The Philippines

Chapter 23

The Philippines Wilfredo Y. Licuanan*, Reine W. Cabreira†,‡, Porfirio M. Aliño‡ *

Br. Alfred Shields FSC Ocean Research Center and Biology Department, College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines, †Br. Alfred Shields FSC Ocean Research Center, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines, ‡Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines

23.1  GEOGRAPHY, TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION The Philippines is an archipelagic country located in southeastern Asia (Fig. 23.1), encompassing 2,200,000 km2 of water area, and 7461 islands with a land area of approximately 300,000 km2. These islands range in size from tiny islets to the vast expanse of Luzon, and together have a coastline of 36,289 km, the fourth longest in the world. They are divided into three major groups: the Luzon group to the north, the Visayas in the central portion of the country, and the Mindanao group to the south. Both Luzon and Mindanao are contiguous islands with associated island groups. Luzon is the largest island, making up a third of the country’s land area, while Mindanao is slightly smaller. The Visayas is a discontinuous cluster of smaller islands. Administratively, all these islands are subdivided into 17 regions, which are further subdivided into provinces, cities and municipalities, and finally barangays. A significant proportion of these are at least partially coastal: most provinces and over half of the cities and municipalities have coastlines (ADB, 2014). The Philippines is in a region of high seismological activity because of the 1200 km megafault that runs down from the northwest corner of Luzon to the southeast of Mindanao (Yu et al., 2013). An average of 20 earthquakes is recorded daily, most too weak to be felt (Solidum, n.d.). There are 22 active volcanoes, and most islands are of volcanic origin (Solidum, n.d.). This has endowed them with some of the largest deposits of gold, copper, and nickel in the world (Stark et al., 2006). The topography is highly diverse, with most mountain ranges oriented roughly north to south. Three ranges traverse Luzon, and two cross Mindanao, along which Mt. Apo, the country’s highest peak, rises to a height of 2954 m. The islands are generally bounded by narrow coastal plains (Luna, 1965). The country also has a large, complex network of inland waters, including 421 principal rivers and 216 lakes (DENR, 2013). The country’s geographical characteristics have contributed to making it one of the most biologically diverse countries in the world.

23.2  PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE The Philippines is bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the north and east, by the South China Sea to the west, and by Sulu and Celebes (also called the Sulawesi) Seas to the south. The small Sibuyan Sea lies between Luzon and the Visayas. The Visayan and Camotes Seas separate the islands of the Visayas, with the Visayan Sea being the more northward of the two. The Bohol Sea extends down to northern Mindanao, and numerous narrow straits and passages connect the internal seas, marginal seas, and the open ocean (Hurlburt et al., 2011). Bathymetry is highly variable, characterized by narrow shelves, steep slopes, and deep, isolated basins connected by shallow sills (Villanoy et al., 2011). The internal ocean circulation varies both spatially and temporally (Gordon et al., 2011). Generally, during the northeast monsoon or amihan, water is driven into the South China Sea; this reverses during the southwest monsoon or habagat (Metzger & Hurlburt, 1996). The forcing of monsoonal winds through the country’s complicated topography causes the formation of coastal upwelling and downwelling zones in certain areas. These are mostly observed during the amihan (Villanoy et al., 2011). The upwelling zones support highly productive local fisheries. The Mindoro Strait, linking the Sulu Sea to the South China Sea, is the main connection between the interior seas and the open ocean. Another major pathway is the flow of the Surigao Strait into the Bohol Sea and outflow through the Dipolog Strait. The other straits have weaker water exchanges (Zhuang et al., 2013). The circulation within the archipelago also ­contributes to regional large-scale ocean circulation. It provides significant secondary routes for the Indonesian t­ hroughflow and the western currents that close the Pacific Northern tropical gyre, as well as being a connection between the Pacific and South China Seas World Seas: An Environmental Evaluation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100853-9.00051-8 © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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FIG. 23.1  Map of the Philippines.

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through the Luzon Strait (Hurlburt et al., 2011). As the North Equatorial current approaches the eastern coast, it splits into the northward-flowing Kuroshio current and the southward-flowing Mindanao Current (Udarbe-Walker & Villanoy, 2001). There is a reversing monsoon system: the amihan or winter monsoon is the northeast monsoon. The summer, southwest monsoon is the habagat and is the warmer, more humid system and usually begins in May, peaks in July–August, and ends in October (Chang et al., 2005; Cruz et al., 2013). The timing of the onset is usually later in the western coasts and the flatter lands in central Philippines (Cruz et al., 2013). The Philippines also has periodic east–west rainfall gradients that result from the interaction between mountain ranges and the prevailing monsoon, resulting in rainfall due to orographic lifting and rain shadows (Chang et al., 2005; Pullen et al., 2015). The country can thus be divided into four climate zones distinguished by the duration and peak months of rainfall (Moron et al., 2009). Rainfall levels are generally higher during the southwest monsoon, although this is often ­depressed during La Niña occurrences (Cruz et al., 2013).

23.3  MAJOR COASTAL AND SHALLOW HABITATS The Philippines possesses coastal and nearshore resources of extraordinary extent and diversity, including an exceptional number of seagrass, mangrove, and coral species, inventories of fish, crustaceans, and mollusks associated with these habitats (Carpenter & Springer, 2005; DeVantier & Turak, 2017; Huang et al., 2015; Sanciangco et al., 2013; Veron et al., 2015). All these ecosystems serve as habitat to countless organisms, and support an estimated 25% of Philippine fisheries production (Alcala & Russ, 2002). Their interconnectivity is critical to the maintenance of biological diversity and to its fishery value (Fortes, 1988, 1991). For example, Honda et al. (2013) studied fish assemblages in adjacent habitats in two Philippine locations and found 199 species that were unique to coral reefs, nine to seagrass beds, and 15 to mangroves, but 29 species that were shared among the three habitats. The value of one of these habitats to the other two depends on their areal extent, distances, and r­ elative arrangement in space, and it is for these reasons that most management, conservation, and rehabilitation efforts in the Philippines focus on mangrove, seagrass, and coral reef habitats and the organisms that form them.

23.3.1  Coral Reefs The coral reefs in the Philippines are the second most extensive in Southeast Asia, covering about 25,000 km2 (Gomez et al., 1994). Some 600 species of scleractinian corals make up this area (Veron et al., 2015) and DeVantier and Turak (2017) show the Sulu Sea ecoregion as having the highest diversity of corals in the world. The Philippines also supports the world’s highest biodiversity of marine shore fishes (Carpenter & Springer, 2005). The value of coral reefs is immense. Economic valuations conducted in the early 2000s estimated the potential sustainable benefits of the country’s reefs at over USD 1 billion per year (Burke et al., 2002; White, Vogt, & Arin, 2000), while valuations for specific reefs indicate considerable value to local economies (Ahmed et al., 2007; Samonte-Tan et al., 2007; Samonte-Tan & Armedilla, 2004). Despite this, coral reefs are in decline globally (Pandolfi et al., 2003), and it is estimated that 98% of reefs in the country are at risk (Burke et al., 2011). About 40 million Filipinos live within 30 km of a coral reef (Burke et al., 2011), generating a large potential for anthropogenic stress. Sedimentation, pollution, and irresponsible coastal development remain persistent threats, while climate change has become an increasing greater danger. The loss of Philippine coral cover has been documented since the 1970s, when the country was among the first to undertake a systematic inventory of its coral reefs. This revealed that only about 5% of 619 reefs sites surveyed had live coral cover (combined hard and soft coral cover) of 75% or greater, which would qualify them as “excellent” (as per Gomez et al., 1981). Subsequent, more geographically focused reef assessments conducted from 1987 to 1994 found that only 2.4% of 85 stations sampled had excellent live coral cover (Gomez et al., 1994). An overlapping assessment conducted from 1990 to 1999 found that only 4.3% of 673 sites were in excellent condition (Licuanan & Gomez, 2000), and a later assessment by Nañola et al. (2006) found that only 0.2% of surveyed reefs had excellent live coral cover. Over half of this assessment’s 424 transects covered the archipelago’s Pacific-facing eastern coast, which had lower coral cover than the reefs in the other parts of the country (Licuanan et al., 2017). A recent nationwide assessment focused on well-developed coral reefs rather than coral communities or incipient coral reefs (sensu van Woesik & Done, 1997) showed that there are no longer any reefs in the excellent category in the 206 ­stations surveyed (Fig. 23.2), and average hard coral cover was 22% (Licuanan et al., 2017). In contrast, Magdaong et al. (2014), showed a mean annual coral cover increase of 1.34% from 1981 to 2010, with significant improvement within marine protected areas, However, only a very small proportion of Philippine reefs are protected (Burke et al., 2011). Coral species in the Indo-Malay Philippines archipelago have an elevated extinction risk, making up most of the Vulnerable and Near-Threatened coral species in a global Red List assessment (Carpenter et al., 2008).

