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THE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY OF THE SALIVA.
214
Another question to which I had proposed effectus apud vulgus notissimi sint: to direct your attention in the present lecture massam farinaceam fermentat *.... ut merito still remains to be considered ; namely, adpossit humanae naturae sapo." .... 11 Ita saliva ob nitro-salinam quam mitting it to be established that poisons enter the blood, and act either upon that fluid or substantiam, va.ria3 nature cibos incithrough it upon the several structures and dendo, abstergendo, et penetrando digerit, ac organs of the body, what general laws do solvit."-(Ibid., p. 426.) we observe to regulate those salutary efforts * « In of the system by which the effects of poisons vulgus notum est, Indos potus suos are either resisted or ultimately eradicated inebriantes ita praeparare, ut vetulae edulenfrom the constitution, and which it becomes I tulae, grana mayz manducent, et succum cum equally the duty of the surgeon to study and saliva mistum exspuant in proprium vas ter. take as his guide ? reum, in quo, moderato tempore excoquatur in cervisiam illis gentibus acceptissimam syrupi, illapsa per incuriam saliva, visi sunt acidi, et turbidi facti esse."-(Boerhaave, THE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY Prselec., p. 141.) "Panis bicoctus masticatus et saliva3 OF probe mistus aeri calido si exponatur, de ....
dici
habet
THE SALIVA.
novo
fermentabitur.’—(Nuck, Sialographia,
53.) Vide, Markgraav. (De Chyli, p. By SAMUEL WRIGHT, M.D. Edin., F.S.A., p. General 28) ; Lery (p. 140) ; Vermegen (2, p. 113); Physician to the Birmingham
of the Army, p. 401). Fermentationem spirituosam farinaceorum adjuvat (saliva) hinc gentes barbarse ex (Continued from p. 76.) mansis radicibus .1 atrophae Manihot et PipeDIGESTIVE PROPERTIES OF SALIVA. ris methystici potum sibi parant inebriantem." sit has been imposed upon the scientific - (Plenck, Hygrologia, p. 57.) " Inter alia vero fermentationem imprimis world that the observations concerning the , peculiar action which saliva is capable of notare licet in Potus genere, quod ex Milio exerting upon starch and other such matter grandi, Maiz dicto, Braziliani sibi parant, are of modern date. But it happens that dum hujus grana dentibus aut gingivis paulthis discovery, like many others professedly latim atterunt horum vetulas, eaque saliva originating in our own age, is only an echo imbuunt ac macerant, quae deinde reliqus of antiquity. The taxation of research is a massae fermentandas in Capulis congruis rather severe one ; but it has the advantage asservatae commiscent, ut mediante hoc ferof keeping a check upon that prevalent sys- mento potus acidulus atque inebrians protem of imposture which, regardless of names deat. Simile quid observare quoque continand of dates, will flagrantly violate the his- git in potu, quem Gujanae Jncolae ex Castory of mankind in assigning unto a plagia- savi radice sibi peculiarem habent, dum rist the merits of his predecessor. A desire quosdam ejusdem taleolos a mulieribus ac not to be classed with those who regard a pueris bene masticatos et cum saliva in literary theft as less amenable to a code of pastam redactos aliis, aqua maceratis, adjimorals than the more palpable acts of felony, ciunt atque sic mixturam hanc in fermentais my apology for an extent of reference tionem concitant: ’-Vide Bohn. (Disput. de which otherwise might be tedious. As in Menstr. Univers. Animal., sec. 9) ; Weber the preceding instances, so in this, beforeI(Anchor. Sauciator. seu de Liq. Styptic., p. detailing my own experiments I shall give,47); Henr. Meibom. (Disp. de Chylificat., to the best of my ability, a record of the ob-sec. 60); Martin Lister (De Humoribus, servations of previous authors concerning thecap. 12, p. 119) ; Ortlob. (Histor. Part. sec. 10, p. 29). digestive properties of saliva ; whence itDissert., " will be seen that many of the older writers Chica est vinum ex Mazio, quo inebriwere as intimately acquainted with theseantur Barbari. Tundunt et moliunt duabus Mazium admixta aqua, inde fit massa properties as are those of the present day petris ] who flatter themselves with the discovery. c Foemina, quae molit, sumit !per quaedam. " Salivam ob insignes suas, ac pene innu-iintervalla particulam et mandit, rursus abjimerabiles virtutes, quas in nobis fundendo,cit ( in massam. Dicuut pro fermento id esse, ( solvendo, abstergendo, ac celeriter pene- et causamjucundae accedinis. Postea aqua trando producit, quasque paucis notae, et a, (coquunt et effusa in urceos biduo acescit, hic potus Indis, nec contemnunt paucis quantum debet explicate sunt, pri-gratissimus 1 marium chilificationis menstruum saepe in IHispani. Salutaris hic potus, sicut et theatro pronunciavimus."-(Baglivi, Opera ipsum i Mazium, rellum et jecoris dolori, calDiss. 2, circa salivam, p. 422.) (culi, et urinae retentioni."-Vide Ant. ColOmnia, 11 Inutile futurum puto hic multis probare mener. I de Ledesma (De Chocolada Inda, a velle salivam liquorem esse abstergentem,Joh. Aurel Severin. ex Hispanico Idiomate i Latinum translata, p. 61). Bolveatem, et mire penetrantem, cum ipsius in
Dispensary, &c.
Pringle (Diseases
&c.
