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The Mozart Effect: Additional Data
Epilepsy & Behavior 3, 182–184 (2002) doi:10.1006/ebeh.2002.0329, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
BRIEF COMMUNICATION The Mozart Effect: Additional Data John R. Hughes, M.D., Ph.D. 1 Department of Neurology, University of Illinois Medical Center at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612 Received January 25, 2002; accepted February 5, 2002
After the review of the Mozart effect was published in this journal (Hughes JR. Epilepsy Behav 2001;2:369 – 417), additional data from the music of Haydn and Liszt have been analyzed that may account for the decrease in seizure activity originally reported during Mozart music. Even with these added data Mozart music continued to score significantly higher than the selections from the other six composers in one of the important characteristics of this music, namely, the repetition of the melody. However Haydn’s values were second highest among Mozart, J. S. Bach, Wagner, Beethoven, Chopin, and Liszt. © 2002 Elsevier Science (USA)
INTRODUCTION
shorter than the previous note). In addition to these six variables, the computer determined the values for the reversals of the latter six sequences. See the Review (1) for details. The numbers of musical selections added to this study were 119 of Haydn and 31 of Liszt. These data are added to the 330 of Mozart, 155 of J. S. Bach, 61 of Beethoven, 58 of Chopin, and 23 of Wagner. The analyses of music from all seven composers involved more than 2,397,000 notes.
Since the review of the Mozart effect was published (1), further data from the works of Haydn and Liszt have been added. These data now complete the study on the characteristics of the music that may account for the decrease in clinical seizures and epileptiform activity previously described as occurring during Mozart music (K-448).
METHOD RESULTS The added data dealt with the melodic line of music from Haydn and Liszt. A melodic line as a sequence of notes was identified with the aid of a computer, which then determined the number of times that a given note sequence appeared within the entire score. Also determined were the repetition of a melodic interval (same tonal distance, rather than the exact same notes), contour (direction of note sequence, above, below, or the same), duration, cadence (same relative magnitude of a change in duration), and swing (longer or
Figure 1 shows the results of the 12 variables determined for the music of the seven different composers. As seen in the legend to the figure, the main difference was for the sequence of the four notes in the melodic line, showing that Mozart music had significantly higher values than the music from all six of the other composers, although Haydn music had the second highest values. For intervals Mozart selections scored significantly higher than the rest, except for Haydn. For durations, Mozart and Haydn values were similar, and both were significantly higher than those of Chopin and Liszt, as were scores for reversed notes, intervals, and durations.
1 To whom correspondence should be addressed at University of Illinois Medical Center, M/C 796, 912 South Wood Street, Chicago, IL 60612. Fax: (312) 996-4169. E-mail: [email protected].
©
182
1525-5050/02 $35.00 2002 Elsevier Science (USA) All rights reserved.
183
Brief Communication
FIG. 1. Characteristics of melodic line: sequence length of four notes. On the horizontal axis are indicated (1) note, (2) interval, (3) contour, (4) duration, (5) cadence, and (6) swing, followed by the reversal of (1)–(6). On the vertical axis is the percentage the given characteristic was found. Mozart music showed significantly higher values for notes, compared with Haydn (P ⫽ 0.04), Wagner (P ⫽ 0.03), and the other four composers (P ⬍ 0.0001). Also, for intervals Mozart showed higher values than Wagner (P ⫽ 0.02), Beethoven and Bach (P ⫽ ⬍ 0.01), and Liszt and Chopin (P ⬍ 0.0001). For durations a difference was seen between both Haydn and Mozart, compared with Chopin (P ⫽ 0.002) and Liszt (P ⬍ 0.0001), and for reversed notes, intervals, and durations, there was a similar difference, compared with Liszt and Chopin (P ⬍ 0.005).
In Fig. 2 are seen the means of the melodic notes for all seven composers, not only for the four notes, as previously were shown, but for all sequences, up to 80 notes. This figure shows that the Mozart values were
FIG. 2. Characteristics of melodic line: sequence lengths of 4 – 80 notes. For all sequences from 4 to 60 notes Mozart music showed significantly higher values (P ⬍ 0.0001) than for the other six composers. Note that Haydn’s values were second highest.