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FIG. 23.2  Map showing the current status of reefs in the country.

Efforts have been made to rehabilitate degraded reefs, largely through the construction and deployment of artificial habitats and through asexual propagation of corals. However, these efforts often entail great expense and effort, and their effectiveness is doubtful. There is little published literature that examines the long-term growth and survival rates of transplanted corals, or their contributions to hard coral cover in “rehabilitated” reefs. Feliciano et al. (2018) concluded that reef rehabilitation using “corals of opportunity” was ineffective, unsustainable, and likely unfeasible due to the scale needed.

23.3.2 Mangroves The Indo-Malay-Philippine Archipelago has the highest mangrove diversity in the world. About 40 species are found in the Philippines, along with 20–30 species of mangrove-associated shrubs and vines (Primavera, 2000). Unfortunately, it is also part of the region with the fastest rates of mangrove loss, with an estimated 30% reduction since 1980 (Polidoro et al., 2010). The country is estimated to have had half a million hectares of mangroves in 1918, but by 1994 only 120,000 ha

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remained (Primavera, 2000). More recent estimates of mangrove cover vary greatly due to the interplay of rapid loss and reforestation and afforestation efforts. The mangrove area was estimated to jump from 260,000 ha in 2000 (Long & Giri, 2011) to nearly 300,000 ha in 2007 (Samson & Rollon, 2011), and then to fall back to around 260,000 ha in 2010 (Giri et al., 2011). Long et al. (2013) estimated a 10.5% decrease in area, equivalent to a loss of about 1400 ha per year, from 1990 to 2010. More than half of this loss was due to conversion of the mangrove area to aquaculture ponds, while the rest was due to conversion to salt ponds, reclamation for agricultural and industrial use, and human settlements (Primavera, 2000). These losses have already helped to push at least one mangrove species, Camptostemon philippinense, toward Endangered ­status—<1200 individuals remain within its natural range in the Philippines and Indonesia (Polidoro et al., 2010). Fortunately, about 19% of the remaining mangrove area is in protected area networks, mostly in the island province of Palawan and in Siargao (Long & Giri, 2011). Efforts at mangrove conservation have been immense, although results are mixed at best. The Philippine government has embarked on a massive mangrove replanting program that began in the 1990s (Primavera et al., 2016). This admirable zeal for replanting has often resulted in the planting of single species stands on seagrass beds, mudflats, and sandflats that are not natural habitats for mangroves. This has resulted not only in the loss of other habitats as they are converted into monospecific stands, usually of Rhizophora (Primavera et al., 2016), but also the latter have low survival and stunted growth (Maliao & Polohan, 2008; Salmo et al., 2007; Samson & Rollon, 2011). Mangrove rehabilitation efforts could be more successful if the remaining secondary growth is protected, if more idle and unproductive aquaculture ponds are reverted, and if the management interventions are guided by more information on hydrology and natural regeneration rates (Salmo et al., 2007).

23.3.3 Seagrasses Globally, one-fifth of the seagrass species are classified in the Vulnerable, Near Threatened, and Endangered categories, and one-third of the seagrass species are in decline (Short et al., 2011). In the Philippines, seagrass beds have historically not enjoyed the same intensity of monitoring or conservation effort as their mangrove and coral reef counterparts. As such, information on them is somewhat limited. Fortes (2013) described 18 seagrass species, including two unnamed Halophila, from three families in 529 sites surveyed around the Philippines. The extent of seagrass beds has been estimated at between 343 and 635 km2 (Fortes & Santos, 2004). Like mangroves, these beds are found mostly around Palawan Is. and the Sulu Archipelago. Like mangrove forests, seagrass beds are threatened by coastal development and by human activities that often lead to eutrophication, sedimentation, and direct physical damage from trawling, boat moorings, and docks (Duarte, 2002; Short et al., 2011). Siltation in SE Asian seagrass meadows led to reduced diversity, biomass, production, and ultimately seagrass loss through attenuation of light and burial (Duarte, 2002). Terrados et al. (1998) linked the widespread deterioration of SE Asian coastal ecosystems, particularly seagrass meadows, to the very high sediment yields (especially in the silt and clay fractions) of the region’s rivers.

23.4  OFFSHORE SYSTEMS 23.4.1  Pelagic and Benthic Seamounts Little is known about offshore systems in the Philippines, particularly those outside internal waters. The hydrocarbonrich Recto (Reed) Bank is likely the largest, covering an area of 8866 km2 northwest of Palawan. The Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled in 2016 that this area is within the Philippine Exclusive Economic Zone. However, control over this and the adjacent Kalayaan (Spratly) Islands remains in dispute. In April 2012, the Philippines gained exploration and exploitation rights to an additional 135,506 km2 of seabed around the Philippine (Benham) Rise from the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (NEDA, 2014). Mesophotic reefs here and elsewhere in the country are only beginning to be explored. This area is being proposed as an Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Area (Convention on Biological Diversity, n.d.).

23.4.2  Cold Water Corals The diversity of cold, deepwater scleractinian corals may also be highest around the Philippines (Cairns, 2007; Roberts et al., 2006). Although deep-sea bioherms have not been documented for the Philippines, the corals associated with them have been recorded in the Sulu Sea (Rogers, 1999). They are threatened globally by bottom trawling and ocean ­acidification, and potentially deepwater drilling and mining (Guinotte et al., 2006; Roberts et al., 2006).

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23.5  CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS Climate change has had a disproportionate impact on the Philippines’ waters. About 2000 of the country’s >7000 islands are occupied (Marler, 2014; Trócaire 2014) and over 64 million Filipinos, more than half the population, live in coastal areas (Palomares et al., 2014). Sea-level rise is more than two to three times more significant in the Philippines than it is globally, particularly along the country’s eastern coast, due to subduction of the Philippine tectonic plate beneath the Eurasian plate and the flow of warm equatorial currents to the western tropical boundary of the Pacific Ocean (David et al., 2015; Rietbroek et al., 2016). Increases in sea level have been measured since the 1950s (Hulme & Sheard, 1999, Jaranilla-Sanchez et al., 2007), leading to inundation and increased erosion of wetlands and low-lying coasts, saltwater intrusion into groundwater, and increased potential for damage due to storm surges and tsunamis (Perez et al., 1999). The potential for flooding in coastal areas is exacerbated by subsidence of land due to overextraction of groundwater, urbanization and the building of water-impermeable surfaces, and construction over waterways (Fuchs, 2010). Typhoon Ketsana (local name Ondoy) flooded 80% of Metro Manila in 2009 (Fuchs, 2010). Being within the “typhoon belt,” about 20 tropical cyclones from the Pacific Ocean strike the Philippines every year (Cinco et al., 2013). Already, an increase in the number of tropical cyclones in the central Philippines with maximum sustained winds of 150 kph has been observed from 1971 to 2000 during ENSO events (Cinco et al., 2013). Typhoon Haiyan, which devastated the country in 2013, was not only the deadliest storm in Philippine history, but the strongest tropical cyclone on record to ever make landfall (see Box 23.1).

