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The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces – Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Věstonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic)
Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e11
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The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic) from Dolní Ve zni -Galetova a, b, c, * Martina La ckova ckova 15, 301 64 Pilzen, Czech Republic University of Western Bohemia, Sedla Anthropos Institute, Moravian Museum, Zelný trh 6, 659 37 Brno, Czech Republic c Departement de Pr ehistoire, USM 103 e CNRS UMR 7194, Institut de Pal eontologie Humaine, 1 rue Ren e Panhard 75 013 Paris, France a
b
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Available online xxx
stonice I (Moravia, This paper discusses the phenomenon of mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Ve Czech Republic). The ivory artefacts were described by the excavator K. Absolon in 1937 as necklaces, and this primary interpretation is still in use today. In this case, mammoth ivory was worked into repeating standardised forms of various size, which are almost absent elsewhere in the Upper Palaeolithic. The seven artefacts were here examined for their state of conservation, manufacturing technology, decorating style and supposed functional purpose. Partial reconstruction of the chaîne op eratoire can enable integration of these artefacts into the style of mammoth ivory processing at this Gravettian site, and help to define the status of this raw material. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA.
Keywords: Personal ornaments Ivory Necklaces stonice I Dolní Ve Gravettian Moravia
1. Introduction Personal ornaments of hard animal tissues (bone, deer antlers, ivory, teeth, shells) found in series are well-evidenced in the Upper Palaeolithic. Most frequent are natural objects such as shells and teeth, their use as pendants and ornaments indicated by an artificial perforation. The main criteria of selection in these artefacts are shape, colour, and size, as well as the potential repeating occurrence and potential symbolic value. In personal ornaments such as pendants, beads, countour d ecoup e or discs, the form can be determined by properties of the underlying material (ex. contour d ecoup e), and multiplication of these objects of similar shape and size is qualified as an example of deliberate, planned economic behaviour with regard to the raw material used. The category of personal ornaments characterised by multiplied occurrence e beads, as most artefacts under review are interpreted, is hard to define in the Palaeolithic (Taborin, 2004). According to this author it is necessary to extend the generally used definition of beads from spherical objects with perforation to perforated objects of various shapes, smaller or equal to 20 mm (Taborin, 1991). The category of beads is associated with serial production enabling economic behaviour towards the raw material and work, producing many beads of similar shape and size. This phenomenon is then used to
* University of Western Bohemia, Sedla ckova 15, 301 64 Pilzen, Czech Republic. E-mail address: [email protected].
interpret the occurrence of a large amount of beads of similar shape and size at the same place as evidence of their former intentional connection into necklaces (this also regards the other categories of personal ornaments), even when the find context does not imply it. This paper deals with the phenomenon of artificially fabricated necklaces on the example of necklaces made of cylinder beads from stonice I. Ivory beads made in series of similar pieces are Dolní Ve chronologically well evidenced in the Aurignacian (White, 1995). Over the whole of the Palaeolithic, they form very varied categories defined on the basis of morphological similarity, such as basketshaped beads, teardrop beads, bilobated beads, and stomach beads. These are then used to determine geographical and chrondez, 2005), or ethnolinguistic nological relations (Alvarez Ferna groups (Vanhaeren and d'Errico, 2006). Mammoth ivory has been widely used as raw material for fabrication of bone industry, objects of portable art and personal ornaments in Moravia during the zni Gravettian (Oliva, 1995; Svoboda, 1995; Valoch and La ckova , 2009; Goutas, 2013). Galetova In this paper, the artefacts studied, 7 mammoth ivory cylinstonice I, are analysed for two reasons: they ders from Dolní Ve were discovered in the 1930s and from the time of their first publication they have stereotypically been passed on from one work to another in unchanged form of presentation with only the number of perforated pieces gradually changing. The stabilised and repeating form of presentation determines the purpose of these artefacts and defines the way of how they were used without any detailed study.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 1040-6182/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA.
znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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2. Historical context of mammoth ivory artefacts discovered stonice I at Dolní Ve In working diaries from the 1937 excavations by Karel Absolon, the objects were first mentioned as worked and decorated ivory, without any note that they might be ornaments e beads. Other specimens were described as “ornamented ivory cylinders”, reconstructed and recognised as ornaments. A cylinder was first published in 1937 Illustrated London News where Absolon (1937) wrote: …”ring carved from mammoth ivory: ornaments which, though of a size to be easily slipped on a finger, were probably threaded into necklaces”... (Fig. 1). The raw material and potential function of the artefact are thus identified. The photograph, however, does not correspond to any collection item. The artefacts studied were first published together by Absolon (1945) in the third excavation report stonice (Fig. 2). They were threaded on a string and from Dolní Ve arranged, and in this form, with only minute changes, they have been presented (Absolon, 1945; Klíma, 1983; Oliva, 2007). Absolon (1945) also wrote on the conditions at their discovery: “a necklace was found of 7 masterly perforated, ornamented ivory cylinders”. From the text, it follows that these individual artefacts were found together at the same place, and Absolon designates them as a necklace which, along with the photo where a cord is drawn as going through all of the beads, gave rise to the myth of a mammoth ivory necklace. Absolon's liking for arranging discovered artefacts into necklaces is also evident for other Gravettian sites where he has conducted excavations, for example at Predmostí (Fig. 3). Ivory cylinders have also been published in this stereotypical way, threaded on a string, in works by another excavator of this locality, Klíma (1983). The “necklace” (the stereotypically borrowed form) also includes a cylinder which is not perforated and thus cannot be suspended in this way (Fig. 4). The locality of Dolní stonice I also yielded other ivory personal ornaments found in Ve series: breast-shaped beads (Fig. 4) with the same publication pattern (Absolon, 1949). Two specimens among them are not adapted for suspension. This fact was omitted in subsequent pubstonice “necklaces” have often been publications, and Dolní Ve lished following this pattern (for example Muller-Karpe, 1980). In publications, it has also frequently been mentioned that individual parts of these necklaces were found approximately together at the same place. It is not easy to establish that the artefacts were used as personal ornaments, even though they are equipped with perforations suited for this function, and on the basis of which the artefacts are very often categorised. 3. Archaeological context stonice I is the earliest exploited locality within the Dolní Ve stonice in Moravia, complex of Gravettian open-air sites at Dolní Ve Czech Republic. It was discovered in the 19th century and since 1924 it was systematically examined by Absolon from the Moravian Museum in Brno (1924e1938). Among other researchers who conducted a series of excavation in the years at this site was Klíma (1966, 1968, 1973e79). The excavation history is long and rich and therefore problematic, above all due to contextual data which are very hard to find today. Faunal remains at this site are dominated by mammoth bones, arctic fox, hare, wolf, horse, reindeer, and wolverine. Red fox, lion, lynx, bear, bovids, woolly rhinoceros, beaver, and birds are represented only sporadically (Musil, 1958). stonice I As far as the economy of hard animal tissues at Dolní Ve is concerned, the basic raw materials used for fabrication of industry of hard animal tissues were bone (71%), mammoth ivory , 2007). Animal species (23%), antlers (5%), and teeth (1%) (Zelinkova which provided these materials (identified in 88% of all artefacts)
