.s.l. based on heights of the clinoforms. However, the continuation of the lake towards the south remains uncertain due to post-Holsteinian erosion. Fig. 6B shows the progradation of delta systems into the lake during the formation of sites 12-II and 13-II, level 4 (PS-4). Fluctuations of the lake-level in a magnitude of 5e10 m and changes of the trophic state of a similar Holsteinian lake in northern Germany have been reconstructed by Koutsodendris et al. (2013) based on the diatom record. These fluctuations were caused by short-term climatic variability and changes in the vegetation cover of the catchment area (Koutsodendris et al., 2013).

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Saalian glaciation During the Saalian glaciation the study area was again transgressed by the Scandinavian ice sheet. Coarse-grained glacilacustrine deposits infilled the last remnant of the Elsterian tunnel valley before laterally more extensive glacifluvial deposits and subglacial till covered larger parts of the study area (Lang et al., 2012). However, the Holsteinian deposits in the tunnel valley remained well below base level for subsequent erosion and were thus preserved. Glacitectonic deformation affected large parts of the deposits at € ningen (Urban et al., 1991; Elsner, 2003; Lang et al., 2012). Parts Scho of the artifact-bearing strata, especially at site 12-II, have been heavily deformed by glacitectonic processes (Fig. 5F), while other sites (13-II) were hardly affected. Discussion €ningen was deposited The Middle Pleistocene succession of Scho within an Elsterian tunnel valley, which provided the accommodation space and protected the deposits from subsequent erosion. Tunnel valleys commonly represent the depocentres for glacigenic and interglacial deposition (e.g., Krohn et al., 2009; Stackebrandt, 2009; Janszen et al., 2012a; van der Vegt et al., 2012). Since the incision of tunnel valleys is one of the deepest-reaching erosional processes, they provide sites with a high preservation potential, especially in areas affected by multiple glaciations. The preservation of post-Elsterian interglacial successions in tunnel valleys and other subglacial mini-basins, which mostly comprise lacustrine successions, is, for example, well documented in Germany (Kuster and Meyer, 1979; Piotrowski, 1994; Eissmann, 2002; Stephan et al., 2011; Janszen et al., 2012a; Roskosch et al., 2015), the Netherlands (Kluiving et al., 2003), Denmark (Jørgensen and Sandersen, 2006), and England (Turner, 1970; Preece et al., 2006). There are several examples of archaeo logical sites associated with lacustrine infills of tunnel valleys and other subglacial mini-basins. In the River Leine valley in northern Germany, the infill of an Elsterian (MIS 10) subglacial mini-basin allowed for the preservation of Lower Paleolithic artifacts, which were embedded in delta deposits (Roskosch et al., 2015). In eastern England, Lower Paleolithic artifacts were recovered from the infill of a Middle Pleistocene Anglian (Elsterian) tunnel valley (Preece et al., 2006, 2007). Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic sites occur within Late Pleistocene Weichselian tunnel valleys in northern Germany (Bratlund, 1996) and Denmark (Larson, 1990; Rømer et al., 2006). The formation and preservation of Paleolithic sites depends largely on the depositional environments and accommodation space. However, the formation of an archaeological site like € ningen, where prolonged human presence is evident, requires Scho an environment suitable for early human habitation. For Lower Paleolithic sites, in particular, it is commonly ambiguous as to whether the sites represent environments favored by early humans or represent environments with favorable preservation potential (Hijma et al., 2012). Most Paleolithic open-air sites are associated with either fluvial or lacustrine environments (Ashton et al., 2006; Bridgland et al., 2006; Preece et al., 2006; Ashley et al., 2010). Ashton et al. (2006) suggested that early humans favored fluvial environments due to a greater variety of resources (plants, animals, lithic raw material) compared to lacustrine settings. However, in a delta plain setting the benefits from both fluvial and lacustrine environments may exist. Lacustrine environments are characterized by low-energy depositional processes and therefore have a higher potential to preserve artifacts in situ. The lacustrine suc€ ningen contains several pronounced unconformities cession at Scho due to fluctuating lake-levels (Lang et al., 2012), but the artifactbearing strata were never completely reworked. The