BOX 23.1  Cyclone Yolanda On November 8, 2013, supertyphoon Haiyan (locally known as Yolanda) hit the Philippines, the strongest tropical cyclone to ever make landfall. Its winds, rains, and storm surges caused widespread landslides and flash floods, affecting >14 million people in over half of the archipelago’s 81 provinces, with the central and eastern Visayas bearing the brunt of the damage. It killed over 6000 people and injured over 28,000 more, and caused about US$802 million in damages (NDRRMC, 2013). Its track is shown in Fig. 23.1 of the main article. Haiyan occurred very late in the typhoon season, had a width of 600 km and sustained winds of 315 km/h, and was well above the threshold for a Category 5 storm (Bricker et al., 2014). It had an unusually high speed of 9 m/s−1 and made landfall in Guiuan, Eastern Samar, continued across the Eastern Visayas, making additional landfalls in Tolosa (Leyte) and Daanbantayan (Cebu), until it exited over the South China Sea (NDRRMC, 2013). Subsurface ocean conditions were favorable for typhoon intensification (Pun, Lin, & Lo, 2013), and subsurface ocean warming reached its greatest value in decades (Lin et al., 2014). Storm surges were responsible for much of the death and destruction (NOAH, 2013), exceeding 3 m, with the maximum in Tacloban itself reaching over 5 m (Fig. B.23.1). Inundation extended more than half a km inland in the city and over 2 km in lowlying areas to the south (Mori et al., 2014). Also, Tacloban is located at the head of San Pedro Bay, whose shallow bathymetry and funnel-like shape create a seiche, which amplified the storm surge (Soria et al., 2016; Mori et al., 2014). Eastern Samar was affected by storm surge heights of up to 3 m. It is exposed to the Pacific Ocean, and the surges were the result of breaking-wave-induced setup (Bricker et al., 2014) which caused inundation up to 50 m inland. In Hernani this phenomenon caused a “tsunami-like” wave. As many as 68% of evacuation centers in Tacloban were overwhelmed (Lagmay et al., 2015). Many did not heed government warnings, underestimated Haiyan’s destructive power, or chose not to evacuate. Some successful evacuations did occur: in Tulang Diyot, a tiny island in Cebu province, a preemptive evacuation of the island’s 1000 residents resulted in no casualties, despite the fact that all 500 or so structures on the island were completely destroyed (McElroy, 2013). Haiyan devastated nearshore ecosystems, to an extent difficult to quantify due to a lack of baseline figures. Haiyan affected about 3.5% of the Philippines’ mangroves (Long et al., 2016) causing defoliation to complete uprooting (Primavera et al., 2016). The Government allocated Php 350 million (US$7 million) for mangrove replanting and rehabilitation to increase shoreline protection from future storms, but over half of the budget was earmarked for Rhizophora cultivation (Primavera et  al., 2016), sometimes in areas which never had mangroves to begin with (Samson and Rollon, 2008). Villamayor et al. (2016) found higher mortality and lower recovery in Rhizophora than other mangrove genera such as Avicennia and Sonneratia. Primavera et al. (2016) found it was the most damaged species, and in mixed forests, all dead trees were planted Rhizophora. Coral rubble ridges developed in several areas. About four months after Haiyan, a rubble ridge several hundred meters long and about 20 m wide was still visible in Carbin Reef, Negros (Reyes et al., 2015) while a 15-cm-thick layer of debris composed mostly of coral rubble was observed in Hernani, Eastern Samar (Brill et al., 2016). In Eastern Samar, live coral cover was reduced between 30% and 70%, while coral rubble increased by up to sixfold (Anticamara and Go 2017).

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BOX 23.1  Cyclone Yolanda—cont’d

FIG. B.23.1  Some of the damage caused by the cyclone. (Photo by JBP Cabansag.)

However, destruction was not universal. For example, on the landward side of the rubble ridge formed in Carbin Reef, corals remained largely untouched, with many branching colonies alive and structurally intact (Reyes et al., 2015). Some efforts at coral rehabilitation have also been made, largely by NGOs (Concern Worldwide, 2016), although on nowhere near the same scale as those for mangroves. The extent to which Carbin and the other reefs affected by Haiyan will recover is uncertain, and requires further study. R.W. Cabreira

REFERENCES Anticamara, J. S., & Go, K. T. B. (2017). Impacts of super-typhoon Yolanda on Philippine reefs and communities. Regional Environmental Change, 17(3), 703–713. Bricker, J. D., Takagi, H., Mas, E., Kure, S., Adriano, B., Yi, C., et al. (2014). Spatial variation of damage due to storm surge and waves during Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines. Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers Series B2, 70(2), I_231–I_235. Brill, D., May, S. M., Engel, M., Reyes, M., Pint, A., Opitz, S., et al. (2016). Typhoon Haiyan’s sedimentary record in coastal environments of the Philippines and its palaeotempestological implications. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 16(12), 2799–2822. Concern Worldwide. (2016). Supporting recovery of fishing livelihoods, mangroves and coral reefs in the Philippines. Retrieved from:https:// www.concern.net/insights/supporting-recovery-fishing-livelihoods-mangroves-and-coral-reefs-philippines (accessed 17.02.17). Lagmay, A. M. F., Agaton, R. P., Bahala, M. A. C., Briones, J. B. L., Cabacaca, K. M. C., Caro, C. V. C., et al. (2015). Devastating storm surges of Typhoon Haiyan. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 11, 1–12. Lin, I. I., Pun, I. F., & Lien, C. C. (2014). “Category-6” supertyphoon Haiyan in global warming hiatus: contribution from subsurface ocean warming. Geophysical Research Letters, 41, 8547–8553. Long, J., Giri, C., Primavera, J., & Trivedi, M. (2016). Damage and recovery assessment of the Philippines’ mangroves following Super Typhoon Haiyan. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 109, 734–743.

Continued

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BOX 23.1  Cyclone Yolanda—cont’d McElroy, A. (2013). Evacuation saves whole island from typhoon Haiyan. In United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. https:// www.unisdr.org/archive/35524 (accessed 16.02.17). Mori, N., Kato, M., Kim, S., Mase, H., Shibutani, Y., Takemi, T., et al. (2014). Local amplification of storm surge by Super Typhoon Haiyan in Leyte gulf. Geophysical Research Letters, 41, 5106–5113. NDRRMC (National Disaster Risk Redution and Management Council). (2013). Final report effects of Typhoon “Yolanda” (Haiyan) (148 pp.). Quezon City: NDRRMC. NOAH (Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards): Yolanda. (2013). Storm surges in Tacloban City, Leytehttp://blog.noah.dost.gov. ph/2013/11/08/yolanda-storm-surge-tacloban-city (updated 08.11.13, accessed 07.02.17). Primavera, J. H., dela Cruz, M., Montilijao, C., Consunji, H., dela Paz, M., Rollon, R. N., et al. (2016). Preliminary assessment of postHaiyan mangrove damage and short-term recovery in Eastern Samar, Central Philippines. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 109(2), 744–750. Reyes, M., Engel, M., May, S. M., Brill, D., & Brückner, H. (2015). Life and death after Super Typhoon Haiyan. Coral Reefs, 34, 419. Samson, M. S., & Rollon, R. N. (2008). Growth performance of planted mangroves in the Philippines: revisiting forest management strategies. Ambio, 37(4), 234–240. Soria, J., Switzer, A., Villanoy, C., Fritzh, H., Bilgera, P., Cabrera, O., et al. (2016). Repeat storm surge disasters of Typhoon Haiyan and its 1897 predecessor in the Philippines. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 97(1), 31–48. Villamayor, B. M., Rollon, R. N., Samson, M. S., Albano, G. M., & Primavera, J. H. (2016). Impact of Haiyan on Philippine mangroves: Implications to the fate of the widespread monospecific Rhizophora plantations against strong typhoons. Ocean Coastal Management, 132, 1–14.