were distinctly dominated by mammoth (61%), followed by horse (17%), reindeer (10%), wolf, hare, and fox (3%). Pieces of portable art and ornaments from hard animal tissues were made almost exclusively from mammoth ivory. Another material frequently used with Gravettian portable art in Moravia is fired or dried clay. Personal ornaments found at the locality, on the other hand, are dominantly made of mammoth ivory and perforated animal teeth, mostly of arctic fox, and sporadically of wolverine, wolf, and bear. Other pieces were made of shells stonice I, some other (Dentalium, Pecten, Glycimeris). At Dolní Ve artefacts manufactured in series were found grouped “at the same place”. Among them are mainly perforated shells of molluscs, tubeworm shells, perforated teeth, and pebbles. They have been interpreted as necklaces, as well. Personal ornaments found in the same context with human remains are mainly represented by animal teeth, as with a remnant of a child's calvaria DV 4 (Klíma, 1990), on which perforated fox teeth were arranged in an original decorative layout. The mammoth ivory necklaces under review were not found in direct context with human remains. In another stonice complex, at the DV II site (Svoboda, part of the Dolní Ve 1991), mammoth ivory adornments in the form of 4 drop-shaped beads, which are unique for the Gravettian in Moravia, were found in the context of a triple burial (Klíma, 1987). The cylinders analysed were found during examination of the stonice I site (Oliva, early phase of the central part of the Dolní Ve 2000) in the course of excavations by Absolon in 1937 (Absolon, 1945). According to excavation diaries from the research by Absolon (13 Julye11 November 1937) written by Dania, the original position of studied artefacts was partly reconstructed. The original drawing plan from the excavation diary and written information on positions and finding dates of artefacts do not correspond to a plan set up later by A. Bohmers (Fig. 5) (excavations in 1939e40 and 1942), which verifies the situation at the locality (Oliva, in press). However, both of these plans indicate that the artefacts which after reconstruction were assembled into a necklace were not found together at the same place, but within an area of about 5 m2. 4. Material and methods The artefacts studied are fabricated of mammoth ivory: 7 cylinders, 5 of them decorated with engravings. The artefacts are stored in collections of the Anthropos Institute of the Moravian Museum in Brno (Figs. 6 and 7). We studied the archival excavation diaries dealing with conditions under which these artefacts were found. For the study of used technique and usewear, we used direct observation and microscopy (Leica EZ4HD). For visualisation and subsequent assessment of the state of conservation of artefacts, we used the non-invasive laboratory-based X-ray micro computed tomography (microCT). The microCT analysis of these samples was performed using the tomography system GE phoenix vjtomejx L240, equipped with a 240 kV/300 W high-power micro focus X-ray tube and flat panel GE DXR detector array. The microCT scan was carried out at 70 kV and 180 mA acceleration voltage and X-ray tube current, respectively. The X-ray spectrum was modified by 0.1 mm thick copper filter. The voxel resolution of obtained volume (depending on the object's size) was from 18 mm to 12 mm. Samples were fixed on carbon tube by parafilm (plastic paraffin film). The tomographic reconstruction was carried out using datosjx 2.0 3D computed tomography software. The 3D and 2D cross-section visualisations were performed with VG Studio MAX 2.2 software. 5. Results All 7 artefacts have a standardised shape, and 5 also are of similar size. The artefacts have the form of mammoth ivory
znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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Fig. 1. The first publication of an ivory cylinder artefact in Illustrated London News (Absolon, 1937).
znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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Fig. 2. The first collective publication of all cylinders threaded on a string (modified after Absolon, 1945).
cylinders from 15 to 19 mm in height, with inner diameter of the perforation from 5 to 9 mm. The cylinders are decorated with geometrical engravings. 5.1. State of conservation The assemblage of 7 cylinders exhibits a consolidated state of preservation. The cylinders show cracks on the surface which are caused by the structure of mammoth ivory and other cracks resulting from depositional and post-depositional processes. They are partly mended with other material. In general, they are impregnated with shellac which fixed the sediments in grooves, cupules, and in the perforation. Making impressions for replicas (according to information of the Moravian Museum, the
impressions were taken at least 2) and fixing for an unknown purpose left residues of modelling clay and impression materials on the surface of artefacts. The working diaries from excavations by Absolon have confirmed these conclusions: the cylinders were found crushed (cylinders 1 and 3) and had to be generally restored and mended with other material to attain their current form. This information on the artefacts, making impossible any direct examination of fabrication traces under a microscope, was, however, no longer known. Another factor in the search for the original form of studied artefacts is the possible intentional/nonintentional fragmentation of the artefacts by a human individual of that time who has used them (Cascio et al., 1995). A further example concerns the state of preservation of a decorated breaststonice I, which has been shaped bead, also from Dolní Ve
Fig. 3. “Necklaces”. Artefacts e shells finds in Predmostí (Moravia, Czech Republic) (photo Moravian Museum, Brno).
znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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stonice I., cylinder beads and breast-shaped beads in ivory (photo Moravian Museum, Brno). Fig. 4. “Necklaces” from Dolní Ve
considered perfect from the view of publication. A microCT analysis, however, has revealed that the whole spike was mended, which was later confirmed by consulting the excavation diary. The question is to what extent the reports are reliable: the above artefacts are described as crushed in the text, but the attached pictures show perfect condition of the cylinders (Fig. 8). The objects thus may have been restored, as is confirmed by the reports, directly on site (during excavations by Absolon a field laboratory
for conservation was operated) with the aim to present perfect artefacts. The report on restoration of a human head in ivory from stonice I (recorded by J. Dania e unpublished) describes a Dolní Ve method of removing sinters from artefacts using HCl, which according to Matienzo and Snow (1986) increases the hygroscopicity of mammoth ivory and can lead to subsequent cracks on the surface caused by humidity and temperature changes. This also may explain some other cracks which are visible on the surface of
Fig. 5. Reconstruction of the context and deposition of the find according to A. Bohmers (Oliva, in press).
znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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Fig. 6. Photograph of the cylindrical artefacts (photo O. Kroupa, Moravian Museum Brno).
the artefacts. Mending of the cylinders with other materials and the origin of these materials are not mentioned in working reports, even though this procedure also was applied to other arstonice I. tefacts from Dolní Ve
The cylinder with the most complicated decoration (Fig. 7a) was analysed using microCT with the aim to find out the state of its conservation (Fig. 9) as a model example of the state of preservation of the other artefacts. The cylinder is cracked crosswise on both
Fig. 7. Drawing of the cylindrical artefacts (drawing T. Jank u, Moravian Museum Brno).
znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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Fig. 8. Current form of the cylinder, a drawing in the excavation diary 1937 (drawing by Dania).
opposite sides at several clustered places along the whole length. It was glued together from multiple pieces after being crushed (see Excavation report). The inside of the perforation as far as the edge was mended with other material. Decorative incisions and cupules are filled with sediment and fixed with shellac, which was probably used to impregnate the entire artefact. The examination of the surface of the artefact in order to reconstruct the process of fabrication is difficult, and the reconstruction of how the cupules were made is impossible without cleaning. 5.2. Ivory processing at Dolní V estonice I and fabrication of cylinder artefacts As far as the osseous industry from the DV I site is concerned, mammoth ivory was mostly used for making points, in 71 cases out
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of a total of 80 pieces (Zelinkov a, 2007). Traces of debitage phase on we can tools are hard to recognise, and according to M. Zelinkova suppose general use of the groove-and-splinter technique (Goutas, , 2007). Points were manufactured using a 2004, 2013; Zelinkova combination of deep invasive techniques of transversal sawing, stonice chipping and raclage en diabolo. Mammoth ivory at Dolní Ve I was also very distinctly trimmed with the help of superficial invasive techniques such as scraping. Some points were also decorated with incisions. The fabrication of cylinders probably involved a similar transformation scheme (Averbouh, 2000) as extraction of rods from tusks (Otte, 1974; Schreer, 1995), by which the way of production of a blank-rod cannot be determined. The rods were further divided by transversal techniques of debitage, perhapos sawing finalized by subsequent flexure, as is documented by the fabrication of points (Fig. 10) and by a preform which unfortunately did not remain physically preserved (Fig. 11), as shown in a drawing from working diaries of excavations by Absolon in 1937. The rod was not physically found in current collections of the Moravian Museum in Brno. It is, unfortunately, possible that it was destroyed by fire in the Mikulov Chateau, where the prehistoric collections were stored, at the end of the World War II (Simek, 1948). This potential ivory preform attests to production of calibrated supports for the fabrication of cylinders. Two unfinished cylinders, one of them “freshly” detached from the rod and perforated and the other still nonperforated, give evidence of this phase of the chaîne op eratoire. Both are smaller compared to the other finished artefacts (from 9.5 to 12 mm), which probably also better corresponds to the preform found. With regard to the fact that it was not physically found, its real dimensions are estimated based on a comparison with drawings of the other artefacts and on the assumption that these
Fig. 9. A microCT image of state of conservation. The cylinder (Fig. 7a) is cracked crosswise on both opposite sides at several clustered places along the length (photo T. Zikmund and , X-ray micro/nano tomography lab of the Brno University of Technology, CEITEC VUT). M. Sejnohov a
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1963), large perforations may have been made by borers and becs and B. Hromadova pers. comm.). Becs are very often (M. Polanska found in association with serrated blades of the Moravian Gravet, 2011). tian (Polanska In five out of the seven cylinder beads examined, we observed use-wear marks. Concentric grooves inside the perforation exhibit various degree of smoothing, which was caused by using the perforation. Smoothing of the edge of the perforation, without exact localisation, also attests to usewear. Under the current state of conservation, due to sediments and preservatives, it is difficult to determine how or if at all the artefacts have been used.
Fig. 10. Ivory industry, stigmas indicating the use of transversal sawing and subsequent flexure (photo J. C aga, Moravian Museum Brno).
drawings in excavation diaries are made in 1:1 scale. The concentric desiccation fractures (White, 1995) which are visible in the cross section of the non-perforated cylinder indicate the artefact's original position with regard to the raw material, the mammoth tusk (Fig. 12), and its supposed original size. In the current state of conservation, it is difficult to distinguish any traces of surface finish on the artefacts, such as polishing or grinding, and potential usewear marks. 5.3. Façonnage and surface finish 5.3.1. Perforation Six out of the 7 cylinders under review are perforated. The holes are round and their diameter varies between 5.4 and 8.6 mm. They were made by bifacial rotary drilling and are biconical in cross section. They are among the largest perforations seen in Palaeolithic artefacts. The same principle, removing the most of the inner mass and leaving only the outer layer, can be observed with mammoth ivory rings from Pavlov (Klíma, 1955) or Sungir 4 (Bader, 1978) where, however, the final artefact is much smaller. Traces of the perforation technique have the form of concentric grooves inside the biconical hole (Fig. 13). A borer, which leaves traces in the form of concentric striations, would have been a tool suitable for making these deep perforations. Among the assemblage of lithic stonice I (Absolon, 1938a, 1938b; Klíma, industry from Dolní Ve
Fig. 11. Preform in ivory, a drawing in the excavation diary 1937 (drawing by Dania).
5.3.2. Engraving Five out of the 7 beads examined bear geometric patterns in the form of short incisions, a circumferential groove, or cupules (Fig. 14). Decorations are localised. The short and deep incisions (the number of radially oriented incisions varies between 14 and 20) in all of the decorated beads are arranged around the hole at both ends of the bead. They are deep and were carved, unidirectionally and repeatedly, out of the mass of the cylinder. In 3 cases they contain, besides the above-mentioned preservatives, residues of red dye. In one specimen, they are composed of thin, short subsequent incisions made by one part of the engraving tool. In a second specimen, probably the same technique was applied by multiple parts of the tool. In this way, an almost compact deep groove was made. Scattered cupules filling in the entire remaining surface were only observed in two cylinders. Parallel thin incisions, one directly below the other, were identified in only a single specimen. None of the cylinders bears all the decorative elements together. Individual decorative elements do not intersect, so that the sequence of engraving cannot be determined. In the case of cylinder c (Fig. 8), the primarily incised longitudinal circumferential groove probably intersects with short perimeter incisions but the exact determination is hindered by different depth of engraving. Incisions at the perimeter of the hole are present on 5 cylinders (Fig. 7 a, b, c, d, e). They have the form of short deep centripetal grooves. The engraving, deep invasive techniques (techniques d'usure en proznickova fondeur) (Averbouh and Provenzano, 1998e1999; La , 2010) was made as larger or smaller pieces were deGaletova tached from the surface to make incisions and cupules. The cupules have a stereotypical round shape and size and are cup-shaped in
Fig. 12. Original position of cylinder (Fig. 7g) with regard to the mammoth tusk (drawing T. Jank u, Moravian Museum Brno).