41
<
215 11 Imprimis salivae usus in eo consistit, ut subtili secedat. Liquor vero ille sit acetum cibis solidioribus inter masticandum admixta aliquod naturae sive philosophorum, quod eorundum dissolutionem et liquefactionem nonnulli appellant spiritum saturni vegetapromoveat atque chilificationem inchoet:’- bilis ; stant tam diu, donec bullarum agitatio cesset, trajiciantur postea liquida per purum (Gurisch., loc. cit., p. 109.) "Ipsa quoque potulenta quae dilucndis linteum ut admirandus illae naturse actus cibis potissimum inserviunt, etsi absque majori gaudio observari possit, et porro per masticatione deglutiantur, nihilominus ta- chartaceum filtrum et liquor pertranseat men in ore insigniter a saliva alterantur."— clarior. Liquori huic claro et perspicuo aiiunde denique anaticam biliosi spiritus por(Ibid., p. 110.) "Instar omnium laudari meretur usus tionem, id est, liquorem fiammis coruscum et saliva decantatissimus, quem ad mastica- obnoxium, auri aemulum, qualis esse solet tionem perficiendam praestat. Est enim pri- spiritus quintae essentise depuratus, et facta marium veluti menstruum microcosmicum, subito eflervescentia, compositum illud mi-
assumta penetrando, emolliendo, et grabit in lac quoddam candidissimum, chyli Ecce jam vobis ferimmutando ad digestionem praeprimis adap- purissimi æmulum. tans ; quo sive depravato sive ablato mox mentationern! ecce effervescentiam ! ecce deficit appetitus, vitiatur masticatio et deglu- ciborum analysin, chylum, grossum, spumotitio, turbatur concoctio atque digestio."- sum, liquidum diaphanum, lacteum !"loc. cit., p. 113-14.) (Hoffmann, Disput. de Saliv. ejusque morb., (Gurisch, " Cibos sub masticatione (saliva) admixta cap. 3, p. m. 10, et cap. 4, p. 12.) " Chylificationis opus sequenti modo ex- solvit, diluit, in sua principia resolvit, in plicat J. Tackius (Chrysogon. Animal. et pultaceum et commode deglutiendum bolum Mineral., p. m. 18, et seq). Accipiatur mutat. Hinc chymificationem inchoat."panis vel quodcunque eduli genus, sive sit (Plenck, Hygrologia, p. 58.) " Pulmentum matris saliva imprægnatum caro, sive pomum, sive rapum, vel omne quod obsoniinomine veuit,incidatur dentibus quam infanti tenellulo admodum prodest, atque minutissime ; post indatur vitro et consper- facilius in ventriculo in chylum aetati huic et gatur notabili salivae quantitate, quae masti- temperamento accommodatum abit, quam si cato cibo sit congrua : committatur hinc alius hominis saliva humectetur."--(WaldInstitut. Med., cap. 3, p. 16.) vitrum, probe obturatum, calidis cineribus, schmeid, " La bouillie, impregnée de la salive de la ita ut cineres illud undiquaque tegant, ad eminentiam contentorum, ad horas duodecim, mere est si bonne pour le petit enfant, qu’elle interdum ultra, etiam ad viginti quator, ne- se reduit plutot en chyle dans l’estomac de que enim in vase artis tam cito omnia absolvi ce petit corps et s’accommode mieux à son possunt; et dehiscent contenta in minima, temperament, que si elle etoit humectée par apparebuntque hinc inde bullae varias sortis, la salive d’autres personnes:’-(Bellefonexiguæ, mediæ, et majores, quae dum bulla taine, Med. Dogmat. Physiol., Exerc. 7, p. bullam urget instar vini novi aut cerevisiae 26.) Bohnius (Circul. Anatom. Physiolog. fermentis agitatorum, turgidam elevabunt leniter massam. Massae huic affundatur Prosy. 9, 134) regarded saliva as a "unipostea liquor, succi pancreatici vicarius, vel versal menstruum in dissolving food." ejus naturam redolens, ut aucta aciditate ; Theod. Craan (Dissert. Phys. Med. de tanto felicius opus procedat, et grossum a Hom., cap. 4, p. 11, et seq.) believed the saliva to assist the digestion of food by ex" Barbari Brasiliae Incolæ etiam èradici- citing a ferment in it. bus suae Mandyuccæ liquorem potulentum ’ Zypoeus (Fundament. Medicin., cap. 3, conficiunt, quo supra modum delectantur. art. 12, p. 106) maintained that saliva comHas scilicet radices vetulis quibusdam eden- mences chylification in the mouth, and that a tulis tradunt, quæ ore emollitas aquam lim- bolus of bread will chylify if exposed to pidam continenti exspuunt. Saliva earum ! saliva alone. Bernh. Swalve (Querel. et Opprob. Venpro fermento est, unde liquori oritur Zymosis, quae eum jucundum reddit et tantarum tricul., p. 43) was of the same opinion as virium, ut non alio debacchentur iste gentes, Zypoeus ; and he further affirmed, that bread quoties maetato captivo triumphantes festum will soften and liquefy much sooner in saliva agunt."-Vide Henr. Mundius (De Aere than in any other fluid. Vital. de Pot., cap. 10, p. 344) ; Gurisch These opinions, slightly modified, were also entertained by Lanzonus (De Saliva, (loc cit., 150-1). "Inducor, ut credam, salivam continere in cap. 3, p. 47), Martin Lister (Dissert. de se, sal nitro-salinumuniversali sali analogum Humor., cap. 12, p. 120), Jacob. de Sandris ob eximias, ac prorsus mirabiles suas veres, (De Sanguin. Stat., part 1, cap. 3, p. 68), quas solvendo, fundendo, abstergendo, et Linsing (Institut. Med., p. 74), Viridetus licet insipida videatur, potentur penetrando (De Prim. Coction., part 2, cap. 7, p. 312), in fermentatione ciborum, purificatione chyli, Zwinger (Fascicul. Dissert. Med., diss. 8, p. 378), Tauvry (Anat., cap. 1, ejusdemque in sanguinem mutatione, con- de coctioneque absolvit." Baglivi (Opera p. 10). See also, Buxbaum (Catech. Med., part 1, Physiolog. Quæst. 57 seq5 ,), Gerard Omnia, p. 428).
quasvis
I
I,
Saliva,
-
216
BIas (Institut. Med., part 1, cap. 2, p. 18), Joh. Bapt. Verloschnig (De Abus. Curat., Verno-Autumnal., cap. 5, p. 110), Joh. Jacob. Francisc. Vicar (Basis Univers. Medic., lib. 1, cap. 5, sec. 6, p. 27), Mich. Sebiz (Manual seu Specul. Medicinæ Pract., part 2, sec. 4, cap. 27, p. 518, seq.).
