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The Northern Light. From Mythology to Space Research
Earth-Science Reviews, 23 (1986) 223-253
223
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam--Printed in The Netherlands
Book Reviews ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE A. Brekke and A. Egeland, 1983. The Northern Light. From Mythology to Space Fie-
search. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, xi + 170 pp., D.M.108.00, U.S.$42.90 (cloth). This is an attractive book, which discusses northern lights from an historical viewpoint, including early myths, beginnings of observations, evolution of the theory, development of systematic observations, and the present understanding of this colorful spectacle. The organization is generally good, except for the summary and review. Summary paragraphs are found in three chapters, 9, 11, and 12. Except for this minor organizational problem, the book is well-written and presented. Reproductions of early auroral drawings, and photographs are excellent, as are the figures, except for Fig.
Chapter 3, " T h e Northern l i g h t - - A Source of Inspiration," is a survey of descriptions of the northern lights, primarily in Scandinavian poetry of the 19th and 20th centuries and in explorers' and travelers' accounts. The prose descriptions in particu-lar are vivid and would have provided an inviting introduction to the work as a whole. especially for readers who have never witnessed the aurora borealis. Instead, the authors choose to introduce the subject matter with a chapter on folk beliefs about the northern lights and mythological references to the phenomenon. This comparative overview draws on lore that has circulated in the traditional cultures of groups in
Finland,
Scandinavia,
Estonia,
Russia.
Scotland, Greenland, and Native A m e r i c a Polynesian Maori beliefs about the aurora australis are also cited. Beliefs about the
11.18, which does little to clarify the concept
effects of the northern lights on human life
of Doppler shift.
vary in different folk cultures. For instance, Alaskan Eskimos brought their children in-
The early observations of auroral ob-
bution to knowledge. Only in the last century
side when the aurora borealis appeared because it could decapitate the unwary children and use their heads in celestial ball games;
or so have substantial contributions been advanced from other areas. The earliest ref-
in Bardu, Norway, whistling at the aurora borealis resulted in paralysis; the Tlinglit
erences to northern lights appear to date from about 2.500 years ago when the thought prevailed that aurora was related to weather on earth, e.g., they caused changes in surface wind, and that changes in auroral frequency foretold warming or cooling. This perception may still persist in some circles, though convincing evidence is largely lacking.
Indians of southeastern Alaska believed that its appearance presaged an approaching battle, a rather widespread tradition. The authors also note a variety of references to the northern lights in myth, including Native American and Russian Lappish religious narrative. It is unfortunate that Brekke and Egeland provide so few citations for the sources of
servations, and for the most part, the development of theory are a Scandinavian contri-
0012-8252/86/$03.50
© 1986 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
224 ethnographic
sumption, because studies of myths in their
w o r k s and traveler's accounts dealing with
cultural and ecological contexts suggest that the motivation to personify all significant nat-
this
rich
material
because
native traditions vary in their reliability. Such casual treatment of the materials and sources is surprising in a scholarly publication. Chapter 2, " T h e Northern Light in Norse Literature," is provocative and of special interest to students of early Icelandic and Norwegian literature. The authors explore both primary and secondary sources for reference to the northern lights in such important works as The Younger Edda by Snorre Sturlasson ( 1 1 7 8 / 7 9 - 1 2 4 1 A.D.), a commentary on pre-Christian Scandinavian myth and its poetic diction, and The Poetic Edda, or Older Edda, a series of mythic poems about ancient oral tradition recorded in manuscript ca. 1270 A.D. The puzzle that intrigues the authors here is the lack of dramatic reference to the aurora borealis in medieval Nordic literature. They conclude their discussion with a suggested solution that makes interesting use of scientific data and theory: " . . . it is likely that low solar activity, together with a strong geomagnetic field, can explain the lack of references to northern lights in Edda (1000-1100 A.D.), and that deformations of the Earth's magnetic field probably must be inferred to explain the statements made about the northern light in The King's Mirror (ca. 1250 A.D.)." (p. 23)
