THE PLEISTOCENE PEOPLING OF THE NORTH: PALEOLITHIC MILESTONES AND THRESHOLDS HORIZONS IN NORTHERN EURASIA

ARCHAEOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY & ANTHROPOLOGY OF EURASIA Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 43/4 (2015) 3–18 E-mail: [email protected]

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PALEOENVIRONMENT. THE STONE AGE

N. Rolland Prehistoric Anthropology Research Canada, 192 Bushby Street, Victoria, BC, V8S 1B6, Canada Email: [email protected]

THE PLEISTOCENE PEOPLING OF THE NORTH: PALEOLITHIC MILESTONES AND THRESHOLDS HORIZONS IN NORTHERN EURASIA PART II: THE MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC HUMAN BIOGEOGRAPHIC REALM The Middle Paleolithic record for the “peopling of the North” is presented with tables, a distribution map, chronology, bioclimatic circumstances, and toolmaking repertoires. Salient aspects identify time-series, patterns of adaptive strategies, dispersal “frontlines”, and strategies for procurement of food-animals. They support empirically a model of the human biogeographic “cold space” realm; its bearing on the adaptive horizons of the historical zonation of the Paleolithic culture; debates about the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in Eurasia; and antecedents for trends in intensi¿cation of Holocene culture in circumpolar habitats, with reference to the Canadian Arctic. Keywords: Middle Paleolithic milestones, human biogeography, social morphology, occupation “frontlines”, culture historical time series.

Introduction In Part I of the article, devoted to the peopling of North in Paleolithic, the issues of peopling of Northern Eurasia in the Early Pleistocene were discussed. Despite the scarcity of archaeological records of this period and debatable contexts of some Early Paleolithic sites, we can trace the cyclical human expansions into north Eurasian middle and high latitudes. All these localities were correlated chronoclimatically with milder/temperate episodes. Already in the Early Paleolithic, human occurrences overlapped in space with the Mammoth-Steppe Biome distribution. At the same time, adaptive skills necessary for colonizing high latitudes were gradually developed. In the Middle and Upper Paleolithic, humans obtained most

successful adaptation strategies, including some instances of settlements during stadial advances. These processes, which provided the possibility of peopling the sub-polar high-latitude habitats of Eurasia, are discussed in Part II.

Middle Paleolithic colonization milestones In this part of the study, I present an updated 79 numberedlist of Middle Paleolithic occurrences identi¿ed across North Eurasia (mostly 50°N to 64°N), from Western/ Northwestern, Central, Northeast Europe, Urals, up to Western and Eastern Siberia (Fig. 1, Table 1). Relevant information covers bioclimatic settings, exact/ approximate latitudes, geochronology 300 to 30 ka BP.

Copyright © 2016, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved doi:10.1016/j.aeae.2016.02.002

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N. Rolland / Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 43/4 (2015) 3–18

1

3

2

4

Fig. 1. Middle Paleolithic occurrences. Distribution map superimposes sites over the Mammoth-Steppe Biome. Figures 1–3 materials gathered and prepared by author; map format, design, Jacques Cinq-Mars; editing, Alexander Rolland. 1 – individual sites; 2 – site series or clusters; 3 – Ural Mountains; 4 – Mammoth-Steppe Biome.

Criteria for Table 1 number-coded sites diagnostic of a Middle Paleolithic “cold space” Human Biogeographic Realm are: Geochronology from lithostratigraphy, chronoclimatology, biochronology (flora, MammothSteppe Biome fauna); Correlations with isotopic stages (OIS); Bioclimatic variables, like boreality (north-south latitude gradients), continentality, hypercontinentality (west to east of the 40° meridian gradients); Pleistocene fluctuation cycles, such as stadials, cold oscillations, periglacial features (cryoturbation, deÀation, ice-wedges, tills, proglacial lakes), interglacials, and interstadials. Mapped coded sites below are enlarged to facilitate reading: Western Europe: 1 – Mont-Dol; 1a – Combe-Grenal 61–59; 1b – La Chaise; 1c – Aquitaine Basin, Quina Horizon; 2 – Cotte St-Brelade L, 6, 13, B; 2a – Cotte St-Brelade 11; 3 – Crayford; 4 – Lynford; 4a – Hénin-sur-Cojeul F, G; 5 – Beauvais-la-Justice C1, C2; 5a – Pucheuil; 5b – Vergisson IV; 5c – Sainte-Anne J1, J2; 6 – Savy N2; 7 – Mesvin IV; 7a – Veldwezelt-Hezerwater VLL, VLB; 8 – Scladina 5; 9 – Achenheim III “sol 74”; 9a – Mutzig I 3, 4, II. Central Europe: 10 – Wannen 1, 2, 3; 11 – Tönchesberg 1; 12 – Schweinskopf 1, 2, 3; 13a, b – Ariendorf III 1, 2; 14 – Karstein; 15a, b – Rheindahlen B1, B2-3; 16 – SalzgitterLebenstedt; 17 – Lichtenberg; 17a – Ochtmissen; 18 – Königsaue A, B; 19 – Markkleeberg. Eastern/Northeastern Europe: 19a – Tata; 20 – Dzierzsáaw; 20a – Rozumice 3; 20b – Trzebca; 20c –