In the appendix to Pringle " On Diseases of the Army," is the following account of experiments performed by the author, in illustration of the digestive properties of saliva.* " EXPERIMENT 29.-To ascertain the effects of the saliva in digestion, I added a small portion of it to some raw beef, and observed that this mixture, in the usual heat, putrefied slower than another which had no saliva joined to it."
in that action ferment strongly, and generate much air in the stomach and bowels." " EXPERIMENT 31.-After seeing the effects of the fresh saliva, both in keeping up and moderating fermentation, I wanted to know its qualities when putrid. For this purpose, having collected a sufficient quaiitity, I kept it about three days in the fur. nace,* and then added the usual proportion thereof to the common mixtures of,’bread, flesh, and water; which not only brought on the fermentation sooner, but made it stronger and more productive of air than would have happened without the saliva. The flesh became also more than usually putrid, but was at last sweetened by the acid produced by the fermentation ; so that, by the time the action ceased, the contents of the phial smelled and tasted sour, without any remains of putrefaction. " From this experiment we find it still more probable that all animal substances have a power (in proportion to their degree of corruption) of exciting a fermentation in the
" EXPERIMENT 30.-1. I took two drachms of fresh meat, the same quantity of bread, and an ounce of water, and to these added as much saliva as I supposed necessary for digestion. This mixture, being beaten in a mortar, was put into a close phial, and set in the furnace, where it remained about two days, with scarce any visible fermentation ; common farinacca." but, on the third day, this action became " manifest. At that time I found the bread EXPERIMENT 32.—I took two drachms and flesh risen in the water, a sediment of a fresh mackerel skinned, with an equal nevertheless forming, and bubbles of air con- quantity of bread, and having reduced them tinually mounting ; in a word, the fermenta- to the usual consistence with an ounce of tion was complete, being also distinguished water, I put them in the furnace, together by a vinous smell, as in ordinary working with another phial, containing the like mixliquors. The action continued above twice ture, but with the addition of fresh saliva; as long as when no saliva was used ; it was and a third, with the same quantities of fresh more moderate, and generated air with little beef, bread, and water, only, with which the tumult. When the fermentation entirely two former were to be compared. In less ceased, the mixture had a pure acid taste, than five hours after infusion, the materials though weaker than what was produced in in all the phials began to rise, to float in the the former experiments ; and I took notice water, and to ferment; and during the whole that it was without any putrid smell from process I perceived no difference between the fermentation occasioned by the fish and the beginning. « 2. I likewise varied this experiment, as that by the flesh, except that the phials with I had done the first, in using roasted meat the fish retained the corrupted smell longest. instead of raw; and sometimes oatmeal in- But next day, the fermentation still subsiststead of bread ; but the result was still the ing, the acid smell was to be distinguished in same. One circumstance may deserve par- all the phials ; and on the fourth day (the ticular notice. An ounce of bread, as much corks having been drawn the night before) I roasted meat, about two ounces of water, was scarce sensible of any difference between and a small quantity of the saliva, being the first and the third, or standard phial, beaten together, were allowed to ferment in a either as to taste or smell; and both were heat of 65 degrees; and having examined very acid. But the liquor in the second the phial with a thermometer, I found it phial was not so sour; and it yielded such about three degrees warmer than the external a vinous smell as was taken notice of before, when the fresh saliva was added to the air." " From these last experiments it appears common mixture with the beef."-Exp. 30. that if the saliva is sound, is in a sufficient Spallanzani and Reaumur introduced food, quantity, and well mixed with the aliment, previously deposited in perforated tubes, into it is qualified for retarding putrefaction, pre- the stomachs of different animals ; they venting immoderate fermentation, flatulence, found that when the food was moistened and acidity in the primœ viœ. But if that with saliva, it digested more quickly than humour is deficient, unsound, or not well * " mixed with what is swallowed, that the aliViz.blood-warm, or about 100 degrees ment may first putrefy, then grow acid, and of Fahr. thermometer ; and the same degree of heat is to be understood as used in the * I believe these experiments were per- rest of these experiments, unless when it is formed in the year 1750 or 1751. expressed otherwise:’
217
when moistened with pure water. (Baly’s I shall now proceed with the detail of my own experiments. Muller, vol. i., p. 576.) One drachm of starch, in a finely-powdered Tiedemann and Gmelin acknowledge a solvent property in the saliva ; but they state, was digested in four drachms of saliva, ascribe ttrs property to the salts contained at a temperature of 98° Fahr. for twelve in the secretion. (Recherch. sur la Diges- hours. Thirty-one grains of sugar were ob-
and the solution was strongly impregnated with lactic acid. The residual starch was digested in three drachms of saliva, slightly alkaline, atatemperature of 68° for two days. The solution became acid as before, and eight grains of sugar were formed. (Kastner’s Archiv., 1831.) "Schwann has verified the statement of Four drachms of filtered saliva, faintly Leuchs, that starch is converted into sugar alkaline, sp. gr. 1.005, were digested upon by the action of saliva. He digested in some one drachm of starch for twelve hours, at a acidulated saliva for twenty-four hours a temperature of 98°. Nineteen grains of certain quantity of boiled starch, then filtered sugar, together with lactic acid, were obthe fluid, and found that iodine produced in tained. it no change of colour. Having neutralised Four drachms of saliva were exposed to it, and evaporated it to dryness, he obtained the atmosphere for twenty-four hours. At from the residue, by means of alcohol, a con- the end of that time the secretion was alkasiderable quantity of sugar, which he recog- line : it was then digested upon one drachm nised by its taste, as well as by its property of starch, and kept at a temperature of 680 of fermenting with yeast. The part of the for thirty-six hours. It furnished thirteen residue which the alcohol did not take up grains of sugar, and much lactic acid. consisted of the salivary matter of the saliva, A quantity of saliva was boiled for half an in part altered in its properties, and of starch hour: at the end of that time the liquid changed to a substance resembling gum, having cooled down to 98°, four drachms of which did not with iodine strike the blue it were mixed with one drachm of starch, colonr which characterises starch." (Baly’s and the mass was kept at a temperature of 98° for twenty-four hours. It became Müller, p. 596.) Sebastian has also confirmed the observa- strongly impregnated with lactic acid, and tions of Leuchs and Schwann. (Van Setten, afforded twenty-six grains of sugar. Two scruples of starch, mixed with four Dissert. de Saliva.) " of alkaline saliva, were placed in Berzelius, on the other hand, observes, that saliva alone has no more action on ali- oxygen gas over mercury, and kept at a temmentary substances, dissolves no greater perature of 68° for four days. At the end of part of them than pure water ; and I must that time the mixture had absorbed its own confess that I (Miiller) have perceived volume of the oxygen, and had liberated half scarcely any difference between the action of its volume of carbonic acid gas. It fursaliva and that of water on meat, in experi- nished a quantity of lactic acid, and twentyments instituted for the purpose of compari- two grains and a half of sugar. son." (Baly’s Muller, p. 576.) This form of experiment was repeated, Dr. Beaumont makes the following obser- with the difference, that the mixture was vations in reference to the digestive action of I kept at a temperature of 98° for twenty-four saliva:«If the materia alimentaria could hours. Three-fourths of its volume of oxygen be introduced into the stomach in a finely- were absorbed, and two-thirds of its volume divided state, the operations of mastication, of carbonic acid gas were liberated. The insalivation, and deglutition, would not be mass was strongly acid, and furnished twentyfour grains and a quarter of sugar. necessary." 2. "The processes of mastication, insalivaThree drachms of saliva were placed tion, and deglutition, in an abstract point of under oxygen gas for four days. It abview, do not in any way affect the digestion sorbed just its own volume of the gas,- deof the food; or, in other words, when food is posited a little albumen and mucus, but conintroduced directly into the stomach in a tinued alkaline. It was then mixed with finely-divided state, without these previous two scruples of starch, and kept at a teillsteps, it is as readily and as perfectly di- perature of 86° for twenty-four hours. At the end of that time it was strongly acid, and gested" as when they have been taken." 3. Saliva does not possess the properties furnished eleven grains of sugar. of an alimentary solvent." (Exps. and Obs. Three drachms of strongly alkaline saliva, on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of obtained by exciting the salivary glands with Digestion, by Wm. Beaumont, M.D. Plats- Cayenne pepper, were placed under oxygen burgh, 1833.) gas for six days. It absorbed one-third of Purkinje’s notions somewhat correspond its volume of the gas, continued alkaline, with those of Beaumont. (Isis, 1838, No. 7; and deposited very little sediment. It was then mixed with two scruples of starch, and Baly’s Miiller, vol. i., p. 576.)