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unconformities are related to lake-level falls and subaerial exposure during lake-level lowstand (Fig. 5C, D). Subsequent transgressions led to a rapid embedding of artifacts, which had probably been left on the exposed delta plain surface (Fig. 6C). After embedding the artifacts remained under the groundwater level, allowing for the excellent preservation of organic material. The archaeological sites and their internal horizons document occupation by early humans in spite of changing environmental conditions (Thieme, 1999; Urban, 2007). The lowest archaeological horizons (level 1) at sites 12-II and 13-II are attributed to the interglacial optimum phase. In contrast, the artifact-bearing strata of site 13-I are attributed to boreal conditions of an early interglacial phase and the horizon where the spears were recovered (site 13-II, level 4) is attributed to boreal conditions at the end of an interglacial (Thieme, 1999). The broad range of climatic conditions indicates that the lake margin provided an attractive site for animals and early humans ambushing them, particularly under meliorating environmental conditions. The delta systems were fed by springs and surface run-off from the Elm ridge, which provided a constant source of water and probably prevented a complete drying up of the long-lived lake. Additionally, the high calcium carbonate content of the water favored the preservation of bones. During the rather dry and cold early and late phases of the Holsteinian stage in particular, the wetland of the delta plains probably represented a flourishing ecosystem within a rather dry and hostile environment (cf. Oviatt et al., 2003; Preece et al., 2006; Yansa, 2007; Ashley et al., 2008, 2010). Even the shores of proglacial lakes have been recognized as inhabitable sites for early hunter-gatherers (Overstreet and Kolb, 2003; Hill, 2007). Conclusions €ningen provides an excellent site for the preservation of Scho early human artifacts in several ways. During the Elsterian glaciation a tunnel valley was incised into the unconsolidated Paleogene main fill of the rim syncline. This overdeepened, elongated minibasin provided the necessary accommodation space for subsequent glacilacustrine and lacustrine deposition. A lake formed within the remnant tunnel valley and persisted throughout the Middle Pleistocene Holsteinian stage (MIS 9). The Holsteinian succession consists of laterally and vertically stacked lacustrine delta systems, which were affected by repeated lake-level fluctuations. The margin of the interglacial lake provided an attractive site for animals and early humans ambushing them, especially during the climatic melioration phase towards the termination of the interglacial. The very last remnant of the tunnel valley was only filled during the advance of the late Saalian Drenthe (MIS 6) ice sheet. Although the morphology of the area was considerably modified by erosion and glacitectonic deformation during the subsequent Saalian glaciation, the artifact-bearing Holsteinian strata remained sheltered in the overdeepened tunnel valley. Tunnel valleys should therefore be regarded as potential archives for interglacial deposits, which may contain important Paleolithic sites. Interglacial lakes within underfilled tunnel valleys represent attractive sites for animals and early human huntergatherers. Tunnel valleys also provide accommodation space and have a high preservation potential. Acknowledgments €chsisches Ministerium für Financial support by the Niedersa Wissenschaft und Kultur (MWK) is gratefully acknowledged (Project No. 51420035 and PRO Niedersachsen Project No. 11.276202-17-3/09). We would like to thank E.ON-Kraftwerke GmbH for permission to work on their property. Borehole data were

€ ningen as a Paleolithic archive, Journal of Human Please cite this article in press as: Lang, J., et al., The Middle Pleistocene tunnel valley at Scho Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.02.004

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generously provided by E.ON-Kraftwerke and the Nie€chsisches Landesamt für Bergbau, Energie und Geologie dersa (LBEG). Fugro N.V. provided GeODin software for data manage€hler, M. Kursch, J. Lehmann, ment. W. Berkemer, N. Haycock, B. Ko W. Mertens, and J. Neumann-Giesen are thanked for technical assistance and support in the field. M. Bagge, S. Cramm, E. Grob mann, and W. Rode carried out the acquisition and processing of the seismic sections. F. Busch is thanked for GIS work. Many thanks are also due to N. Conard, C. Brandes, D. Steinmetz, and B. Urban for discussion. We appreciate constructive comments by Editor M. Teaford and the anonymous reviewers, which greatly helped to improve our manuscript. References Ashley, G.M., Tactikos, J.C., Owen, R.B., 2008. Hominin use of springs and wetlands: paleoclimate and archaeological records from Olduvai Gorge (~1.79e1.74 Ma). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 272, 1e16. 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€ ningen as a Paleolithic archive, Journal of Human Please cite this article in press as: Lang, J., et al., The Middle Pleistocene tunnel valley at Scho Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.02.004