The archipelagic nature of the Philippines increases the risk of multiple impacts of tropical cyclone winds and storm surges acting together to magnify damage (Marler, 2014). The mostly small islands are also less able to reduce tropical cyclone strength. For example, Typhoon Haiyan’s path took it to within 50 km of 150 Philippine islands. It remained a Category 5 storm throughout its passage of 660 km through the Philippines (Marler, 2014). The waters of the Coral Triangle have warmed at a rate of 0.2°C per decade from 1985 to 2006, but Philippine waters have experienced a greater rate of increase (Peñaflor et al., 2009). Warming was most evident in 1998 during a very strong La Niña event, although the warming was preceded by 2–3 years of cooling because of the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, in the Philippines’ largest island. Patterns in warming vary greatly, however, with the interior waters and those south of the Philippines experiencing the least thermal stress (David et al., 2015; Peñaflor et al., 2009). The combined effects of increasingly intense tropical cyclones, ocean warming, and sea-level rise threaten disaster to coastal communities and highlight the importance of mangroves and coral reefs in stabilizing coastlines and attenuating wave action. Yet these coastal habitats are themselves imperiled by climate change. It is uncertain how or if mangroves will be able to keep up with the projected 0.19–1.04 m rise in sea level by 2080 (Villanoy et al., 2012), and the increase in sea surface temperature and number of thermal anomalies have led to a corresponding increase in the potential impacts of mass coral bleaching. The 1998 mass coral bleaching was the most severe and widespread in the Philippines so far. Thermal anomalies first developed in the northwest of the country, then spread further north, and then to the south (Arceo et al., 2001). Reefs in Bolinao in the northwest lost an average of 28% hard coral cover, and a section of Tubbataha Reefs in the Sulu Sea lost up to 46% (Arceo et al., 2001). Porites and Acropora, the two most dominant coral genera in the country (Licuanan, 2002), were also the most affected, along with Pocillopora, Pavona, and the hydrocoral Millepora (Arceo et al., 2001). Extended exposure to warm waters of up to 35°C led to fish kills in aquaculture farms, and mortalities of giant clams in ocean nurseries in Bolinao. The 2010 and 2016 heating events also resulted in bleaching, which was equally widespread but appears to have been less severe, except in some locations such as the east coast of Palawan Island.

23.6  HUMAN POPULATIONS AFFECTING THE AREA 23.6.1  Cities and People, Development, Economics, and Change The Philippines is the world’s 12th most populous country, with approximately 101 million people in 2015 (PSA, 2016a; UN-DESA, 2015). Over a tenth of Filipinos live in the highly urbanized National Capital Region, centered in Manila, and over half live along the coast (ADB, 2014). While population growth has begun to slow, density remains high, resulting in immense anthropogenic pressure on natural resources through overexploitation and degradation, especially since infrastructure for environmental management is not sufficient.

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Economic growth in the country is high, even by the standards of major developing countries (NEDA, 2014). This has been driven mostly by the services and industry sectors, with the former alone accounting for over half of GDP in 2016 (BSP, 2017). Sectors that rely on natural resources, such as agriculture, fisheries, and forestry, employed over a quarter of the population in 2016, despite generating only 8.7% of GDP. Filipinos employed in these sectors are also among the poorest, and over a fifth of the population lives below the poverty line (PSA, 2016b). The geographic position of the Philippines within the Pacific “ring of fire” and “typhoon belt” makes it highly vulnerable to natural disasters, which take an immense economic toll. The annual average loss from disasters is estimated at 1.8% of GDP or about US$4.14 billion (Balicasan, 2015). Typhoon Haiyan in 2013 is estimated to have decreased GDP growth by 0.3 points and increased national poverty incidence by about 2% (NEDA, 2014). Exposure to natural hazards such as landslides, flooding, and typhoons creates a higher risk of poverty. Hence, provinces along the country’s eastern coast, exposed to typhoons, tend to be more vulnerable to poverty (Balicasan & Hill, 2007; Mendoza et al., 2017).

23.6.2 Pollution Pollution in the Philippines is exacerbated by high population density, poor infrastructure, and weak implementation of management measures. The abundance of waterways facilitates the transport of pollutants into water bodies and eventually into the ocean. The combination of population expansion, economic growth, and poverty reduction has resulted in a boom in the demand for disposable consumer goods, which in turn has increased solid waste generation. The National Solid Waste Management Commission estimated a total daily solid waste generation of about 40,000 tons per day in 2016 (NSWMC, n.d.). Nearly a fourth of this is generated within the highly urbanized National Capital Region. The Philippines has some of the highest solid waste collection rates among countries of similar development status (Ocean Conservancy, 2015), but this does not translate to efficient waste management. The available infrastructure for waste management is scarce, with less than a quarter of barangays (villages) being served by materials recovery facilities (ADB, 2014), which are often simply open landfills. There are around 600 of these open dumpsites operating in the country (NSWMC, n.d.), despite the passage of the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act in 2000, which banned the operation of such facilities. The location of many of these dumpsites along waterways or even coasts results in a large transport of solid waste into marine waters. One study conducted in Manila Bay estimated that solid waste accounts for around 30% of biological oxygen demand (BOD) in the bay (ADB, 2009). Marine pollution by plastics is noted to be among the highest in the world. Over half of the plastic entering the world’s oceans originates in just five Asian countries: China, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines (Ocean Conservancy, 2015), of which the Philippines has the third greatest contribution, disposing of over half a million tons of plastic into the ocean per year. The amount of garbage collected during cleanup activities around Manila Bay has been steadily increasing since 2010 (Ranada, 2014). Most other types of water and marine pollution are also of terrestrial origin. The Environmental Management Bureau estimated that agriculture accounted for most of the water pollution, followed by domestic wastes and industry (EMB, 2014). There is little to no treatment of wastewater, which is mostly discharged directly into groundwater, canals, and waterways. Investments in sewerage and sanitation are highly inadequate, especially outside the urbanized areas (ADB, 2009). Despite this, urban areas still tend to have the poorest water quality. Manila Bay, whose 19,268 km2 catchment covers the national capital and surrounding provinces, has been recognized as a “pollution hot spot.” It does appear that environmental regulations have been successful in curbing at least some marine pollution, however, and Hosono et al. (2010) note a reduction in heavy metal levels in Manila Bay after the implementation of environmental regulations in the 1990s. Marine sources of pollution include aquaculture, shipping, and oil spills. The aquaculture industry is steadily growing, and made up over half of the country’s fish production in 2014. Aquaculture activities, however, contribute to sedimentation and eutrophication, among other issues (discussed later). Oil spills are another major contributor to marine pollution. These are typically sporadic events that most intensely affect specific areas. There have been several oil spills within the past 10 years, mainly as the result of pipeline leaks and shipping accidents. Of these, the worst was the 2006 sinking of the Solar I tanker off Guimaras Island in the Visayas. The release of about 350,000 tons of heavy fuel oil polluted about 200 km of coastline, including over 450 ha of protected mangroves (Uno et al., 2010). Maritime activities in the Philippines are intensive due to the country’s archipelagic nature, strategic position, and high reliance on marine resources such as fisheries. While oil spills tend to be sporadic and typically garner strong media attention, shipping causes more insidious harms, such as butylin contamination from antifouling paints. Prudente (2008) found high butylin levels in mussels from areas with intensive maritime activities. Butylin pollution in the Philippines ranks high among Asian developing countries, although it is still lower than in developed nations.