tained,
tion.) Montgre is
of opinion that saliva is the prinrpal agent in digestion. (Sur la Digestion. Paris, 1824.) Leuchs first discovered that saliva has the property of converting starch into sugar.
-
drachms
218
temperature of 86° for twenty-four drachms of saliva. The mixture was kept, expiration of that time it as before, at a temperature of 80° for twenty. feebly acid, and afforded seven grains of four hours : at the end of that time it had ab.
kept at hours. was
a
At the
sorbed one-third of its volume of the oxygen sugar. Three drachms of filtered saliva, two days of the air, and had liberated one-half of its old, were mixed with two scruples of starch, volume of carbonic acid gas ; it was strongly and then placed under oxygen gas for acid, and afforded twenty-six grains of a twenty-four hours, at a temperature of 76°. mixture of gum and sugar. The mixture absorbed its own volume of the The same form of experiment was repeated oxygen, and replaced it by an equal propor- in each instance, but the two mixtures were tion of carbonic acid gas. It became strongly exposed to a temperature of 100° for four acid, and furnished thirteen grains and a hours and a half. The saliva was of the same temperature as the other for the two quarter of sugar. Three drachms of filtered saliva were first hours, after which it gained two degrees, mixed with two scruples of starch, and aud at the termination was three degrees placed under carbonic acid gas for twenty- higher. Numerous small bubbles were disfour hours, at a temperature of 76°. It ab- charged from the salivary mixture, and many sorbed five-sixths of its volume of the gas, morewere adherent to the sides of the glass; became moderately acid, and afforded eight but there were none from the bread and water. The latter also was neutral, and grains and a half of sugar. A stream of carbonic acid gas was driven furnished a trifling quantity of gum, but no through three drachms of saliva for ten sugar; the former was strongly acid, and minutes; afterwards, two scruples of starch yielded eight grains of gum and six and a were mixed with the liquid, and the mass half of sugar. Two drachms of the saliva of mercurial was allowed to stand for twenty-four hours, at a temperature of 76°. It became strongly ptyalism were digested upon twenty grains acid, and furnished eleven grains and a half of starch for forty-eight hours, at a temperaIt became feebly acid, and furof sugar. ture of 76°. Three drachms of alkaline saliva were nished four grains and a half of sugar. mixed with two scruples of starch, and then This form of experiment was repeated seveplaced under hydrogen gas for twenty-four ral times, and it was found that the diminu. hours, at a temperature of 76°. The mixture tion in the quantity of sugar produced, was absorbed one-twelfth of its volume of the hy- directly as the deterioration of the saliva. Two drachms of the fluid of pyrosis were drogen, and evolved one-tenth of its volume of carbonic acid gas, became very feebly acid, mixed with a scruple of starch, and kept at and furnished three grains and a half of a temperature of 76° for forty-eight hours, gummy matter, which had not a sweet Very faint acidity prevailed, and two grains taste. and a half of sugar were formed. Thisfluid A stream of hydrogen gas was driven contained a notable proportion of ptyalin, through three drachms of saliva for half an and therefore of saliva. These experiments were severally repeated hour; two scruples of starch were then mixed with the fluid, and the mass was al- with the serum of blood, the mucus of oysters, lowed to stand, at a temperature of 76°, for and intestinal mucus, with acids, alkalies, twenty-four hours. It became feebly acid, and various saline solutions, but in not one and yielded six grains and a quarter of sugar. instance was any sugar formed. Three drachms of alkaline saliva were (To be continued.) mixed with two scruples of starch, and then placed under nitrogen gas for twenty-four hours, at a temperature of 76°. The mixture ON THE absorbed one-fifteenth of its volume of the UTILITY OF EARLY AND COPIOUS nitrogen, and liberated one-twelfth of its volume of carbonic acid gas. It became very BLOOD-LETTING faintly acid, and afforded three grains and a IN SOME quarter of gum. CONGESTIVE & INFLAMMATORY of old bread were beaten to a Sixty grains DISEASES. pulp with three drachms of pure water, and the mixture was then put under atmospheric air over mercury. In twenty-four hours the To the Editor of THE LANCET. volume of gas had increased from the liberation of carbonic acid. SIR,—Having lately met with some inof mixture was not uniform; the bread lay at stances of serious diseases, the progress the bottom, and did not appear to have been which seemed to be cut short by early, and, altered ; it furnished neither gum nor sugar, in some cases, copious venesection, I beg and yielded a beautiful and permanent red- leave to lay them before the readers of your ’ excellent Journal. In this paper I have exdish-blue with iodine. This form of experiment was repeated with cluded such cases as are either trivial or sixty grains ofthe same bread, and three easily curable, and adduced those only
one-twentieth
The
,
’
Another question to which I had proposed effectus apud vulgus notissimi sint: to direct your attention in the present lecture massam farinaceam fermentat *.... ut merito still remains to be considered ; namely, adpossit humanae naturae sapo." .... 11 Ita saliva ob nitro-salinam quam mitting it to be established that poisons enter the blood, and act either upon that fluid or substantiam, va.ria3 nature cibos incithrough it upon the several structures and dendo, abstergendo, et penetrando digerit, ac organs of the body, what general laws do solvit."-(Ibid., p. 426.) we observe to regulate those salutary efforts * « In of the system by which the effects of poisons vulgus notum est, Indos potus suos are either resisted or ultimately eradicated inebriantes ita praeparare, ut vetulae edulenfrom the constitution, and which it becomes I tulae, grana mayz manducent, et succum cum equally the duty of the surgeon to study and saliva mistum exspuant in proprium vas ter. take as his guide ? reum, in quo, moderato tempore excoquatur in cervisiam illis gentibus acceptissimam syrupi, illapsa per incuriam saliva, visi sunt acidi, et turbidi facti esse."-(Boerhaave, THE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY Prselec., p. 141.) "Panis bicoctus masticatus et saliva3 OF probe mistus aeri calido si exponatur, de ....