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Fig. 13. Stigmas e concentric grooves inside the biconical perforation (cylinders Fig. 7a, d, e).
section (Fig. 15). The state of preservation of the cupules did not allow determination exactly which technique was applied to make them, because they are often filled with sediments or preservatives. 6. Discussion and conclusions stonice I studied have a The cylindrical artefacts from Dolní Ve stereotypical form and similar size and were made using a standardised working procedure, but the exact details remain unclear. The historically recognised functional purpose of these artefacts is based on the presence of a suspension device: a hole. This, however, can also be present in clothing or textile decorations. According to Henry-Gambier (2008), it is difficult to distinguish personal ornaments from clothing decorations. An important criterion in the case of graves is the preservation of the primary, original position of these artefacts. In most cases, these are clothing decorations rather than personal ornaments (HenryGambier, 2008). The Venus of Kostienki I upper level displays an apparent necklace image (Abramova, 1960; Demeshchenko, 2006). In accordance with Absolon's hypothesis we thus can take into account that these artefacts have been used as components of a collier-necklace, but they also may have been used individually, suspended or fastened on clothes or textile, serving as decoration, or having also a practical function (button). An exact determination of how the artefacts have been worn or suspended was not possible due to the poor state of preservation and the residues of preservatives. At the Hohle Fels site from an Aurignacian context, a stonice I, a cyshape analogous to cylinder beads from Dolní Ve lindrical undecorated mammoth ivory bead (Hahn, 1995; Schreer, 1995; Hiller, 2003) with the dimensions e 10.3 8.5 mm, wall thickness 2.2 mm, perforation diameter 3.3 mm, was found. It is similar in size, showing material remnants of flexure, and the hole was probably made using a rotary drilling technique because of distinct concentric grooves visible inside the perforation. A similar shape and decoration in the form of short incisions at the perimeter can be observed on a tubular mammoth ivory bead from Spy (Otte, 1979 in Khlopachev, 2012e2013; Lejeune, 1987; Vanhaeren and d'Erico, 2007). Another similar shape artefact was described by Khlopachev (2012e2013) in the Gravettian site
Kostienki 4 (Rogachev, 1955). An undecorated example of a Solan artefact was found in Fourneau-du-Diable (Peschaux, utre 2012). An example of exclusive use of mammoth ivory as a raw material for serial production of ornamental pendants of uniform shape in Gravettian is known from Predmostí and Pavlov (Garcia Diez, 2005) and also from the Malta site (Abramova, 1962) where these artefacts were found in funerary context. Ivory ornaments found in series are divided into specific morphological types such as basket-shaped beads, drop-shaped beads or bilobated beads showing different geographical and chronological distributions, which is not the case with cylinder beads and their sporadic analogies. The use of dimpled decorations on mammoth ivory ornaments is documented from the Aurignacian, as pendants from Tuto de Camalhot (Vezian and Vezian, 1966; Vanhaeren and d'Erico, 2007), Abri Blanchard (Taborin, 1987, 1995; Vanhaeren and d'Erico, 2007), Gorge d0 Enfer (Taborin, 1987). Pendants, whose entire surface was filled in with cupules of equal size, were found in Gravettian layers of the Mamutowa Cave (Kozłowski, 1992) and in Malta (Abramova, 1962; Filippov, 1983). This decor can appear in the form of multiplied cupules which can also fill the surface, as it was the case with stonice or a tablet from Mamutowa Cave cylinders from Dolní Ve and from Malta. The Venus of Malta displays the cupules in the head (Abramova, 1961). The cupules can also be arranged in rows e on an ivory ring from Sungir the lines of cupules form a star-shaped pattern, on a zoomorphic pendant from the same locality they form bands e perhaps a stylised depiction of fur (White, 1993). Cupules in combination with incisions, analogous to decoration on a cylinstonice, are present in mammoth ivory der bead from Dolní Ve nat, 1900) as well as beads from Laugerie Basse (Girod and Masse Cap Blanc (Taborin, 1995). Taborin interprets these decorated beads as a depiction of a ladybug (Taborin, 1995, 2004). From the abovementioned, it follows that the decorated ivory cylinders from Dolní stonice I have almost no analogies, in neither form nor decor. Ve Interpreting the series of ivory cylinders as a necklace is problematic for the following reasons: in the same assemblage there are unfinished artefacts together with artefacts which were already discarded or not during fabrication, badly done or not finished for
Fig. 14. Engraving e short incisions, circumferential groove, or cupules (cylinders Fig. 7a, c, d).
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405/10/1710 titled “Upper the Czech Science Foundation GACR Paleolithic Personal Adornments in Moravia: Taphonomic, and Technological Analysis”, project NOTES CZ 1.07/2.3.00/20.0135, and by the Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic through institutional financing of long-term conceptual development of a research institution (the Moravian Museum, MK000094862). References
Fig. 15. A microCT image of the cylinder cupules have a stereotypical round shape and , X-ray micro/ size and are cup-shaped in section (photo T. Zikmund and M. Sejnohov a nano tomography lab of the Brno University of Technology, CEITEC VUT).
some other reason. These products were excluded from the process of decoration, as there was no reason to store them, and they were perhaps already lost. Necklaces imply a contemporaneous connection of individual elements into a single unit. The chronological aspect, which is omitted here, becomes very important. The artefacts were undoubtedly manufactured in series but their serial use remains a question. Personal ornaments were intended for identification and selfidentification of human individuals. Their interpretation and meaning, however, are shifted in this search for the Gravettian modes of human behaviour because of a deep-rooted stereotype. Unfortunately, the state of conservation of the artefacts studied did not allow interpretation of technological traces and determination of how these objects have been used or worn by Palaeolithic people. We re-examined the mammoth ivory artefacts interpreted as a necklace. Studying the archival work reports, we found out that the artefacts were discovered during a single excavation campaign but not at the same place (an area of 5 m2). The find of beads at the same place has usually been used as an argument for interpreting these artefacts as components of a necklace. Individual artefacts exhibit various phases of the chaîne op eratoire, and yet they are persistently published together, threaded on a string in the same way. The beads under review are made exclusively of mammoth ivory. In the case of cylinder beads, it is a serial, standardised, economically effective production, probably technologically similar to fabrication of mammoth ivory tools. Acknowledgements My gratitude for the possibility of studying these artefacts goes ga for to the Moravian Museum. I also thank O. Kroupa and J. Ca taking photographs, T. Jank u for drawings, and T. Zikmund and M. from the X-ray micro/nano tomography lab of the Brno Sejnohov a University of Technology (CEITEC VUT) for micro-CT scanning. I also for remarks on techthank Nejma Goutas and Michaela Zelinkova and Bibiana Hromadova for remarks on nology, Michaela Polanska lithic industry. We would like to thank for the opportunity to study €t Tübingen comparative material from Nicolas Conard, Universita and Sybille Wolf of the Institut für Ur-und Frühgeschichte Arch€ologie und des Mittelalters. This research was funded by a grant of a
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znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic) from Dolní Ve zni -Galetova a, b, c, * Martina La ckova ckova 15, 301 64 Pilzen, Czech Republic University of Western Bohemia, Sedla Anthropos Institute, Moravian Museum, Zelný trh 6, 659 37 Brno, Czech Republic c Departement de Pr ehistoire, USM 103 e CNRS UMR 7194, Institut de Pal eontologie Humaine, 1 rue Ren e Panhard 75 013 Paris, France a
b
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Available online xxx
stonice I (Moravia, This paper discusses the phenomenon of mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Ve Czech Republic). The ivory artefacts were described by the excavator K. Absolon in 1937 as necklaces, and this primary interpretation is still in use today. In this case, mammoth ivory was worked into repeating standardised forms of various size, which are almost absent elsewhere in the Upper Palaeolithic. The seven artefacts were here examined for their state of conservation, manufacturing technology, decorating style and supposed functional purpose. Partial reconstruction of the chaîne op eratoire can enable integration of these artefacts into the style of mammoth ivory processing at this Gravettian site, and help to define the status of this raw material. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA.