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23.6.3  Minerals, Oil, and Gas Many of the archipelago’s islands rest on mineral-rich underwater volcanic mountains, which have left large mineral deposits (Stark et al., 2006). The country is ranked third in the world for gold deposits, fourth for copper deposits, and fifth for nickel. Nickel extraction makes up the largest share of active mines and the largest economic contribution. Overall, mining contributes about 1% of the country’s GDP and employs about 0.5% of its workforce (MGB, 2017). The Philippines is also rich in natural gas. In 2015, it produced 122,541 million cubic feet, almost all of which came from the Malampaya gas field about 80 km northwest of Palawan Island (DOE, 2016). Most of this was used for the generation of about 40% of electric power in Luzon, the country’s largest island and location of the National Capital Region. The country’s natural wealth of mineral and gas resources is the source of much tension between extractive industries and environmental advocates. While the potential for economic benefits is considerable, so too are the environmental harms. Mining operations have contributed to deforestation and erosion, siltation, water pollution, and detrimental impacts to human health and livelihoods. Heavy metal and cyanide contamination have been found in various mining areas (Benoit et al., 1994; Huynh et al., 2014). The siltation and water pollution that accompanies mining often has large impacts on downstream watersheds and ecosystems such as seagrass beds and coral reefs (DENR, 2013; Earthworks & Oxfam America, 2004; NEDA, 2014). The most famously disastrous mining accident in the country’s history occurred at the Marcopper mine in Marinduque, an island province in the central portion of the archipelago. The mine was characterized by repeated accidents. A dam failure in 1996 was the most destructive, affecting an estimated 20,000 people, causing more than US$80 million in damages, and prompting a UN team to declare the neighboring Boac river to be “biologically dead” (Earthworks & Oxfam America, 2004; Holden & Jacobson, 2006; Stark et al., 2006). The contamination from this spill is recorded in the growth bands of corals from a neighboring reef (David, 2003).

23.6.4  Forest Clearance Deforestation has a long history in the Philippines, and it is thought that forest once covered between 80% and 90% of the country’s land area (Bankoff, 2007; Suarez & Sajise, 2010). By 1934, this had been reduced to around 57%. After a low point in the 1990s and subsequent reforestation efforts by government and nongovernment agencies, it is currently (as of the last survey in 2010) estimated at around 23% of land area, or about 6.8 million hectares (DENR-FMB, 2016). Of this, <1 million hectares consist of primary forest (Suarez & Sajise, 2010). The problems posed by deforestation are manifold. Firstly, the combination of the country’s steep topography, wet climate, deforestation, and agricultural techniques inappropriate for use on steep slopes has resulted in extreme erosion issues (Olabisi, 2012). The government’s Medium Term Development Plan (NEDA, 2014) categorized nearly half the country’s land area as moderately to severely eroded, resulting in widespread soil degradation, poor fertility, and the sediment pollution of adjacent water bodies (Asio et al., 2009; Olivares et al., 2016). These sediments are carried down into the ocean, where they reduce water clarity and smother nearshore benthic communities such as coral reefs and seagrass beds.

23.6.5  Coastal Erosion Coastal erosion affects much of the country’s 34,300 km of coastline. The sheer length of the coast exposes it to natural causes of erosion such as oceanographic processes and tectonic activities. Since 60% of the country’s population, and most of its major cities, are located on the coast, the impact of human interference is also high through sand mining, irresponsible infrastructure development, wetlands conversion, and other activities. One study conducted in San Fernando, a highly urbanized coastal city in Luzon, estimated that 283,085 m2 of land there would be lost to coastal erosion by 2100, with an estimated economic cost of about US$20 million (Bayani et al., 2009). The Mines and Geosciences Bureau has attributed the recent formation of “sinkholes” in Zambales and General Santos City to coastal erosion (Nawal, 2015; Villanueva, 2013). Nearshore agricultural areas are also expected to be affected (Perez et al., 1999).

23.7 RESOURCES 23.7.1  Artisanal and Industrial Fisheries Fisheries are very important to the Philippine economy, its food supply, and its social fabric (Palomares et al., 2014). Very productive continental shelves comprise about 12% of the Philippines’ Exclusive Economic Zone of over 2.2 million km2, including the contested waters on the west (BFAR, 2015; Palomares et al., 2014). The Philippines ranked eighth globally in terms of fisheries production in 2014, accounting for 2.4% of the total (BFAR, 2015). In 2015, fisheries accounted for 1.6% of the country’s domestic product and provided livelihood for about 3.4% of its population (PSA, 2017).

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Fish accounted for over a third of Filipinos’ animal protein consumption in 2011 (FAO, 2014), being about double that of the global average (28.8 vs. 15.1 kg/year). This high level is likely to be even higher among the poor (Briones, 2007). Palomares et al. (2014) cite figures from 36 kg/year up to 53.4 kg/year. Philippine fisheries production is dominated by marine “municipal” fisheries (i.e., those operating boats smaller than 3 gross tons), marine commercial fisheries, and aquaculture. The estimated catch in the late 1970s was around 0.9 million tons per year, but the shift to offshore pelagic fisheries in the late 1980s allowed growth to about 2.4 million tons per year by 2010, at the peak of production (Palomares & Pauly, 2014). However, production declined between 2010 and 2012 (Anticamara & Go, 2016; FAO, 2014). While aquaculture production has risen steadily over time, making up about half of total production in 2015 (PSA, 2017), capture fisheries have stagnated because of overfishing by an increasing number of fishers. Fishing effort was already double that of maximum sustainable yield in the mid-1980s (Barut et al., 2004). Continued overfishing has led to shifts in the volume and composition of catch. Purse seiners and ring-netters fishing with aggregating devices reported a decline in overall catch from 18 to 7 tons per setting over a period of 20 years (Macusi et al., 2015). Palomares and Pauly (2014) estimated marine catch based on data independent of government statistics amid concerns with official data, especially for artisanal fisheries (see also Anticamara and Go, 2016; Palomares et al., 2014). Their independent estimates still show overfishing, with fishes in the lower trophic levels making up more of the catch. Smaller, less palatable, low value fishes are now increasingly targeted as the preferred species become less common (Muallil, Mamauag, Cabral, et al., 2014). There has been little change in the catch of demersal fishes (e.g., snappers, sea catfish, Spanish mackerels) since 1976, while catch of small pelagic fishes (mainly round scads, sardines, anchovies, mackerels, big-eyed scads, round herrings) peaked in 1992 (Barut et al., 2004). These catch trends belie the depletion of nearshore (mostly demersal) fishing grounds and the shift to pelagic fisheries further offshore. The increase in shrimp and squid in the catch is more evidence of overfishing of demersal stock. These invertebrates were not recorded in postwar catches, but made up 25% of the catch in 1993 (Armada, 2004). The lucrative Philippine tuna fishery is also suffering from depletion of nearshore fishing grounds (Zaragosa et  al., 2004). Analysis of reported catch rates shows a positive relationship with distance from homeport, with the very mobile handliners typically traveling >400 km to their fishing grounds (Macusi et al., 2015). The shift to pelagic fisheries entails greater investments and fuel costs, as well as a fourfold increase in maximum time spent fishing from the 1950s to 2014 (Lavides et al., 2016) and greater risks (Muallil, Mamauag, Cabral, et al., 2014). What remains in nearshore waters are then left to the poor, subsistence fishers. Stocks are then further depleted. Overfishing is most apparent in coral reef areas. The mean catch rate (kg/day) in coral reef areas of the Philippines is among the lowest in the world, reflecting both the overexploitation and destruction of coral reef habitats (Aliño et al., 2004). There are so many fishers in coastal waters that fishing effort for demersal fishes could be reduced by three-fifths without a significant impact on yield (Barut et al., 2004). Muallil et al. (2013) found that catch rates in 44 towns was two times that of the estimated maximum sustainable yield. Reef fisheries were so intense that they were projected to collapse in 16 of 25 towns studied (Muallil et al., 2012). Harmful fishing methods exacerbate pressure on coral reefs. Reefs are damaged by fishing methods involving explosives, various poisons, and the pounding of corals to drive fish into bag nets (Alcala & Russ, 2002). Nañola et al. (2011) found from visual censuses that reef fish diversity is already reduced by these methods in the Visayas and the southern Philippine Sea. Lavides et al. (2016) documented at least 42 reef fish species that have disappeared from local catches between the 1950s and 2014. They also found that perceived changes in catch corresponded with introductions of destructive and highly effective practices such as the use of poisons (in the 1960s), fine mesh nets and trawls (in the 1970s), and operations of industrial fleets in nearshore areas. The low mean trophic level of the fishery in Danajon Bank, a double barrier reef in the Visayas, suggests recruitment overfishing of predator stocks, or ecosystem overfishing in general (Bacalso & Wolff, 2014). This pattern had already been noted in the 1980s (Alcala & Russ, 2002), but now is apparent even in remote reef areas in the country. Overfishing is creating more poverty, which is driving further overfishing. Poverty among fisheries workers in the Philippines is already even higher than that among farmers, particularly in the southern island of Mindanao (Briones, 2007). Severe overfishing now means that the average catch of a municipal (artisanal) fisher is only 30% of 1991 levels (World Bank, 2005 in Briones, 2007). The mean catch of municipal fishers is 1.87 ± 0.14 kg per hour (Anticamara & Go, 2016). Muallil et al. (2012) report an average of 4.8 kg per day (ranging from 2.0 to 16.5 kg per day). About 60% of the fishers were totally dependent on fishing for their livelihood (Muallil et al., 2013). The fishers they studied were earning an average of US$7.6 per day, 70% of whom earned less than this amount. In another study, only 3% of 3446 respondents from 20 municipalities found fishing financially rewarding, while 53% found that the income was barely enough for household expenses (Muallil, Mamauag, Cababaro, et al., 2014).