dici
habet
THE SALIVA.
novo
fermentabitur.’—(Nuck, Sialographia,
53.) Vide, Markgraav. (De Chyli, p. By SAMUEL WRIGHT, M.D. Edin., F.S.A., p. General 28) ; Lery (p. 140) ; Vermegen (2, p. 113); Physician to the Birmingham
of the Army, p. 401). Fermentationem spirituosam farinaceorum adjuvat (saliva) hinc gentes barbarse ex (Continued from p. 76.) mansis radicibus .1 atrophae Manihot et PipeDIGESTIVE PROPERTIES OF SALIVA. ris methystici potum sibi parant inebriantem." sit has been imposed upon the scientific - (Plenck, Hygrologia, p. 57.) " Inter alia vero fermentationem imprimis world that the observations concerning the , peculiar action which saliva is capable of notare licet in Potus genere, quod ex Milio exerting upon starch and other such matter grandi, Maiz dicto, Braziliani sibi parant, are of modern date. But it happens that dum hujus grana dentibus aut gingivis paulthis discovery, like many others professedly latim atterunt horum vetulas, eaque saliva originating in our own age, is only an echo imbuunt ac macerant, quae deinde reliqus of antiquity. The taxation of research is a massae fermentandas in Capulis congruis rather severe one ; but it has the advantage asservatae commiscent, ut mediante hoc ferof keeping a check upon that prevalent sys- mento potus acidulus atque inebrians protem of imposture which, regardless of names deat. Simile quid observare quoque continand of dates, will flagrantly violate the his- git in potu, quem Gujanae Jncolae ex Castory of mankind in assigning unto a plagia- savi radice sibi peculiarem habent, dum rist the merits of his predecessor. A desire quosdam ejusdem taleolos a mulieribus ac not to be classed with those who regard a pueris bene masticatos et cum saliva in literary theft as less amenable to a code of pastam redactos aliis, aqua maceratis, adjimorals than the more palpable acts of felony, ciunt atque sic mixturam hanc in fermentais my apology for an extent of reference tionem concitant: ’-Vide Bohn. (Disput. de which otherwise might be tedious. As in Menstr. Univers. Animal., sec. 9) ; Weber the preceding instances, so in this, beforeI(Anchor. Sauciator. seu de Liq. Styptic., p. detailing my own experiments I shall give,47); Henr. Meibom. (Disp. de Chylificat., to the best of my ability, a record of the ob-sec. 60); Martin Lister (De Humoribus, servations of previous authors concerning thecap. 12, p. 119) ; Ortlob. (Histor. Part. sec. 10, p. 29). digestive properties of saliva ; whence itDissert., " will be seen that many of the older writers Chica est vinum ex Mazio, quo inebriwere as intimately acquainted with theseantur Barbari. Tundunt et moliunt duabus Mazium admixta aqua, inde fit massa properties as are those of the present day petris ] who flatter themselves with the discovery. c Foemina, quae molit, sumit !per quaedam. " Salivam ob insignes suas, ac pene innu-iintervalla particulam et mandit, rursus abjimerabiles virtutes, quas in nobis fundendo,cit ( in massam. Dicuut pro fermento id esse, ( solvendo, abstergendo, ac celeriter pene- et causamjucundae accedinis. Postea aqua trando producit, quasque paucis notae, et a, (coquunt et effusa in urceos biduo acescit, hic potus Indis, nec contemnunt paucis quantum debet explicate sunt, pri-gratissimus 1 marium chilificationis menstruum saepe in IHispani. Salutaris hic potus, sicut et theatro pronunciavimus."-(Baglivi, Opera ipsum i Mazium, rellum et jecoris dolori, calDiss. 2, circa salivam, p. 422.) (culi, et urinae retentioni."-Vide Ant. ColOmnia, 11 Inutile futurum puto hic multis probare mener. I de Ledesma (De Chocolada Inda, a velle salivam liquorem esse abstergentem,Joh. Aurel Severin. ex Hispanico Idiomate i Latinum translata, p. 61). Bolveatem, et mire penetrantem, cum ipsius in
Dispensary, &c.
Pringle (Diseases
&c.