significantly higher than the values for the other composers for all sequences for 4 – 60 notes. Haydn’s values were second highest. Examples of the highest values seen in the Mozart selections are the score of 100% (at four notes) in Minuets III and IV of the 16 Minuets of K-176, composed in December 1773 in Salzburg, and the score of 99% in his Sonata in F for violin and keyboard, IV movement (K-547), composed in July 1788 in Vienna. The value for the Piano Sonata in D major (K-448) III movement was 84%, with 79% in I movement and 78% in II movement. The highest scores for Haydn were the 96% in his Piano Sonata No. 7 in C, II movement, and the 92% in his Piano Sonata No. 9 in G, I movement. The Review had also shown the highest values for long-lasting periodicities as another characteristic that may account for the decrease in seizure activity. For Mozart these values were from K-282, 309, 310, 576, and 448 with scores of 50, 44, 36, 31, and 31, respectively. For these same selections, but with the index of repetition of melodic line, these values were 62, 63, 61, 56, and 84%, respectively. ©
2002 Elsevier Science (USA) All rights reserved.
184
DISCUSSION The new data from music of Liszt and Haydn complete the study on the Mozart effect on clinical seizures and epileptiform activity. Figure 1 shows that the note sequence best separates Mozart from the other six composers, and Fig. 2 shows that not only for the four notes, but up to 60 in a sequence, Mozart values are significantly higher than the other values. These figures also show that Haydn’s values were second highest, and the implication is that among the six other composers, after Mozart, Haydn’s music could be the second most effective in reducing epileptiform activity, especially the Sonata No. 7 in C (II movement) or Sonata No. 9 in G (I movement). The assumption here is that one of the qualities of Mozart music to account for the seizure decrease is repetition of the melodic line. The Mozart music used in our studies on reducing seizure activity was the Piano Sonata in D Major (K-
2002 Elsevier Science (USA) All rights reserved.
©
John R. Hughes
448), with the value for a repeating melody as 84% for the III movement (79 and 78% for I and II movements). The even higher values of 100% for K-176 and 99% for K-547 (see Results) suggest that they may well be more effective in reducing epileptiform activity. The other characteristic that was distinctive about Mozart’s music was the long-lasting periodicities. Assuming that this characteristic may also account for seizure reduction, values for the two characteristics of long-lasting periodicity and repetition of the melodic line may be taken together (see Results) to predict the most effective selection of all. In these circumstances this would be the Piano Sonata in D Major K-448 (III movement); second best would be the Piano Sonata in E Flat Major K-282 (I Movement).
REFERENCE 1.
Hughes JR. The Mozart effect. Epilepsy Behav 2001;2:369 – 417.
BRIEF COMMUNICATION The Mozart Effect: Additional Data John R. Hughes, M.D., Ph.D. 1 Department of Neurology, University of Illinois Medical Center at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612 Received January 25, 2002; accepted February 5, 2002
After the review of the Mozart effect was published in this journal (Hughes JR. Epilepsy Behav 2001;2:369 – 417), additional data from the music of Haydn and Liszt have been analyzed that may account for the decrease in seizure activity originally reported during Mozart music. Even with these added data Mozart music continued to score significantly higher than the selections from the other six composers in one of the important characteristics of this music, namely, the repetition of the melody. However Haydn’s values were second highest among Mozart, J. S. Bach, Wagner, Beethoven, Chopin, and Liszt. © 2002 Elsevier Science (USA)
INTRODUCTION
shorter than the previous note). In addition to these six variables, the computer determined the values for the reversals of the latter six sequences. See the Review (1) for details. The numbers of musical selections added to this study were 119 of Haydn and 31 of Liszt. These data are added to the 330 of Mozart, 155 of J. S. Bach, 61 of Beethoven, 58 of Chopin, and 23 of Wagner. The analyses of music from all seven composers involved more than 2,397,000 notes.
Since the review of the Mozart effect was published (1), further data from the works of Haydn and Liszt have been added. These data now complete the study on the characteristics of the music that may account for the decrease in clinical seizures and epileptiform activity previously described as occurring during Mozart music (K-448).
METHOD RESULTS The added data dealt with the melodic line of music from Haydn and Liszt. A melodic line as a sequence of notes was identified with the aid of a computer, which then determined the number of times that a given note sequence appeared within the entire score. Also determined were the repetition of a melodic interval (same tonal distance, rather than the exact same notes), contour (direction of note sequence, above, below, or the same), duration, cadence (same relative magnitude of a change in duration), and swing (longer or
Figure 1 shows the results of the 12 variables determined for the music of the seven different composers. As seen in the legend to the figure, the main difference was for the sequence of the four notes in the melodic line, showing that Mozart music had significantly higher values than the music from all six of the other composers, although Haydn music had the second highest values. For intervals Mozart selections scored significantly higher than the rest, except for Haydn. For durations, Mozart and Haydn values were similar, and both were significantly higher than those of Chopin and Liszt, as were scores for reversed notes, intervals, and durations.