Keywords: Personal ornaments Ivory Necklaces stonice I Dolní Ve Gravettian Moravia
1. Introduction Personal ornaments of hard animal tissues (bone, deer antlers, ivory, teeth, shells) found in series are well-evidenced in the Upper Palaeolithic. Most frequent are natural objects such as shells and teeth, their use as pendants and ornaments indicated by an artificial perforation. The main criteria of selection in these artefacts are shape, colour, and size, as well as the potential repeating occurrence and potential symbolic value. In personal ornaments such as pendants, beads, countour d ecoup e or discs, the form can be determined by properties of the underlying material (ex. contour d ecoup e), and multiplication of these objects of similar shape and size is qualified as an example of deliberate, planned economic behaviour with regard to the raw material used. The category of personal ornaments characterised by multiplied occurrence e beads, as most artefacts under review are interpreted, is hard to define in the Palaeolithic (Taborin, 2004). According to this author it is necessary to extend the generally used definition of beads from spherical objects with perforation to perforated objects of various shapes, smaller or equal to 20 mm (Taborin, 1991). The category of beads is associated with serial production enabling economic behaviour towards the raw material and work, producing many beads of similar shape and size. This phenomenon is then used to
* University of Western Bohemia, Sedla ckova 15, 301 64 Pilzen, Czech Republic. E-mail address: [email protected].
interpret the occurrence of a large amount of beads of similar shape and size at the same place as evidence of their former intentional connection into necklaces (this also regards the other categories of personal ornaments), even when the find context does not imply it. This paper deals with the phenomenon of artificially fabricated necklaces on the example of necklaces made of cylinder beads from stonice I. Ivory beads made in series of similar pieces are Dolní Ve chronologically well evidenced in the Aurignacian (White, 1995). Over the whole of the Palaeolithic, they form very varied categories defined on the basis of morphological similarity, such as basketshaped beads, teardrop beads, bilobated beads, and stomach beads. These are then used to determine geographical and chrondez, 2005), or ethnolinguistic nological relations (Alvarez Ferna groups (Vanhaeren and d'Errico, 2006). Mammoth ivory has been widely used as raw material for fabrication of bone industry, objects of portable art and personal ornaments in Moravia during the zni Gravettian (Oliva, 1995; Svoboda, 1995; Valoch and La ckova , 2009; Goutas, 2013). Galetova In this paper, the artefacts studied, 7 mammoth ivory cylinstonice I, are analysed for two reasons: they ders from Dolní Ve were discovered in the 1930s and from the time of their first publication they have stereotypically been passed on from one work to another in unchanged form of presentation with only the number of perforated pieces gradually changing. The stabilised and repeating form of presentation determines the purpose of these artefacts and defines the way of how they were used without any detailed study.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 1040-6182/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA.
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2. Historical context of mammoth ivory artefacts discovered stonice I at Dolní Ve In working diaries from the 1937 excavations by Karel Absolon, the objects were first mentioned as worked and decorated ivory, without any note that they might be ornaments e beads. Other specimens were described as “ornamented ivory cylinders”, reconstructed and recognised as ornaments. A cylinder was first published in 1937 Illustrated London News where Absolon (1937) wrote: …”ring carved from mammoth ivory: ornaments which, though of a size to be easily slipped on a finger, were probably threaded into necklaces”... (Fig. 1). The raw material and potential function of the artefact are thus identified. The photograph, however, does not correspond to any collection item. The artefacts studied were first published together by Absolon (1945) in the third excavation report stonice (Fig. 2). They were threaded on a string and from Dolní Ve arranged, and in this form, with only minute changes, they have been presented (Absolon, 1945; Klíma, 1983; Oliva, 2007). Absolon (1945) also wrote on the conditions at their discovery: “a necklace was found of 7 masterly perforated, ornamented ivory cylinders”. From the text, it follows that these individual artefacts were found together at the same place, and Absolon designates them as a necklace which, along with the photo where a cord is drawn as going through all of the beads, gave rise to the myth of a mammoth ivory necklace. Absolon's liking for arranging discovered artefacts into necklaces is also evident for other Gravettian sites where he has conducted excavations, for example at Predmostí (Fig. 3). Ivory cylinders have also been published in this stereotypical way, threaded on a string, in works by another excavator of this locality, Klíma (1983). The “necklace” (the stereotypically borrowed form) also includes a cylinder which is not perforated and thus cannot be suspended in this way (Fig. 4). The locality of Dolní stonice I also yielded other ivory personal ornaments found in Ve series: breast-shaped beads (Fig. 4) with the same publication pattern (Absolon, 1949). Two specimens among them are not adapted for suspension. This fact was omitted in subsequent pubstonice “necklaces” have often been publications, and Dolní Ve lished following this pattern (for example Muller-Karpe, 1980). In publications, it has also frequently been mentioned that individual parts of these necklaces were found approximately together at the same place. It is not easy to establish that the artefacts were used as personal ornaments, even though they are equipped with perforations suited for this function, and on the basis of which the artefacts are very often categorised. 3. Archaeological context stonice I is the earliest exploited locality within the Dolní Ve stonice in Moravia, complex of Gravettian open-air sites at Dolní Ve Czech Republic. It was discovered in the 19th century and since 1924 it was systematically examined by Absolon from the Moravian Museum in Brno (1924e1938). Among other researchers who conducted a series of excavation in the years at this site was Klíma (1966, 1968, 1973e79). The excavation history is long and rich and therefore problematic, above all due to contextual data which are very hard to find today. Faunal remains at this site are dominated by mammoth bones, arctic fox, hare, wolf, horse, reindeer, and wolverine. Red fox, lion, lynx, bear, bovids, woolly rhinoceros, beaver, and birds are represented only sporadically (Musil, 1958). stonice I As far as the economy of hard animal tissues at Dolní Ve is concerned, the basic raw materials used for fabrication of industry of hard animal tissues were bone (71%), mammoth ivory , 2007). Animal species (23%), antlers (5%), and teeth (1%) (Zelinkova which provided these materials (identified in 88% of all artefacts)