ural phenomena in religio-historic narrative is not universal. Sometimes aspects of the natural world that strike the outsider as remarkable are not reflected in the mythic narratives and cosmological beliefs of the society in question. Some Native American mythological systems, for example, include few references to celestial phenomena. The urge to personify the natural world and the use of metaphor in such personifications were assumed by many students of myth in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Contemporary scholarship recognizes important variations in these matters and cross-cultural differences in the use of metaphorical reference. The conclusions of Brekke and Egeland, therefore, may or may not pertain to the few references to the northern lights in early Norse literature. Their hypothesis, however, is intriguing and worthy of attention by students of medieval Scandinavian culture. As reviewed herein, the development of auroral theory was aided by a number of individuals, some perhaps better known for their contributions to other fields; including Brahe, who took systematic observations of frequency and location of aurora during the
As the quoted conclusion to the chapter implies, the authors' answer to the question is a tentative one, as it must be, given the
last two decades of the 16th century; Angstrom, who determined the wavelength of maximum auroral light, and suggested that the light emanated from a gas; Arrhenius,
nature of the evidence. This discussion, though informed and sensitive to the shifts in scholarly interpretation of early Scandinavian literature, is again
who suggested that aurora was caused by, or was related to mass eruptions from the sun which were carried to earth and directed to the poles by the magnetic field; and Nan-
marred by lapses in the citation of sources. In addition, non-idiomatic and sometimes
sen, who drew pictures of, and wrote descriptions of aurora observed on his Arctic expedition.
perplexing translations necessitate repeated readings in order to understand the point of certain statements and quotations. A more significant problem is the premise of the chapter. Brekke and Egeland introduce their discussion with the following s t a t e m e n t : " A s s u m i n g that m y t h o l o g y originates in the human aspiration to personify the surrounding natural forces and phenomena, it is logical that natural phenomena, which are of special local importance would be given an important role in the mythology of particular areas." (p. 10) Recent myth scholarship avoids such an as-
The major and sustaining contributors to the improvement of the understanding of aurora were Scandinavians, primarily Norwegians. In 1726 De Mairan proposed that northern lights were the result of the sun acting on the earth's atmosphere. Shortly thereafter, aamus wrote two volumes on aurora, about which the authors of this book interestingly comment: " . . . t h e two volumes which he did write provided during his lifetime a great boost, which was so greatly needed to the Norwegian's national pride." Near the turn of the 19th century Blot dis-
225 covered that aurora borealis was not composed of polarized light, thus demonstrating
tions, however, is less thorough than those
that it was not a product of reflected light. In 1741 Heitman thought the lights were caused
tions. The overall presentation of material, the
by nitrous gases in the high atmosphere
duplication of more than a score of early drawings of aurora, and the 16 color plates make this an attractive book. It is a bit un-
(shown later to be light emanating from excited atomic oxygen, nitrogen, and nitrogen compound gases). At about the same time Pontoppidan (Bishop of Bergen) suggested that aurora was an electrical phenomenon. Bergman (mid 1700s) calculated its height to be between 380 and 1,300 km (now thought
presented
for
pre-20th
century
contribu-
even in the degree to which some topics are discussed and in the organization of the summary and conclusions, and meager with some short citations. Clearly, however, this book satisfies one's curiosity, to better un-
to be limited from ca. 90 to 1.000 kin), and Birkeland suggested that the particles responsible for aurora also affect the earth's
derstand the history of aurora, and trace the development of northern light theory.
magnetic field. Wilcke later showed that they were, indeed, related to the magnetic field since the compass needle was deflected during auroral episodes. In the 19th century
Wayne M. Wendland and Larry Danielson, Urbana, II1.