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Muallil et al. (2012) suggest that 37% of municipal waters (defined as 15 km from shore) must be closed to fishing to support the current number of fishers and already low catch levels in the 25 towns that they examined. An expanded version of their study found that 58% of the waters of 44 towns must be closed to all fishing activities to make existing catch levels sustainable, and even this is likely an underestimate given that illegal fishing methods were not included in their assessment (Muallil, Mamauag, Cabral, et al., 2014). Illegal fishing can account for a quarter of the catch in Danajon Bank, Central Philippines, with catch per unit effort that is 2.5–10 times that of legal fishing gears (Bacalso et  al., 2016). Enforcement, however, has significantly reduced blast fishing since the late 2000s (Muallil, Mamauag, Cabral, et al., 2014). Nearshore fishing grounds in the country are beset by pollution as well as by overfishing. Four of five priority bays for fishing had dissolved oxygen levels below the allowable limit, and the same number had phosphate levels exceeding the limit (San Diego-McGlone et al., 2004). One bay had coliform counts as high as 780,000 MPN/100 mL, far exceeding the allowable 200 MPN/100 mL (San Diego-McGlone et al., 2004). Manila Bay had dissolved oxygen levels as low as 0.12 mg L−1 (bay wide averages of 2.1 mg L−1) and the hypoxic layer could be as thick as 15–18 m driven by freshwater runoff during the rainy season, creating stratification and adding nutrients and organic material from domestic, industrial, and agricultural waste (Sotto et al., 2014). The marine aquarium or ornamental fish trade is a high value, low volume industry targeting about 400 species of reef fishes and some invertebrates, mostly for sale to hobbyists in the US and Europe (Ochavillo et al., 2004). The export of corals has been banned since 1977, but enforcement remains uneven. An estimated 90% of the fish collected in the 1990s were caught using cyanide, an illegal but apparently widespread practice (Ochavillo et al., 2004). At the same time, the trade has shifted to live reef food fish, targeting groupers, wrasses, and snappers for restaurants mostly in Asia (Pomeroy et al., 2008). Collection of ornamental fish has reduced their species richness in the Visayas (Nañola et al., 2011) and led to the shift in fishing effort to Palawan and southern Sulu Sea (Nañola et al., 2011; Pomeroy et al., 2008). There is little information about fisheries in deepwater areas exceeding 200 m in depth, of which the Philippines has at least 288,000 km2 (Flores, 2004). Although the deepwater fishery remains undeveloped compared to its shallow water counterparts, overfishing is also likely to occur here. This is illustrated by the boom–bust cycles of the fishery for dogfish sharks, targeted for their chemical extracts used in food supplements and cosmetics. Highly profitable at the onset, buyers pull out of depleted areas and return 6–10 years later when local stocks recover (Flores, 2004). Sea turtles have been exploited from before the Spanish colonial period (1521–1899; Alava & Cantos, 2004) and they and their eggs continue to be harvested today (Poonian et al., 2016). Sperm whales were hunted by American ships between 1825 and 1880 (Acebes, 2014). Obusan et al. (2016) correlate marine mammal strandings in the Philippines with direct interactions with fishers and fishing activities, and highlight the need to better understand the impact of blast fishing on marine mammals. As wild fisheries have declined, aquaculture has made up an increasing proportion of Philippine fish production. The sector has grown steadily since the 1950s, expanding 8% per year from 1997 to 2003 (Lopez, 2006). In 2014, aquaculture made up almost half of total fish production (BFAR, 2015). Seaweed makes up most of the aquaculture production, contributing around two-thirds of the total in 2014 (BFAR, 2015). Philippine seaweed production accounted for 3.5% of the global total in 2013, making it the third largest producer in the world (BFAR, 2015). These seaweeds are mainly Kappaphycus and Eucheuma that are processed to carageenans for food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. The main farmed fish is milkfish (Chanos chanos), of which the Philippines is the world’s top producer. Milkfish account for 17% of aquaculture production, most of which comes from monocultures in floating marine cages and brackish ponds. Tilapia is also a major fish product, accounting for 11% of production. The remainder is made up of various shrimps, shells, and finfishes (BFAR, 2015; Lopez, 2006). Mariculture has also had significant and thus far localized impacts on water quality in nearshore areas (Ferrera et al., 2016; San Diego-McGlone et al., 2008). Fish feeds with a smaller nitrogen/ phosphorus (N/P) ratio than required by the fish leads to accumulation of phosphorus from excreta and uneaten food. Several studies in  sites of intensive aquaculture production have found significant increases in carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and ammonium over time (David et al., 2009; Holmer et al., 2002; San Diego-McGlone et al., 2008). Compared to the waters around coral reefs, ammonia, phosphate, and sedimentation rates near the farms were 24, 4, and 10 times higher, respectively (Villanueva et al., 2005). This excess P, combined with excess N in runoff and groundwater from agriculture and domestics wastes, leads to massive fish kills at the onset of the rainy season (Ferrera et al., 2016). These fish kills are often precipitated by harmful algal blooms that can also potentially threaten human health (Escobar et al., 2013; Furuya et al., 2010).

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More than 90% of the floating fish cages in western Luzon were within 5 km from coral reefs (Hedberg et al., 2015) where they have been found to have modified water conditions and obliterated juvenile corals (Villanueva et al., 2005). The stressors resulting from mariculture activities tend to result in the reduction of biodiversity by favoring organisms that can tolerate more extreme conditions. For example, Fortes et al. (2012) reported a sharp decline in seagrass diversity with ­proximity to aquaculture sites in Bolinao, one of the most intensive aquaculture areas in the country. The sampling area closest to aquaculture structures had only two species of seagrass, compared to the seven found farthest from them.