were distinctly dominated by mammoth (61%), followed by horse (17%), reindeer (10%), wolf, hare, and fox (3%). Pieces of portable art and ornaments from hard animal tissues were made almost exclusively from mammoth ivory. Another material frequently used with Gravettian portable art in Moravia is fired or dried clay. Personal ornaments found at the locality, on the other hand, are dominantly made of mammoth ivory and perforated animal teeth, mostly of arctic fox, and sporadically of wolverine, wolf, and bear. Other pieces were made of shells stonice I, some other (Dentalium, Pecten, Glycimeris). At Dolní Ve artefacts manufactured in series were found grouped “at the same place”. Among them are mainly perforated shells of molluscs, tubeworm shells, perforated teeth, and pebbles. They have been interpreted as necklaces, as well. Personal ornaments found in the same context with human remains are mainly represented by animal teeth, as with a remnant of a child's calvaria DV 4 (Klíma, 1990), on which perforated fox teeth were arranged in an original decorative layout. The mammoth ivory necklaces under review were not found in direct context with human remains. In another stonice complex, at the DV II site (Svoboda, part of the Dolní Ve 1991), mammoth ivory adornments in the form of 4 drop-shaped beads, which are unique for the Gravettian in Moravia, were found in the context of a triple burial (Klíma, 1987). The cylinders analysed were found during examination of the stonice I site (Oliva, early phase of the central part of the Dolní Ve 2000) in the course of excavations by Absolon in 1937 (Absolon, 1945). According to excavation diaries from the research by Absolon (13 Julye11 November 1937) written by Dania, the original position of studied artefacts was partly reconstructed. The original drawing plan from the excavation diary and written information on positions and finding dates of artefacts do not correspond to a plan set up later by A. Bohmers (Fig. 5) (excavations in 1939e40 and 1942), which verifies the situation at the locality (Oliva, in press). However, both of these plans indicate that the artefacts which after reconstruction were assembled into a necklace were not found together at the same place, but within an area of about 5 m2. 4. Material and methods The artefacts studied are fabricated of mammoth ivory: 7 cylinders, 5 of them decorated with engravings. The artefacts are stored in collections of the Anthropos Institute of the Moravian Museum in Brno (Figs. 6 and 7). We studied the archival excavation diaries dealing with conditions under which these artefacts were found. For the study of used technique and usewear, we used direct observation and microscopy (Leica EZ4HD). For visualisation and subsequent assessment of the state of conservation of artefacts, we used the non-invasive laboratory-based X-ray micro computed tomography (microCT). The microCT analysis of these samples was performed using the tomography system GE phoenix vjtomejx L240, equipped with a 240 kV/300 W high-power micro focus X-ray tube and flat panel GE DXR detector array. The microCT scan was carried out at 70 kV and 180 mA acceleration voltage and X-ray tube current, respectively. The X-ray spectrum was modified by 0.1 mm thick copper filter. The voxel resolution of obtained volume (depending on the object's size) was from 18 mm to 12 mm. Samples were fixed on carbon tube by parafilm (plastic paraffin film). The tomographic reconstruction was carried out using datosjx 2.0 3D computed tomography software. The 3D and 2D cross-section visualisations were performed with VG Studio MAX 2.2 software. 5. Results All 7 artefacts have a standardised shape, and 5 also are of similar size. The artefacts have the form of mammoth ivory
znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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Fig. 1. The first publication of an ivory cylinder artefact in Illustrated London News (Absolon, 1937).
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Fig. 2. The first collective publication of all cylinders threaded on a string (modified after Absolon, 1945).
cylinders from 15 to 19 mm in height, with inner diameter of the perforation from 5 to 9 mm. The cylinders are decorated with geometrical engravings. 5.1. State of conservation The assemblage of 7 cylinders exhibits a consolidated state of preservation. The cylinders show cracks on the surface which are caused by the structure of mammoth ivory and other cracks resulting from depositional and post-depositional processes. They are partly mended with other material. In general, they are impregnated with shellac which fixed the sediments in grooves, cupules, and in the perforation. Making impressions for replicas (according to information of the Moravian Museum, the
impressions were taken at least 2) and fixing for an unknown purpose left residues of modelling clay and impression materials on the surface of artefacts. The working diaries from excavations by Absolon have confirmed these conclusions: the cylinders were found crushed (cylinders 1 and 3) and had to be generally restored and mended with other material to attain their current form. This information on the artefacts, making impossible any direct examination of fabrication traces under a microscope, was, however, no longer known. Another factor in the search for the original form of studied artefacts is the possible intentional/nonintentional fragmentation of the artefacts by a human individual of that time who has used them (Cascio et al., 1995). A further example concerns the state of preservation of a decorated breaststonice I, which has been shaped bead, also from Dolní Ve
Fig. 3. “Necklaces”. Artefacts e shells finds in Predmostí (Moravia, Czech Republic) (photo Moravian Museum, Brno).
znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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stonice I., cylinder beads and breast-shaped beads in ivory (photo Moravian Museum, Brno). Fig. 4. “Necklaces” from Dolní Ve
considered perfect from the view of publication. A microCT analysis, however, has revealed that the whole spike was mended, which was later confirmed by consulting the excavation diary. The question is to what extent the reports are reliable: the above artefacts are described as crushed in the text, but the attached pictures show perfect condition of the cylinders (Fig. 8). The objects thus may have been restored, as is confirmed by the reports, directly on site (during excavations by Absolon a field laboratory
for conservation was operated) with the aim to present perfect artefacts. The report on restoration of a human head in ivory from stonice I (recorded by J. Dania e unpublished) describes a Dolní Ve method of removing sinters from artefacts using HCl, which according to Matienzo and Snow (1986) increases the hygroscopicity of mammoth ivory and can lead to subsequent cracks on the surface caused by humidity and temperature changes. This also may explain some other cracks which are visible on the surface of
Fig. 5. Reconstruction of the context and deposition of the find according to A. Bohmers (Oliva, in press).
znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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Fig. 6. Photograph of the cylindrical artefacts (photo O. Kroupa, Moravian Museum Brno).
the artefacts. Mending of the cylinders with other materials and the origin of these materials are not mentioned in working reports, even though this procedure also was applied to other arstonice I. tefacts from Dolní Ve
The cylinder with the most complicated decoration (Fig. 7a) was analysed using microCT with the aim to find out the state of its conservation (Fig. 9) as a model example of the state of preservation of the other artefacts. The cylinder is cracked crosswise on both
Fig. 7. Drawing of the cylindrical artefacts (drawing T. Jank u, Moravian Museum Brno).
znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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Fig. 8. Current form of the cylinder, a drawing in the excavation diary 1937 (drawing by Dania).
opposite sides at several clustered places along the whole length. It was glued together from multiple pieces after being crushed (see Excavation report). The inside of the perforation as far as the edge was mended with other material. Decorative incisions and cupules are filled with sediment and fixed with shellac, which was probably used to impregnate the entire artefact. The examination of the surface of the artefact in order to reconstruct the process of fabrication is difficult, and the reconstruction of how the cupules were made is impossible without cleaning. 5.2. Ivory processing at Dolní V estonice I and fabrication of cylinder artefacts As far as the osseous industry from the DV I site is concerned, mammoth ivory was mostly used for making points, in 71 cases out
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of a total of 80 pieces (Zelinkov a, 2007). Traces of debitage phase on we can tools are hard to recognise, and according to M. Zelinkova suppose general use of the groove-and-splinter technique (Goutas, , 2007). Points were manufactured using a 2004, 2013; Zelinkova combination of deep invasive techniques of transversal sawing, stonice chipping and raclage en diabolo. Mammoth ivory at Dolní Ve I was also very distinctly trimmed with the help of superficial invasive techniques such as scraping. Some points were also decorated with incisions. The fabrication of cylinders probably involved a similar transformation scheme (Averbouh, 2000) as extraction of rods from tusks (Otte, 1974; Schreer, 1995), by which the way of production of a blank-rod cannot be determined. The rods were further divided by transversal techniques of debitage, perhapos sawing finalized by subsequent flexure, as is documented by the fabrication of points (Fig. 10) and by a preform which unfortunately did not remain physically preserved (Fig. 11), as shown in a drawing from working diaries of excavations by Absolon in 1937. The rod was not physically found in current collections of the Moravian Museum in Brno. It is, unfortunately, possible that it was destroyed by fire in the Mikulov Chateau, where the prehistoric collections were stored, at the end of the World War II (Simek, 1948). This potential ivory preform attests to production of calibrated supports for the fabrication of cylinders. Two unfinished cylinders, one of them “freshly” detached from the rod and perforated and the other still nonperforated, give evidence of this phase of the chaîne op eratoire. Both are smaller compared to the other finished artefacts (from 9.5 to 12 mm), which probably also better corresponds to the preform found. With regard to the fact that it was not physically found, its real dimensions are estimated based on a comparison with drawings of the other artefacts and on the assumption that these
Fig. 9. A microCT image of state of conservation. The cylinder (Fig. 7a) is cracked crosswise on both opposite sides at several clustered places along the length (photo T. Zikmund and , X-ray micro/nano tomography lab of the Brno University of Technology, CEITEC VUT). M. Sejnohov a
znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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1963), large perforations may have been made by borers and becs and B. Hromadova pers. comm.). Becs are very often (M. Polanska found in association with serrated blades of the Moravian Gravet, 2011). tian (Polanska In five out of the seven cylinder beads examined, we observed use-wear marks. Concentric grooves inside the perforation exhibit various degree of smoothing, which was caused by using the perforation. Smoothing of the edge of the perforation, without exact localisation, also attests to usewear. Under the current state of conservation, due to sediments and preservatives, it is difficult to determine how or if at all the artefacts have been used.
Fig. 10. Ivory industry, stigmas indicating the use of transversal sawing and subsequent flexure (photo J. C aga, Moravian Museum Brno).
drawings in excavation diaries are made in 1:1 scale. The concentric desiccation fractures (White, 1995) which are visible in the cross section of the non-perforated cylinder indicate the artefact's original position with regard to the raw material, the mammoth tusk (Fig. 12), and its supposed original size. In the current state of conservation, it is difficult to distinguish any traces of surface finish on the artefacts, such as polishing or grinding, and potential usewear marks. 5.3. Façonnage and surface finish 5.3.1. Perforation Six out of the 7 cylinders under review are perforated. The holes are round and their diameter varies between 5.4 and 8.6 mm. They were made by bifacial rotary drilling and are biconical in cross section. They are among the largest perforations seen in Palaeolithic artefacts. The same principle, removing the most of the inner mass and leaving only the outer layer, can be observed with mammoth ivory rings from Pavlov (Klíma, 1955) or Sungir 4 (Bader, 1978) where, however, the final artefact is much smaller. Traces of the perforation technique have the form of concentric grooves inside the biconical hole (Fig. 13). A borer, which leaves traces in the form of concentric striations, would have been a tool suitable for making these deep perforations. Among the assemblage of lithic stonice I (Absolon, 1938a, 1938b; Klíma, industry from Dolní Ve
Fig. 11. Preform in ivory, a drawing in the excavation diary 1937 (drawing by Dania).
5.3.2. Engraving Five out of the 7 beads examined bear geometric patterns in the form of short incisions, a circumferential groove, or cupules (Fig. 14). Decorations are localised. The short and deep incisions (the number of radially oriented incisions varies between 14 and 20) in all of the decorated beads are arranged around the hole at both ends of the bead. They are deep and were carved, unidirectionally and repeatedly, out of the mass of the cylinder. In 3 cases they contain, besides the above-mentioned preservatives, residues of red dye. In one specimen, they are composed of thin, short subsequent incisions made by one part of the engraving tool. In a second specimen, probably the same technique was applied by multiple parts of the tool. In this way, an almost compact deep groove was made. Scattered cupules filling in the entire remaining surface were only observed in two cylinders. Parallel thin incisions, one directly below the other, were identified in only a single specimen. None of the cylinders bears all the decorative elements together. Individual decorative elements do not intersect, so that the sequence of engraving cannot be determined. In the case of cylinder c (Fig. 8), the primarily incised longitudinal circumferential groove probably intersects with short perimeter incisions but the exact determination is hindered by different depth of engraving. Incisions at the perimeter of the hole are present on 5 cylinders (Fig. 7 a, b, c, d, e). They have the form of short deep centripetal grooves. The engraving, deep invasive techniques (techniques d'usure en proznickova fondeur) (Averbouh and Provenzano, 1998e1999; La , 2010) was made as larger or smaller pieces were deGaletova tached from the surface to make incisions and cupules. The cupules have a stereotypical round shape and size and are cup-shaped in
Fig. 12. Original position of cylinder (Fig. 7g) with regard to the mammoth tusk (drawing T. Jank u, Moravian Museum Brno).
znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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Fig. 13. Stigmas e concentric grooves inside the biconical perforation (cylinders Fig. 7a, d, e).