41
<
215 11 Imprimis salivae usus in eo consistit, ut subtili secedat. Liquor vero ille sit acetum cibis solidioribus inter masticandum admixta aliquod naturae sive philosophorum, quod eorundum dissolutionem et liquefactionem nonnulli appellant spiritum saturni vegetapromoveat atque chilificationem inchoet:’- bilis ; stant tam diu, donec bullarum agitatio cesset, trajiciantur postea liquida per purum (Gurisch., loc. cit., p. 109.) "Ipsa quoque potulenta quae dilucndis linteum ut admirandus illae naturse actus cibis potissimum inserviunt, etsi absque majori gaudio observari possit, et porro per masticatione deglutiantur, nihilominus ta- chartaceum filtrum et liquor pertranseat men in ore insigniter a saliva alterantur."— clarior. Liquori huic claro et perspicuo aiiunde denique anaticam biliosi spiritus por(Ibid., p. 110.) "Instar omnium laudari meretur usus tionem, id est, liquorem fiammis coruscum et saliva decantatissimus, quem ad mastica- obnoxium, auri aemulum, qualis esse solet tionem perficiendam praestat. Est enim pri- spiritus quintae essentise depuratus, et facta marium veluti menstruum microcosmicum, subito eflervescentia, compositum illud mi-
assumta penetrando, emolliendo, et grabit in lac quoddam candidissimum, chyli Ecce jam vobis ferimmutando ad digestionem praeprimis adap- purissimi æmulum. tans ; quo sive depravato sive ablato mox mentationern! ecce effervescentiam ! ecce deficit appetitus, vitiatur masticatio et deglu- ciborum analysin, chylum, grossum, spumotitio, turbatur concoctio atque digestio."- sum, liquidum diaphanum, lacteum !"loc. cit., p. 113-14.) (Hoffmann, Disput. de Saliv. ejusque morb., (Gurisch, " Cibos sub masticatione (saliva) admixta cap. 3, p. m. 10, et cap. 4, p. 12.) " Chylificationis opus sequenti modo ex- solvit, diluit, in sua principia resolvit, in plicat J. Tackius (Chrysogon. Animal. et pultaceum et commode deglutiendum bolum Mineral., p. m. 18, et seq). Accipiatur mutat. Hinc chymificationem inchoat."panis vel quodcunque eduli genus, sive sit (Plenck, Hygrologia, p. 58.) " Pulmentum matris saliva imprægnatum caro, sive pomum, sive rapum, vel omne quod obsoniinomine veuit,incidatur dentibus quam infanti tenellulo admodum prodest, atque minutissime ; post indatur vitro et consper- facilius in ventriculo in chylum aetati huic et gatur notabili salivae quantitate, quae masti- temperamento accommodatum abit, quam si cato cibo sit congrua : committatur hinc alius hominis saliva humectetur."--(WaldInstitut. Med., cap. 3, p. 16.) vitrum, probe obturatum, calidis cineribus, schmeid, " La bouillie, impregnée de la salive de la ita ut cineres illud undiquaque tegant, ad eminentiam contentorum, ad horas duodecim, mere est si bonne pour le petit enfant, qu’elle interdum ultra, etiam ad viginti quator, ne- se reduit plutot en chyle dans l’estomac de que enim in vase artis tam cito omnia absolvi ce petit corps et s’accommode mieux à son possunt; et dehiscent contenta in minima, temperament, que si elle etoit humectée par apparebuntque hinc inde bullae varias sortis, la salive d’autres personnes:’-(Bellefonexiguæ, mediæ, et majores, quae dum bulla taine, Med. Dogmat. Physiol., Exerc. 7, p. bullam urget instar vini novi aut cerevisiae 26.) Bohnius (Circul. Anatom. Physiolog. fermentis agitatorum, turgidam elevabunt leniter massam. Massae huic affundatur Prosy. 9, 134) regarded saliva as a "unipostea liquor, succi pancreatici vicarius, vel versal menstruum in dissolving food." ejus naturam redolens, ut aucta aciditate ; Theod. Craan (Dissert. Phys. Med. de tanto felicius opus procedat, et grossum a Hom., cap. 4, p. 11, et seq.) believed the saliva to assist the digestion of food by ex" Barbari Brasiliae Incolæ etiam èradici- citing a ferment in it. bus suae Mandyuccæ liquorem potulentum ’ Zypoeus (Fundament. Medicin., cap. 3, conficiunt, quo supra modum delectantur. art. 12, p. 106) maintained that saliva comHas scilicet radices vetulis quibusdam eden- mences chylification in the mouth, and that a tulis tradunt, quæ ore emollitas aquam lim- bolus of bread will chylify if exposed to pidam continenti exspuunt. Saliva earum ! saliva alone. Bernh. Swalve (Querel. et Opprob. Venpro fermento est, unde liquori oritur Zymosis, quae eum jucundum reddit et tantarum tricul., p. 43) was of the same opinion as virium, ut non alio debacchentur iste gentes, Zypoeus ; and he further affirmed, that bread quoties maetato captivo triumphantes festum will soften and liquefy much sooner in saliva agunt."-Vide Henr. Mundius (De Aere than in any other fluid. Vital. de Pot., cap. 10, p. 344) ; Gurisch These opinions, slightly modified, were also entertained by Lanzonus (De Saliva, (loc cit., 150-1). "Inducor, ut credam, salivam continere in cap. 3, p. 47), Martin Lister (Dissert. de se, sal nitro-salinumuniversali sali analogum Humor., cap. 12, p. 120), Jacob. de Sandris ob eximias, ac prorsus mirabiles suas veres, (De Sanguin. Stat., part 1, cap. 3, p. 68), quas solvendo, fundendo, abstergendo, et Linsing (Institut. Med., p. 74), Viridetus licet insipida videatur, potentur penetrando (De Prim. Coction., part 2, cap. 7, p. 312), in fermentatione ciborum, purificatione chyli, Zwinger (Fascicul. Dissert. Med., diss. 8, p. 378), Tauvry (Anat., cap. 1, ejusdemque in sanguinem mutatione, con- de coctioneque absolvit." Baglivi (Opera p. 10). See also, Buxbaum (Catech. Med., part 1, Physiolog. Quæst. 57 seq5 ,), Gerard Omnia, p. 428).
quasvis
I
I,
Saliva,
-
216
BIas (Institut. Med., part 1, cap. 2, p. 18), Joh. Bapt. Verloschnig (De Abus. Curat., Verno-Autumnal., cap. 5, p. 110), Joh. Jacob. Francisc. Vicar (Basis Univers. Medic., lib. 1, cap. 5, sec. 6, p. 27), Mich. Sebiz (Manual seu Specul. Medicinæ Pract., part 2, sec. 4, cap. 27, p. 518, seq.).