1 To whom correspondence should be addressed at University of Illinois Medical Center, M/C 796, 912 South Wood Street, Chicago, IL 60612. Fax: (312) 996-4169. E-mail: [email protected].
©
182
1525-5050/02 $35.00 2002 Elsevier Science (USA) All rights reserved.
183
Brief Communication
FIG. 1. Characteristics of melodic line: sequence length of four notes. On the horizontal axis are indicated (1) note, (2) interval, (3) contour, (4) duration, (5) cadence, and (6) swing, followed by the reversal of (1)–(6). On the vertical axis is the percentage the given characteristic was found. Mozart music showed significantly higher values for notes, compared with Haydn (P ⫽ 0.04), Wagner (P ⫽ 0.03), and the other four composers (P ⬍ 0.0001). Also, for intervals Mozart showed higher values than Wagner (P ⫽ 0.02), Beethoven and Bach (P ⫽ ⬍ 0.01), and Liszt and Chopin (P ⬍ 0.0001). For durations a difference was seen between both Haydn and Mozart, compared with Chopin (P ⫽ 0.002) and Liszt (P ⬍ 0.0001), and for reversed notes, intervals, and durations, there was a similar difference, compared with Liszt and Chopin (P ⬍ 0.005).
In Fig. 2 are seen the means of the melodic notes for all seven composers, not only for the four notes, as previously were shown, but for all sequences, up to 80 notes. This figure shows that the Mozart values were
FIG. 2. Characteristics of melodic line: sequence lengths of 4 – 80 notes. For all sequences from 4 to 60 notes Mozart music showed significantly higher values (P ⬍ 0.0001) than for the other six composers. Note that Haydn’s values were second highest.
significantly higher than the values for the other composers for all sequences for 4 – 60 notes. Haydn’s values were second highest. Examples of the highest values seen in the Mozart selections are the score of 100% (at four notes) in Minuets III and IV of the 16 Minuets of K-176, composed in December 1773 in Salzburg, and the score of 99% in his Sonata in F for violin and keyboard, IV movement (K-547), composed in July 1788 in Vienna. The value for the Piano Sonata in D major (K-448) III movement was 84%, with 79% in I movement and 78% in II movement. The highest scores for Haydn were the 96% in his Piano Sonata No. 7 in C, II movement, and the 92% in his Piano Sonata No. 9 in G, I movement. The Review had also shown the highest values for long-lasting periodicities as another characteristic that may account for the decrease in seizure activity. For Mozart these values were from K-282, 309, 310, 576, and 448 with scores of 50, 44, 36, 31, and 31, respectively. For these same selections, but with the index of repetition of melodic line, these values were 62, 63, 61, 56, and 84%, respectively. ©
2002 Elsevier Science (USA) All rights reserved.
184
DISCUSSION The new data from music of Liszt and Haydn complete the study on the Mozart effect on clinical seizures and epileptiform activity. Figure 1 shows that the note sequence best separates Mozart from the other six composers, and Fig. 2 shows that not only for the four notes, but up to 60 in a sequence, Mozart values are significantly higher than the other values. These figures also show that Haydn’s values were second highest, and the implication is that among the six other composers, after Mozart, Haydn’s music could be the second most effective in reducing epileptiform activity, especially the Sonata No. 7 in C (II movement) or Sonata No. 9 in G (I movement). The assumption here is that one of the qualities of Mozart music to account for the seizure decrease is repetition of the melodic line. The Mozart music used in our studies on reducing seizure activity was the Piano Sonata in D Major (K-
2002 Elsevier Science (USA) All rights reserved.
©
John R. Hughes
448), with the value for a repeating melody as 84% for the III movement (79 and 78% for I and II movements). The even higher values of 100% for K-176 and 99% for K-547 (see Results) suggest that they may well be more effective in reducing epileptiform activity. The other characteristic that was distinctive about Mozart’s music was the long-lasting periodicities. Assuming that this characteristic may also account for seizure reduction, values for the two characteristics of long-lasting periodicity and repetition of the melodic line may be taken together (see Results) to predict the most effective selection of all. In these circumstances this would be the Piano Sonata in D Major K-448 (III movement); second best would be the Piano Sonata in E Flat Major K-282 (I Movement).
REFERENCE 1.
Hughes JR. The Mozart effect. Epilepsy Behav 2001;2:369 – 417.