section (Fig. 15). The state of preservation of the cupules did not allow determination exactly which technique was applied to make them, because they are often filled with sediments or preservatives. 6. Discussion and conclusions stonice I studied have a The cylindrical artefacts from Dolní Ve stereotypical form and similar size and were made using a standardised working procedure, but the exact details remain unclear. The historically recognised functional purpose of these artefacts is based on the presence of a suspension device: a hole. This, however, can also be present in clothing or textile decorations. According to Henry-Gambier (2008), it is difficult to distinguish personal ornaments from clothing decorations. An important criterion in the case of graves is the preservation of the primary, original position of these artefacts. In most cases, these are clothing decorations rather than personal ornaments (HenryGambier, 2008). The Venus of Kostienki I upper level displays an apparent necklace image (Abramova, 1960; Demeshchenko, 2006). In accordance with Absolon's hypothesis we thus can take into account that these artefacts have been used as components of a collier-necklace, but they also may have been used individually, suspended or fastened on clothes or textile, serving as decoration, or having also a practical function (button). An exact determination of how the artefacts have been worn or suspended was not possible due to the poor state of preservation and the residues of preservatives. At the Hohle Fels site from an Aurignacian context, a stonice I, a cyshape analogous to cylinder beads from Dolní Ve lindrical undecorated mammoth ivory bead (Hahn, 1995; Schreer, 1995; Hiller, 2003) with the dimensions e 10.3 8.5 mm, wall thickness 2.2 mm, perforation diameter 3.3 mm, was found. It is similar in size, showing material remnants of flexure, and the hole was probably made using a rotary drilling technique because of distinct concentric grooves visible inside the perforation. A similar shape and decoration in the form of short incisions at the perimeter can be observed on a tubular mammoth ivory bead from Spy (Otte, 1979 in Khlopachev, 2012e2013; Lejeune, 1987; Vanhaeren and d'Erico, 2007). Another similar shape artefact was described by Khlopachev (2012e2013) in the Gravettian site
Kostienki 4 (Rogachev, 1955). An undecorated example of a Solan artefact was found in Fourneau-du-Diable (Peschaux, utre 2012). An example of exclusive use of mammoth ivory as a raw material for serial production of ornamental pendants of uniform shape in Gravettian is known from Predmostí and Pavlov (Garcia Diez, 2005) and also from the Malta site (Abramova, 1962) where these artefacts were found in funerary context. Ivory ornaments found in series are divided into specific morphological types such as basket-shaped beads, drop-shaped beads or bilobated beads showing different geographical and chronological distributions, which is not the case with cylinder beads and their sporadic analogies. The use of dimpled decorations on mammoth ivory ornaments is documented from the Aurignacian, as pendants from Tuto de Camalhot (Vezian and Vezian, 1966; Vanhaeren and d'Erico, 2007), Abri Blanchard (Taborin, 1987, 1995; Vanhaeren and d'Erico, 2007), Gorge d0 Enfer (Taborin, 1987). Pendants, whose entire surface was filled in with cupules of equal size, were found in Gravettian layers of the Mamutowa Cave (Kozłowski, 1992) and in Malta (Abramova, 1962; Filippov, 1983). This decor can appear in the form of multiplied cupules which can also fill the surface, as it was the case with stonice or a tablet from Mamutowa Cave cylinders from Dolní Ve and from Malta. The Venus of Malta displays the cupules in the head (Abramova, 1961). The cupules can also be arranged in rows e on an ivory ring from Sungir the lines of cupules form a star-shaped pattern, on a zoomorphic pendant from the same locality they form bands e perhaps a stylised depiction of fur (White, 1993). Cupules in combination with incisions, analogous to decoration on a cylinstonice, are present in mammoth ivory der bead from Dolní Ve nat, 1900) as well as beads from Laugerie Basse (Girod and Masse Cap Blanc (Taborin, 1995). Taborin interprets these decorated beads as a depiction of a ladybug (Taborin, 1995, 2004). From the abovementioned, it follows that the decorated ivory cylinders from Dolní stonice I have almost no analogies, in neither form nor decor. Ve Interpreting the series of ivory cylinders as a necklace is problematic for the following reasons: in the same assemblage there are unfinished artefacts together with artefacts which were already discarded or not during fabrication, badly done or not finished for
Fig. 14. Engraving e short incisions, circumferential groove, or cupules (cylinders Fig. 7a, c, d).
znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve
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405/10/1710 titled “Upper the Czech Science Foundation GACR Paleolithic Personal Adornments in Moravia: Taphonomic, and Technological Analysis”, project NOTES CZ 1.07/2.3.00/20.0135, and by the Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic through institutional financing of long-term conceptual development of a research institution (the Moravian Museum, MK000094862). References
Fig. 15. A microCT image of the cylinder cupules have a stereotypical round shape and , X-ray micro/ size and are cup-shaped in section (photo T. Zikmund and M. Sejnohov a nano tomography lab of the Brno University of Technology, CEITEC VUT).
some other reason. These products were excluded from the process of decoration, as there was no reason to store them, and they were perhaps already lost. Necklaces imply a contemporaneous connection of individual elements into a single unit. The chronological aspect, which is omitted here, becomes very important. The artefacts were undoubtedly manufactured in series but their serial use remains a question. Personal ornaments were intended for identification and selfidentification of human individuals. Their interpretation and meaning, however, are shifted in this search for the Gravettian modes of human behaviour because of a deep-rooted stereotype. Unfortunately, the state of conservation of the artefacts studied did not allow interpretation of technological traces and determination of how these objects have been used or worn by Palaeolithic people. We re-examined the mammoth ivory artefacts interpreted as a necklace. Studying the archival work reports, we found out that the artefacts were discovered during a single excavation campaign but not at the same place (an area of 5 m2). The find of beads at the same place has usually been used as an argument for interpreting these artefacts as components of a necklace. Individual artefacts exhibit various phases of the chaîne op eratoire, and yet they are persistently published together, threaded on a string in the same way. The beads under review are made exclusively of mammoth ivory. In the case of cylinder beads, it is a serial, standardised, economically effective production, probably technologically similar to fabrication of mammoth ivory tools. Acknowledgements My gratitude for the possibility of studying these artefacts goes ga for to the Moravian Museum. I also thank O. Kroupa and J. Ca taking photographs, T. Jank u for drawings, and T. Zikmund and M. from the X-ray micro/nano tomography lab of the Brno Sejnohov a University of Technology (CEITEC VUT) for micro-CT scanning. I also for remarks on techthank Nejma Goutas and Michaela Zelinkova and Bibiana Hromadova for remarks on nology, Michaela Polanska lithic industry. We would like to thank for the opportunity to study €t Tübingen comparative material from Nicolas Conard, Universita and Sybille Wolf of the Institut für Ur-und Frühgeschichte Arch€ologie und des Mittelalters. This research was funded by a grant of a
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znickova -Galetova , M., The phenomenon of Gravettian necklaces e Mammoth ivory necklaces from Dolní Please cite this article in press as: La stonice I (Moravia, Czech Republic), Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.08.040 Ve