In the appendix to Pringle " On Diseases of the Army," is the following account of experiments performed by the author, in illustration of the digestive properties of saliva.* " EXPERIMENT 29.-To ascertain the effects of the saliva in digestion, I added a small portion of it to some raw beef, and observed that this mixture, in the usual heat, putrefied slower than another which had no saliva joined to it."
in that action ferment strongly, and generate much air in the stomach and bowels." " EXPERIMENT 31.-After seeing the effects of the fresh saliva, both in keeping up and moderating fermentation, I wanted to know its qualities when putrid. For this purpose, having collected a sufficient quaiitity, I kept it about three days in the fur. nace,* and then added the usual proportion thereof to the common mixtures of,’bread, flesh, and water; which not only brought on the fermentation sooner, but made it stronger and more productive of air than would have happened without the saliva. The flesh became also more than usually putrid, but was at last sweetened by the acid produced by the fermentation ; so that, by the time the action ceased, the contents of the phial smelled and tasted sour, without any remains of putrefaction. " From this experiment we find it still more probable that all animal substances have a power (in proportion to their degree of corruption) of exciting a fermentation in the
" EXPERIMENT 30.-1. I took two drachms of fresh meat, the same quantity of bread, and an ounce of water, and to these added as much saliva as I supposed necessary for digestion. This mixture, being beaten in a mortar, was put into a close phial, and set in the furnace, where it remained about two days, with scarce any visible fermentation ; common farinacca." but, on the third day, this action became " manifest. At that time I found the bread EXPERIMENT 32.—I took two drachms and flesh risen in the water, a sediment of a fresh mackerel skinned, with an equal nevertheless forming, and bubbles of air con- quantity of bread, and having reduced them tinually mounting ; in a word, the fermenta- to the usual consistence with an ounce of tion was complete, being also distinguished water, I put them in the furnace, together by a vinous smell, as in ordinary working with another phial, containing the like mixliquors. The action continued above twice ture, but with the addition of fresh saliva; as long as when no saliva was used ; it was and a third, with the same quantities of fresh more moderate, and generated air with little beef, bread, and water, only, with which the tumult. When the fermentation entirely two former were to be compared. In less ceased, the mixture had a pure acid taste, than five hours after infusion, the materials though weaker than what was produced in in all the phials began to rise, to float in the the former experiments ; and I took notice water, and to ferment; and during the whole that it was without any putrid smell from process I perceived no difference between the fermentation occasioned by the fish and the beginning. « 2. I likewise varied this experiment, as that by the flesh, except that the phials with I had done the first, in using roasted meat the fish retained the corrupted smell longest. instead of raw; and sometimes oatmeal in- But next day, the fermentation still subsiststead of bread ; but the result was still the ing, the acid smell was to be distinguished in same. One circumstance may deserve par- all the phials ; and on the fourth day (the ticular notice. An ounce of bread, as much corks having been drawn the night before) I roasted meat, about two ounces of water, was scarce sensible of any difference between and a small quantity of the saliva, being the first and the third, or standard phial, beaten together, were allowed to ferment in a either as to taste or smell; and both were heat of 65 degrees; and having examined very acid. But the liquor in the second the phial with a thermometer, I found it phial was not so sour; and it yielded such about three degrees warmer than the external a vinous smell as was taken notice of before, when the fresh saliva was added to the air." " From these last experiments it appears common mixture with the beef."-Exp. 30. that if the saliva is sound, is in a sufficient Spallanzani and Reaumur introduced food, quantity, and well mixed with the aliment, previously deposited in perforated tubes, into it is qualified for retarding putrefaction, pre- the stomachs of different animals ; they venting immoderate fermentation, flatulence, found that when the food was moistened and acidity in the primœ viœ. But if that with saliva, it digested more quickly than humour is deficient, unsound, or not well * " mixed with what is swallowed, that the aliViz.blood-warm, or about 100 degrees ment may first putrefy, then grow acid, and of Fahr. thermometer ; and the same degree of heat is to be understood as used in the * I believe these experiments were per- rest of these experiments, unless when it is formed in the year 1750 or 1751. expressed otherwise:’
217
when moistened with pure water. (Baly’s I shall now proceed with the detail of my own experiments. Muller, vol. i., p. 576.) One drachm of starch, in a finely-powdered Tiedemann and Gmelin acknowledge a solvent property in the saliva ; but they state, was digested in four drachms of saliva, ascribe ttrs property to the salts contained at a temperature of 98° Fahr. for twelve in the secretion. (Recherch. sur la Diges- hours. Thirty-one grains of sugar were ob-
and the solution was strongly impregnated with lactic acid. The residual starch was digested in three drachms of saliva, slightly alkaline, atatemperature of 68° for two days. The solution became acid as before, and eight grains of sugar were formed. (Kastner’s Archiv., 1831.) "Schwann has verified the statement of Four drachms of filtered saliva, faintly Leuchs, that starch is converted into sugar alkaline, sp. gr. 1.005, were digested upon by the action of saliva. He digested in some one drachm of starch for twelve hours, at a acidulated saliva for twenty-four hours a temperature of 98°. Nineteen grains of certain quantity of boiled starch, then filtered sugar, together with lactic acid, were obthe fluid, and found that iodine produced in tained. it no change of colour. Having neutralised Four drachms of saliva were exposed to it, and evaporated it to dryness, he obtained the atmosphere for twenty-four hours. At from the residue, by means of alcohol, a con- the end of that time the secretion was alkasiderable quantity of sugar, which he recog- line : it was then digested upon one drachm nised by its taste, as well as by its property of starch, and kept at a temperature of 680 of fermenting with yeast. The part of the for thirty-six hours. It furnished thirteen residue which the alcohol did not take up grains of sugar, and much lactic acid. consisted of the salivary matter of the saliva, A quantity of saliva was boiled for half an in part altered in its properties, and of starch hour: at the end of that time the liquid changed to a substance resembling gum, having cooled down to 98°, four drachms of which did not with iodine strike the blue it were mixed with one drachm of starch, colonr which characterises starch." (Baly’s and the mass was kept at a temperature of 98° for twenty-four hours. It became Müller, p. 596.) Sebastian has also confirmed the observa- strongly impregnated with lactic acid, and tions of Leuchs and Schwann. (Van Setten, afforded twenty-six grains of sugar. Two scruples of starch, mixed with four Dissert. de Saliva.) " of alkaline saliva, were placed in Berzelius, on the other hand, observes, that saliva alone has no more action on ali- oxygen gas over mercury, and kept at a temmentary substances, dissolves no greater perature of 68° for four days. At the end of part of them than pure water ; and I must that time the mixture had absorbed its own confess that I (Miiller) have perceived volume of the oxygen, and had liberated half scarcely any difference between the action of its volume of carbonic acid gas. It fursaliva and that of water on meat, in experi- nished a quantity of lactic acid, and twentyments instituted for the purpose of compari- two grains and a half of sugar. son." (Baly’s Muller, p. 576.) This form of experiment was repeated, Dr. Beaumont makes the following obser- with the difference, that the mixture was vations in reference to the digestive action of I kept at a temperature of 98° for twenty-four saliva:«If the materia alimentaria could hours. Three-fourths of its volume of oxygen be introduced into the stomach in a finely- were absorbed, and two-thirds of its volume divided state, the operations of mastication, of carbonic acid gas were liberated. The insalivation, and deglutition, would not be mass was strongly acid, and furnished twentyfour grains and a quarter of sugar. necessary." 2. "The processes of mastication, insalivaThree drachms of saliva were placed tion, and deglutition, in an abstract point of under oxygen gas for four days. It abview, do not in any way affect the digestion sorbed just its own volume of the gas,- deof the food; or, in other words, when food is posited a little albumen and mucus, but conintroduced directly into the stomach in a tinued alkaline. It was then mixed with finely-divided state, without these previous two scruples of starch, and kept at a teillsteps, it is as readily and as perfectly di- perature of 86° for twenty-four hours. At the end of that time it was strongly acid, and gested" as when they have been taken." 3. Saliva does not possess the properties furnished eleven grains of sugar. of an alimentary solvent." (Exps. and Obs. Three drachms of strongly alkaline saliva, on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of obtained by exciting the salivary glands with Digestion, by Wm. Beaumont, M.D. Plats- Cayenne pepper, were placed under oxygen burgh, 1833.) gas for six days. It absorbed one-third of Purkinje’s notions somewhat correspond its volume of the gas, continued alkaline, with those of Beaumont. (Isis, 1838, No. 7; and deposited very little sediment. It was then mixed with two scruples of starch, and Baly’s Miiller, vol. i., p. 576.)