23.7.2  Threats to Sustainable Use of Resources The impact of overexploitation, particularly by fisheries, is manifested in the poor state of reef fisheries (Muallil et al., 2011), the reduction in biodiversity of reef-associated fish communities (Nañola et  al., 2011), and by shifts in their trophic structure (Pauly & Palomares, 2005). Ecosystem overfishing, combined with effects of human induced stress such as siltation, eutrophication (Gurney et al., 2013; Melbourne-Thomas et al., 2011), and mass coral bleaching (Arceo et al., 2001), has resulted in shifts in coral-dominated communities to algal-dominated ones. Recovery of the depleted and degraded reef and mangrove habitats may take more than 20 years, even if effective reduction of intermediate causes were to occur. Giant clams and some less mobile invertebrates (e.g., Tripneutes gratilla, Juinio-Meñez, Bangi, Malay, & Pastor, 2008) have already been overharvested. Fortunately, sea ranching of marble-sized sea urchins in marine protected areas, together with size restrictions on catch, show promise in bringing back overharvested populations. On the other hand, banning the collection of species, such as CITES listed organisms, has shown ambiguous results. Despite these challenges, Gomez et al.’s work on giant clam restocking (Cabaitan and Conaco 2017; Gomez and Licuanan 2006) has shown some success and captured the attention of the public. The value of giant clams as tourist attractions serves as a link to area-based management. Overexploitation and the increasing desperation of coastal fishers is reflected in the level of destructive fishing (see Box 23.2). It is most prevalent in the Visayan Seas, some areas of the Palawan shelf, and the coasts of south Luzon, becoming less so as one goes farther from shore and in areas where MPAs have increased in numbers and size (Cabral et al., 2014). Weeks et al. (2009), working from a database of 985 MPAs in the country (http://www.mpa.msi.upd.edu.ph), observed an almost exponential increase in MPA number after the 1991 passage of the Local Government Code that transferred the control of coastal waters up to 15 km from shore to municipal governments. Weeks et al. (2009) also estimated the total area of these MPAs to be 14,943 km2. By 2014, the number of MPAs in the database had increased to 1800 (Cabral et al., 2014). While this increase is encouraging, it does not translate directly to success; the geographical and size distribution of these MPAs is imbalanced, and their success has been shown to depend on several local factors, particularly enforcement (Pollnac & Seara, 2011; Samoilys et al., 2007; Weeks et al., 2009).

BOX 23.2  Blast Fishing in the Philippines Blast fishing is an illegal practice, but widespread in many parts of the Philippines, becoming prevalent in the 1950s and continues to the present. About 70,000 people, or 12% of fishers in the country are suspected of being involved in blast fishing (Sievert, 1999). The head of the fisheries bureau recently estimated that 10,000 incidents of blast fishing occur every day in the Philippines (Yamsuan, 2012). The design of the explosives used, called “bumbong,” differs according to whether the fish targeted are pelagic or demersal or benthic (Galvez, Hingco, Bautista, & Tungpalan, 1989). Tin cans or small medicine bottles are used for surface fish while Bumbong for bottom fish are commonly made from weighted bottles (Galvez et al., 1989; McManus, Reyes Jr, & Nañola Jr, 1997). Both use gunpowder or potassium nitrate layered with sand or pebbles, with blasting caps or commercial fuses tied to two matchsticks for easy ignition (Fig. B.23.2). Kerosene is added just before use, coupled with a long fuse to delay detonation. The original source of gunpowder was from unexploded bombs from World War II. Modern explosive materials are sourced from bomb training ranges and mining operations. As these supplies diminished and prices rose, fishers shifted to potassium nitrate fertilizer (Galvez et al., 1989; Saila, Kocic, & McManus, 1993). Commercial fuses or blasting caps are also illegally sourced from miners, and the process of making these devices is a family effort involving even the children (Galvez et al., 1989). Philippine Republic Act 10654 of 2015 specifies a penalty of at least thirty thousand (P30,000) to three million Philippine pesos (P3M) or five times the value of the catch and confiscation of both catch and gear for the activity. The offender can be imprisoned from 5 to 10 years, and fined an amount double that of the administrative fine. However, enforcement remains a major problem. Continued

BOX 23.2  Blast Fishing in the Philippines—cont’d

FIG. B.23.2  An unexploded “bumbong” made from a gin bottle with a rock weight tied to it. The fertilizer and kerosene mix it contained has dissolved away but the smell of the latter was still detectable when this improvised explosive was recovered in Northern Samar, Philippines. Photograph by A Principe.

On reefs, children have been observed blast fishing using bamboo rafts, presumably for domestic consumption. Many blast fishers set up fish aggregating devices too (Galvez et al., 1989; Saila et al., 1993; Sievert, 1999). Dolphins and small whales are also targeted (Adorador III, 2014). Blast fishing is presumed to be the cause for the correlation between rubble cover and distance from centers of law enforcement in Danahon Bank, central Philippines (Marcus, Samoilys, Meeuwig, Villongco, & Vincent, 2007). Extensive rubble fields result from decades of blast fishing, creating unstable surfaces for coral recolonization (Fox & Caldwell, 2006). Loose rubble marks blast epicenters to a radius of 1.5 m around them (Fox & Caldwell, 2006) (Fig. B.23.3). Magdaong et al. (2014) found comparable recovery rates in coral cover where there is partial or full protection. Recovery can be swift if the affected reef is relatively healthy and has an adequate supply of coral recruits, and after 5 years of recovery, blast craters on reefs cannot be distinguished from surrounding areas.

FIG. B.23.3  Blast crater in N Samar. The crater is about 3 m in diameter, and is estimated to be <2 years old. Photograph by the author.

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BOX 23.2  Blast Fishing in the Philippines—cont’d Fish caught by explosives go stale quickly which deters some fish distributors (Galvez et al., 1989), but many buyers do not ask questions and feign ignorance when apprehended. Little or no social stigma is associated with blast fishing in many areas, since the communities involved in it, like most coastal communities in the Philippines, are marked by poverty and limited social services and facilities from government (Galvez et al., 1989). Sporadic high yields are often a cause of celebration, and there is often a marked increase in blast fishing just before the annual feast day of a patron saint. Not surprisingly, everyone ultimately loses from blast fishing. The estimated benefits to blast fishers of US$14,600 per km2 over 25 years pale in comparison to the losses of US$40000, US$190000, and US$108000 for tourism potential, coastal protection, and foregone fishery income, respectively, as the reefs are degraded (White et al., 2000). W.Y. Licuanan

REFERENCES Adorador, D. V., III (2014). Dynamite fishermen kill 22 rare whales. Philippine Daily Inquirer. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/588683/dynamite-fishermen-kill-22-rare-whales (accessed 22.01.16). Fox, H. E., & Caldwell, R. L. (2006). Recovery from blast fishing on coral reefs: a tale of two scales. Ecological Applications, 16(5), 1631–1635. Galvez, R., Hingco, T. G., Bautista, C., & Tungpalan, M. T. (1989). In Towards sustainable development of the coastal resources of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines: Proceedings of an ASEAN/US coastal resources management project workshop, Bauang, La Union, Philippines, 25–27 May 1988. Sociocultural dynamics of blast fishing and sodium cyanide fishing in two fishing villages in the Lingayen Gulf area (Vol. 1, pp. 43). World Fish Center. Magdaong, E. T., Fujii, M., Yamano, H., Licuanan, W. Y., Maypa, A., Campos, W. L., et al. (2014). Long-term change in coral cover and the effectiveness of marine protected areas in the Philippines: a meta-analysis. Hydrobiologia, 733(1), 5–17. Marcus, J. E., Samoilys, M. A., Meeuwig, J. J., Villongco, Z. A. D., & Vincent, A. C. J. (2007). Benthic status of near-shore fishing grounds in the Central Philippines and associated seahorse densities. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54(9), 1483–1494. McManus, J. W., Reyes, R. B., Jr., Nañola, C. L., Jr. (1997). Effects of some destructive fishing methods on coral cover and potential rates of recovery. Environmental Management, 21(1), 69–78. Saila, S. B., Kocic, V. L., & McManus, J. (1993). Modelling the effects of destructive fishing practices on tropical coral reefs. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 94(1), 51–60. Sievert, R. (1999). A closer look at blast fishing in the Philippines. Over Seas, An Online Magazine for Sustainable Seas, 2(5). http://www. oneocean.org/overseas/may99/a_closer_look_at_blast_fishing_in_the_philippines.html. White, A. T., Vogt, H. P., & Arin, T. (2000). Philippine coral reefs under threat: the economic losses caused by reef destruction. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 40(7), 598–605. Yamsuan, C. (2012). Senate told of rampant dynamite fishing. Philippine Daily Inquirer. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/290294/senate-toldof-rampant-dynamite-fishing-in-ph (accessed 22.01.17).