Hausteen showed that northern lights were most frequently observed along a circular band about the magnetic pole, and Loomis
EXPLORATION GEOLOGY
further defined the auroral zone or band. Tromholt, Fritz, Paulsen and Arrhenius,
A.W. Wylie, 1985. Nuclear Assaying of Min-
all noted a correlation between auroral frequency and sunspots. Near the turn of the 20th century Birkeland built an elaborate ex-
Geochemistry
periment to demonstrate that aurora could be the result of electrons acting on the atmosphere, and suggested that the electrons emanated from the sun and accounted for variations in the earth's magnetic field. His research led to a better understanding of high atmospheric electricity; indeed, the electric current along the earth's magnetic field is generally known as the Birkeland current due to his contribution. Coincidently, Stormer (one of Birkeland's students) calculated the path of solar electrons to the earth, and collected more than 40,000 photographs of aurora to determine mean location and patterns. Interestingly, not until the IGY (1957 58) were sufficient observations available to show that aurora was essentially restricted to the auroral zone about the magnetic pole. The book concludes with brief reviews of recent auroral-related findings, due to improvements in instrumentation and communications, including auroral cameras, observing networks, and the use of television observations, spectrophotometers, auroral photometers, magnetometers, and ionosondes. The abrupt nature of these descrip-
ing Boreholes, An Introduction. Methods in and
Geophysics,
Vol.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, xiv + 344 Df1.175.00, U.S.$67.25 (hardcover).
21, pp.,
Although properly labelled an introduction, this book is detailed and comprehensive. It is also quite technical and is directed to professionals. Nevertheless, while true to title it specifically addresses the logging and assaying of holes for their nuclear emission properties, whether natural or activated, and indeed supplies all the necessary background for an initiate to come to an understanding of the principles and practicalities that are at issue, it at the same time encourages the reader to think beyond the confines of past experience and convention, and to look at the widening applicabilities of the methodology involved. The first part of the book one third the w h o l e - - i s given over to an exposition of nuclear physics as it pertains to gamma radiation and on how to sense it. This contribution by itself forms a valuable body of reference material for anyone working in the geophysical realm of detecting radioactivity, w h e t h e r from the air, on the ground, down-hole, in the laboratory, or in any combination thereof. The second part of the book directs ex-
223
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam--Printed in The Netherlands
Book Reviews ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE A. Brekke and A. Egeland, 1983. The Northern Light. From Mythology to Space Fie-
search. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, xi + 170 pp., D.M.108.00, U.S.$42.90 (cloth). This is an attractive book, which discusses northern lights from an historical viewpoint, including early myths, beginnings of observations, evolution of the theory, development of systematic observations, and the present understanding of this colorful spectacle. The organization is generally good, except for the summary and review. Summary paragraphs are found in three chapters, 9, 11, and 12. Except for this minor organizational problem, the book is well-written and presented. Reproductions of early auroral drawings, and photographs are excellent, as are the figures, except for Fig.
Chapter 3, " T h e Northern l i g h t - - A Source of Inspiration," is a survey of descriptions of the northern lights, primarily in Scandinavian poetry of the 19th and 20th centuries and in explorers' and travelers' accounts. The prose descriptions in particu-lar are vivid and would have provided an inviting introduction to the work as a whole. especially for readers who have never witnessed the aurora borealis. Instead, the authors choose to introduce the subject matter with a chapter on folk beliefs about the northern lights and mythological references to the phenomenon. This comparative overview draws on lore that has circulated in the traditional cultures of groups in
Finland,
Scandinavia,
Estonia,
Russia.
Scotland, Greenland, and Native A m e r i c a Polynesian Maori beliefs about the aurora australis are also cited. Beliefs about the
11.18, which does little to clarify the concept
effects of the northern lights on human life
of Doppler shift.
vary in different folk cultures. For instance, Alaskan Eskimos brought their children in-
The early observations of auroral ob-
bution to knowledge. Only in the last century
side when the aurora borealis appeared because it could decapitate the unwary children and use their heads in celestial ball games;
or so have substantial contributions been advanced from other areas. The earliest ref-
in Bardu, Norway, whistling at the aurora borealis resulted in paralysis; the Tlinglit
erences to northern lights appear to date from about 2.500 years ago when the thought prevailed that aurora was related to weather on earth, e.g., they caused changes in surface wind, and that changes in auroral frequency foretold warming or cooling. This perception may still persist in some circles, though convincing evidence is largely lacking.