tained,
tion.) Montgre is
of opinion that saliva is the prinrpal agent in digestion. (Sur la Digestion. Paris, 1824.) Leuchs first discovered that saliva has the property of converting starch into sugar.
-
drachms
218
temperature of 86° for twenty-four drachms of saliva. The mixture was kept, expiration of that time it as before, at a temperature of 80° for twenty. feebly acid, and afforded seven grains of four hours : at the end of that time it had ab.
kept at hours. was
a
At the
sorbed one-third of its volume of the oxygen sugar. Three drachms of filtered saliva, two days of the air, and had liberated one-half of its old, were mixed with two scruples of starch, volume of carbonic acid gas ; it was strongly and then placed under oxygen gas for acid, and afforded twenty-six grains of a twenty-four hours, at a temperature of 76°. mixture of gum and sugar. The mixture absorbed its own volume of the The same form of experiment was repeated oxygen, and replaced it by an equal propor- in each instance, but the two mixtures were tion of carbonic acid gas. It became strongly exposed to a temperature of 100° for four acid, and furnished thirteen grains and a hours and a half. The saliva was of the same temperature as the other for the two quarter of sugar. Three drachms of filtered saliva were first hours, after which it gained two degrees, mixed with two scruples of starch, and aud at the termination was three degrees placed under carbonic acid gas for twenty- higher. Numerous small bubbles were disfour hours, at a temperature of 76°. It ab- charged from the salivary mixture, and many sorbed five-sixths of its volume of the gas, morewere adherent to the sides of the glass; became moderately acid, and afforded eight but there were none from the bread and water. The latter also was neutral, and grains and a half of sugar. A stream of carbonic acid gas was driven furnished a trifling quantity of gum, but no through three drachms of saliva for ten sugar; the former was strongly acid, and minutes; afterwards, two scruples of starch yielded eight grains of gum and six and a were mixed with the liquid, and the mass half of sugar. Two drachms of the saliva of mercurial was allowed to stand for twenty-four hours, at a temperature of 76°. It became strongly ptyalism were digested upon twenty grains acid, and furnished eleven grains and a half of starch for forty-eight hours, at a temperaIt became feebly acid, and furof sugar. ture of 76°. Three drachms of alkaline saliva were nished four grains and a half of sugar. mixed with two scruples of starch, and then This form of experiment was repeated seveplaced under hydrogen gas for twenty-four ral times, and it was found that the diminu. hours, at a temperature of 76°. The mixture tion in the quantity of sugar produced, was absorbed one-twelfth of its volume of the hy- directly as the deterioration of the saliva. Two drachms of the fluid of pyrosis were drogen, and evolved one-tenth of its volume of carbonic acid gas, became very feebly acid, mixed with a scruple of starch, and kept at and furnished three grains and a half of a temperature of 76° for forty-eight hours, gummy matter, which had not a sweet Very faint acidity prevailed, and two grains taste. and a half of sugar were formed. Thisfluid A stream of hydrogen gas was driven contained a notable proportion of ptyalin, through three drachms of saliva for half an and therefore of saliva. These experiments were severally repeated hour; two scruples of starch were then mixed with the fluid, and the mass was al- with the serum of blood, the mucus of oysters, lowed to stand, at a temperature of 76°, for and intestinal mucus, with acids, alkalies, twenty-four hours. It became feebly acid, and various saline solutions, but in not one and yielded six grains and a quarter of sugar. instance was any sugar formed. Three drachms of alkaline saliva were (To be continued.) mixed with two scruples of starch, and then placed under nitrogen gas for twenty-four hours, at a temperature of 76°. The mixture ON THE absorbed one-fifteenth of its volume of the UTILITY OF EARLY AND COPIOUS nitrogen, and liberated one-twelfth of its volume of carbonic acid gas. It became very BLOOD-LETTING faintly acid, and afforded three grains and a IN SOME quarter of gum. CONGESTIVE & INFLAMMATORY of old bread were beaten to a Sixty grains DISEASES. pulp with three drachms of pure water, and the mixture was then put under atmospheric air over mercury. In twenty-four hours the To the Editor of THE LANCET. volume of gas had increased from the liberation of carbonic acid. SIR,—Having lately met with some inof mixture was not uniform; the bread lay at stances of serious diseases, the progress the bottom, and did not appear to have been which seemed to be cut short by early, and, altered ; it furnished neither gum nor sugar, in some cases, copious venesection, I beg and yielded a beautiful and permanent red- leave to lay them before the readers of your ’ excellent Journal. In this paper I have exdish-blue with iodine. This form of experiment was repeated with cluded such cases as are either trivial or sixty grains ofthe same bread, and three easily curable, and adduced those only
one-twentieth
The
,
’