23.7.3  Management Responses The vulnerability of coastal populations, particularly those of groups like fishers, the elderly, and women, will increase in the next decade, especially if coastal development plans do not consider their potential marginalization. While poverty incidence and overall hunger seem to be stabilizing in other sectors, fisher income has remained below the poverty threshold and they remain the poorest in the Philippines (Cabral et al., 2013). Muallil et al. (2011) showed that overcoming fishers’ lack of education, poverty, and food security requires addressing drivers of development (Foale et al., 2013) and enabling conditions such as provision of alternative livelihood, safety nets, and capacity (e.g., through the conditional cash transfer program). In addition, depleted fish stocks must be restored, in combination with access and tenure arrangements, to yield better social and ecological benefits (Juinio-Meñez, 2015). Multilevel governance approaches are evolving beyond individual municipal government efforts. These often begin with harmonization of plans and approaches by municipal governments incorporating a variety of marine spatial planning strategies in MPA networks (Uychiaco et al., 2000; Weeks et al., 2014). These efforts are then scaled up further though interlocal government alliances. Horigue et al. (2012) review the development of MPA networks and alliances of local governments (e.g., the Lanuza Bay Development Alliance, and the Verde Island Passage Marine Corridor) and find promise in their expansion. There are also national government programs, such as the Fisheries Sector Program and the Fisheries Resources Management Project that focused on fisheries management and alternative livelihood projects for fishers in 20 priority bays and gulfs (Cruz-Trinidad et al., 2009). There is now further scaling up of such efforts to the level of marine corridors and seascapes in the marine biogeographic regions. This is exemplified by the initiation of seascape-level cooperative agreements such as the Network of the West Philippine Sea and the Network

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of the North Philippine Sea (Horigue et al., 2016). This scaling up, in turn, is consistent with the goals of the Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries, and Food Security, a multilateral partnership of six neighboring countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands, and Timor Leste). While there seems to be a long way to go to achieve the desired outcomes, considerable progress has been made in the Philippines in three of the five goals of the Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI), viz: (1) the establishment of seascapes (DeVantier et al., 2004), (2) the promotion of Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management (EAFM; Heenan et al., 2015), and (3) the improvement of MPA management (White et al., 2014). To date, two seascape networks have been initiated with the trinational agreement in the Sulu Sulawesi, and with the signing of a Memorandum of Agreement by 11 provincial governors in the West Philippine Sea. A strategic action plan has been drafted by representatives of nine provinces to initiate the establishment of an MPA network (through a bio-regional seascape) in the North Philippine Sea. EAFM has been pursued in “right sizing” of coastal fisheries in eight areas (Lingayen Gulf; Verde Island Passage; Calamian Islands of Palawan; Sorsogon; Surigao; Danahon Bank, Bohol; Southern Negros; and Lagonoy Gulf in Bicol) by the EcoFish project of the United States Agency for International Development. Increases in fisheries yields have already been recorded in some of these eight areas. Progress is much more limited in the two remaining goals of the CTI; (4) the initiation of local climate adaptation planning; and (5) the improvement of the status of threatened species. There is a need for national government to adopt a broad, integrated policy for managing its waters and coastal areas. A comprehensive shift of frameworks and development strategies is needed to overcome the constraints of the socioecological systems and processes. Proposed instruments to guide this shift include the Sustainable Philippine Archipelagic Development Framework (DENR et al., 2004) and the road map for a blue economy (Azanza et al., 2017; see Table 23.1.).

TABLE 23.1  A Summary of the Major RESPONSES Based on the Major Thrusts in Addressing the Five Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI) Objectives in the Context of Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) and the Overall Philippine Development Plan (PDP 2017–30) Drivers

Pressures

State

Impact

Proposed Responses

Population growth (DeVantier et al., 2004); low capacity and asymmetry in wealth distribution

Overfishing and unregulated resource uses (Pauly et al., 1989)

Overexploited resources (Muallil, Mamauag, Cababaro, et al., 2014)

Poverty and resource depletion (Pauly et al., 1989)

A framework for sustainable Philippine Archipelagic Development (ArcDev; DENR, UNDP, & MERF Inc., 2004)

Poor coastal and marine governance (Cabral et al., 2013)

Unwise land and sea uses (Gomez et al., 1994)

Degraded habitats and conflicting uses

Unstable ecosystem goods and services

Rationalize land and water uses in coastal and marine areas

Poverty related to asymmetrical social and economic development

Pollution and conflicting uses

Declining coastal and marine integrity (Siringan et al., 2000)

Social and economic conflicts (Cabral & Aliño, 2011)

Mainstream the blue economy as part of the Philippine Development Plan (NEDA, 2017)

Food insecurity (Foale et al., 2013; Sumaila & Cheung, 2015)

Malnutrition and Malthusian overexploitation (e.g., illegal and destructive fishing; Cabral et al., 2013)

Reduction of sustainability in the productivity of coastal and marine ecosystems (Padilla, 2009)

Inequitable wealth distribution, increased hunger, corruption (Muallil et al., 2011)

Improve access controls and enhance affordability of coastal resources together with adding value in the supply chain

Disaster risks and vulnerability to climate change (D'Agnes et al., 2010)

ENSO and interaction with overexploitation; increasing typhoons and associated risks to fisheries and uncertainty related to thermal anomalies like bleaching and changes in oceanographic processes

Changes in coastal and demersal productivity and regime shifts (Melbourne-Thomas et al., 2011; Villanoy et al., 2011)

Increase in vulnerability of coastal and marine ecosystems (Licuanan et al., 2015; Siringan et al., 2000)

Develop resiliency through capacity building, improve science based knowledge management; and building of socialgovernance networks (Cabral et al., 2012)

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In addition, strategies employed by the CTI are a good start given the development drivers that lead to pollution, siltation, and habitat degradation that would challenge the recovery of the ecosystems. However, a massive capacity building effort is still needed to enable stakeholders to deal with the sustainable development challenges and negative environmental impacts.

23.8 SUMMARY The Philippines’ economy and way of life of its people is intertwined with the state and processes of its marine environment, especially its coastal and marine ecosystems. The country’s mountainous terrane, large number of active volcanoes, and the reversing monsoon system and location within the typhoon belt make it prone to natural disasters. Climate change, large human populations, poor infrastructure, and insufficient environmental management make the impacts of these disasters worse. More than half of over 100 million Filipinos live along the coast and those involved in agriculture, forestry, and particularly fisheries make up most of the poor. Solid waste and sewage pollution is compounded by urbanization, deforestation, mining, and intensive maritime activities. The Philippines is also one of the most biologically diverse countries in the world, having the richest coral and shorefish fauna. The country is part of the Coral Triangle, which contains about half of the world’s coral reefs and is known to be the center of diversity of many other organisms, such as mangroves. The reefs, seagrass meadows, and mangrove forests provide many ecosystem services, supporting fisheries, coastal tourism, and shoreline protection. However, they are under severe threat from human activities and climate change. Fish catch trends belie the depletion of nearshore fishing grounds by increasing the numbers of fishers and habitat degradation. Coral cover in the Philippines has decreased significantly and mangrove loss is among the fastest in the world. Increase in sea surface temperatures in the Philippines is faster than that of the rest of the Coral Triangle. Sea-level rise is 2–3 times more significant in the Philippines than it is globally. Recent efforts to manage fisheries have already resulted in improvements in catch. Marine protected areas have increased in number, size, and effectiveness. Fisheries and coastal area management interventions are being applied and coordinated in progressively larger scales, moving from individual municipal jurisdictions to entire marine corridors and seascapes. However, there is a long way to go to achieve the desired outcomes.

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