Indians of southeastern Alaska believed that its appearance presaged an approaching battle, a rather widespread tradition. The authors also note a variety of references to the northern lights in myth, including Native American and Russian Lappish religious narrative. It is unfortunate that Brekke and Egeland provide so few citations for the sources of
servations, and for the most part, the development of theory are a Scandinavian contri-
0012-8252/86/$03.50
© 1986 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.
224 ethnographic
sumption, because studies of myths in their
w o r k s and traveler's accounts dealing with
cultural and ecological contexts suggest that the motivation to personify all significant nat-
this
rich
material
because
native traditions vary in their reliability. Such casual treatment of the materials and sources is surprising in a scholarly publication. Chapter 2, " T h e Northern Light in Norse Literature," is provocative and of special interest to students of early Icelandic and Norwegian literature. The authors explore both primary and secondary sources for reference to the northern lights in such important works as The Younger Edda by Snorre Sturlasson ( 1 1 7 8 / 7 9 - 1 2 4 1 A.D.), a commentary on pre-Christian Scandinavian myth and its poetic diction, and The Poetic Edda, or Older Edda, a series of mythic poems about ancient oral tradition recorded in manuscript ca. 1270 A.D. The puzzle that intrigues the authors here is the lack of dramatic reference to the aurora borealis in medieval Nordic literature. They conclude their discussion with a suggested solution that makes interesting use of scientific data and theory: " . . . it is likely that low solar activity, together with a strong geomagnetic field, can explain the lack of references to northern lights in Edda (1000-1100 A.D.), and that deformations of the Earth's magnetic field probably must be inferred to explain the statements made about the northern light in The King's Mirror (ca. 1250 A.D.)." (p. 23)
ural phenomena in religio-historic narrative is not universal. Sometimes aspects of the natural world that strike the outsider as remarkable are not reflected in the mythic narratives and cosmological beliefs of the society in question. Some Native American mythological systems, for example, include few references to celestial phenomena. The urge to personify the natural world and the use of metaphor in such personifications were assumed by many students of myth in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Contemporary scholarship recognizes important variations in these matters and cross-cultural differences in the use of metaphorical reference. The conclusions of Brekke and Egeland, therefore, may or may not pertain to the few references to the northern lights in early Norse literature. Their hypothesis, however, is intriguing and worthy of attention by students of medieval Scandinavian culture. As reviewed herein, the development of auroral theory was aided by a number of individuals, some perhaps better known for their contributions to other fields; including Brahe, who took systematic observations of frequency and location of aurora during the
As the quoted conclusion to the chapter implies, the authors' answer to the question is a tentative one, as it must be, given the
last two decades of the 16th century; Angstrom, who determined the wavelength of maximum auroral light, and suggested that the light emanated from a gas; Arrhenius,
nature of the evidence. This discussion, though informed and sensitive to the shifts in scholarly interpretation of early Scandinavian literature, is again
who suggested that aurora was caused by, or was related to mass eruptions from the sun which were carried to earth and directed to the poles by the magnetic field; and Nan-
marred by lapses in the citation of sources. In addition, non-idiomatic and sometimes
sen, who drew pictures of, and wrote descriptions of aurora observed on his Arctic expedition.
perplexing translations necessitate repeated readings in order to understand the point of certain statements and quotations. A more significant problem is the premise of the chapter. Brekke and Egeland introduce their discussion with the following s t a t e m e n t : " A s s u m i n g that m y t h o l o g y originates in the human aspiration to personify the surrounding natural forces and phenomena, it is logical that natural phenomena, which are of special local importance would be given an important role in the mythology of particular areas." (p. 10) Recent myth scholarship avoids such an as-
The major and sustaining contributors to the improvement of the understanding of aurora were Scandinavians, primarily Norwegians. In 1726 De Mairan proposed that northern lights were the result of the sun acting on the earth's atmosphere. Shortly thereafter, aamus wrote two volumes on aurora, about which the authors of this book interestingly comment: " . . . t h e two volumes which he did write provided during his lifetime a great boost, which was so greatly needed to the Norwegian's national pride." Near the turn of the 19th century Blot dis-
225 covered that aurora borealis was not composed of polarized light, thus demonstrating
tions, however, is less thorough than those
that it was not a product of reflected light. In 1741 Heitman thought the lights were caused
tions. The overall presentation of material, the
by nitrous gases in the high atmosphere
duplication of more than a score of early drawings of aurora, and the 16 color plates make this an attractive book. It is a bit un-
(shown later to be light emanating from excited atomic oxygen, nitrogen, and nitrogen compound gases). At about the same time Pontoppidan (Bishop of Bergen) suggested that aurora was an electrical phenomenon. Bergman (mid 1700s) calculated its height to be between 380 and 1,300 km (now thought
presented
for
pre-20th
century
contribu-
even in the degree to which some topics are discussed and in the organization of the summary and conclusions, and meager with some short citations. Clearly, however, this book satisfies one's curiosity, to better un-
to be limited from ca. 90 to 1.000 kin), and Birkeland suggested that the particles responsible for aurora also affect the earth's
derstand the history of aurora, and trace the development of northern light theory.
magnetic field. Wilcke later showed that they were, indeed, related to the magnetic field since the compass needle was deflected during auroral episodes. In the 19th century
Wayne M. Wendland and Larry Danielson, Urbana, II1.
Hausteen showed that northern lights were most frequently observed along a circular band about the magnetic pole, and Loomis
EXPLORATION GEOLOGY
further defined the auroral zone or band. Tromholt, Fritz, Paulsen and Arrhenius,
A.W. Wylie, 1985. Nuclear Assaying of Min-
all noted a correlation between auroral frequency and sunspots. Near the turn of the 20th century Birkeland built an elaborate ex-
Geochemistry
periment to demonstrate that aurora could be the result of electrons acting on the atmosphere, and suggested that the electrons emanated from the sun and accounted for variations in the earth's magnetic field. His research led to a better understanding of high atmospheric electricity; indeed, the electric current along the earth's magnetic field is generally known as the Birkeland current due to his contribution. Coincidently, Stormer (one of Birkeland's students) calculated the path of solar electrons to the earth, and collected more than 40,000 photographs of aurora to determine mean location and patterns. Interestingly, not until the IGY (1957 58) were sufficient observations available to show that aurora was essentially restricted to the auroral zone about the magnetic pole. The book concludes with brief reviews of recent auroral-related findings, due to improvements in instrumentation and communications, including auroral cameras, observing networks, and the use of television observations, spectrophotometers, auroral photometers, magnetometers, and ionosondes. The abrupt nature of these descrip-
ing Boreholes, An Introduction. Methods in and
Geophysics,
Vol.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, xiv + 344 Df1.175.00, U.S.$67.25 (hardcover).
21, pp.,
Although properly labelled an introduction, this book is detailed and comprehensive. It is also quite technical and is directed to professionals. Nevertheless, while true to title it specifically addresses the logging and assaying of holes for their nuclear emission properties, whether natural or activated, and indeed supplies all the necessary background for an initiate to come to an understanding of the principles and practicalities that are at issue, it at the same time encourages the reader to think beyond the confines of past experience and convention, and to look at the widening applicabilities of the methodology involved. The first part of the book one third the w h o l e - - i s given over to an exposition of nuclear physics as it pertains to gamma radiation and on how to sense it. This contribution by itself forms a valuable body of reference material for anyone working in the geophysical realm of detecting radioactivity, w h e t h e r from the air, on the ground, down-hole, in the laboratory, or in any combination thereof. The second part of the book directs ex-