Tomaszów; 20d – BiĞnik 19, 19 a, b, c; 21 – Ray; 22 – Okiennik; 22a – Racibórz-Ocice; 23 – Wyáotne; 24 – ZwoleĔ; 25 – Chulatovo III; 25a – Molodova-5; 26 – Rikthta; 27 – Khotelëvo; 28 – Betovo; 29 – Khavlynsk; 30 – Dubovka; 31 – Sukhaiia Mechetka; 32 – El’niki II; 33 – Garchi I; 33a – Byzovaiia; 34 – Peshchernyi Log; 35 – Bol’shaiia Glukhaiia; 36 – Ganichata; 37 – Susiluola. Western Siberia: 38 – Bogdanovka; 38a – Baigara; 39 – Bol’shoi Kemchug; 40 – Aryshevskoe-2; 41 – Okladnikov Cave; 42 – Denisova Cave-14, -13, -12.3; 43 – Ust’-Karakol-1; 44 – Ust’-Kanskaiia Cave; 45 – Kara-Bom; 46 – Kaminaiia Cave; 46a – Anui-3; 47 – Tiumechin; 47a – Chagyrskaiia Cave; 48 – Mokhovo II. Central Siberia: 49 – Ust’-Izhul’; 50 – Gora Igetei; 50a – Makarovo IV; 50b – Sosnovyi Bor; 51 – Kurtak IV; 52 – Grot Dvuglazka-5–7. Eastern Siberia: 53 – Khotyk-4, -5; 54 – Diring Iuriiakh; 55 – Mungkharyma; 55a – Ust’-Chirkuo; 55b – Kyzyl-Syr. Russian Far East: 56 – Osinovka-4. The evidence, unavoidably, constitutes a weighted availability sample. Middle Paleolithic sites distribution shows a west-to-east decreasing density slope from Europe to eastern Siberia reÀecting a provisional state of knowledge, instead of actual past human occupation densities, while concentrated in Southern Siberia (Derevianko, Markin, 2011: 40). Some documents appear

N. Rolland / Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 43/4 (2015) 3–18

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Table 1. Middle Paleolithic Occurrences in North Eurasia Site No.

Latitude, deg.

1

2

Mammoth-Steppe Biome

Bioclimatic variables*

Oxygen isotopic stage

3

4

5

Western Europe 1

48.5

+

ST

4

1a

44.5

+

ST

6

1b

44.5

+

ST

6

1c

44.5

+

ST

4

2

49.0

+

ST

6

2a

49.0

+

ST

4

3

51.4

+

C

7

4

52.5

+

ST

4

4a

50.0

+

ST

4

5

49.5

+

ST

4

5a

49.5

+

ST

4

5b

46.0

+

ST

4

5c

45.0

+

ST

6

6

50.0

+

C

4

7

50.8

+

C

8

7a

50.5

–

ST

6

8

50.3

+

O

5c/b

9

48.3

+

C / ST

6

9a

48.5

+

C / ST

4/3 6

Central Europe 10

50.5

+

C / ST

11

50.5

+

C / ST

6

12

50.5

+

C / ST

6

13a, b

50.5

+

C / ST

8, 6

14

50.5

+

C / ST

4

15a, b

51.5

–

C / ST

4, 6

16

52.5

+

C/O

5b

17

53.0

+

C/P

4

17a

53.5

–

C/P

6

18

51.

+

C/O

3/4

19

51.5

+

C/P

8

Eastern and Northeastern Europe 19a

47.5

+

C/O

5d**

20

50.0

+

C / ST

6

20a

50.5

–

C/P

8

20b

50.5

–

C/P

8

20c

50.5

–

C/P

8

20d

50.5

+

C/P

8

21

50.0

+

C / ST

4

22

50.0

–

C/O

5a-d

22a

50.0

–

C / ST

8

23

50.0

–

C/O

5a-d

24

51.0

+

C / ST

4

25

52.0

+

C/O

5b-4**

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N. Rolland / Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 43/4 (2015) 3–18

Table 1 (end) 2

3

4

5

25a

1

49.8

+

C / ST

4

26

53.0

+

C/O

5b**

27

53.5

+

C/O

5b**

28

53.0

+

C/O

4

29

52.5

+

HC / PF

5e-d**

30

53.0

–

C/O

5b**

31

48.5

+

C / ST

4

32

58.0

+

HC / PF

7** 3a**

33

59.0

–

HC / PF

33a

65.0

+

HC / O

3a

34

58.0

+

HC / PF

3a**

35

58.0

+

HC / PF

5**

36

58.0

–

HC / PF

3a**

37

62.3

–

B-HL / PF

5e

Western Siberia 38

52.0

+

HC / O

5b, d-4**

38a

58.0

–

HC / PF

4-3

39

55.0

–

HC / PF

3

40

56.8

–

HC / PF

3

41

51.7

+

HC / PF

3

42

51.4

+

HC / ST

4

43

51.4

–

HC / ST

4

44

50.1

+

HC / O

5d-4

45

50.7

+

HC / ST

4

46

50.7

+

HC / PF

4-3

46a

50.7

–

HC / PF

4-3

47

50.7

–

HC / PF

4-3

47ɚ

50.0

+

HC / O

?

48

55.1

+

HC / PF

5e

49

51.0

+

HC / PF

5e**

50

52.5

+

HC / ST

4**

50a

52.0

+

HC / ST

4**

50b

50.5

+

HC / ST

4**

51

55.1

+

HC / ST

4**

52

54.1

+

HC / PF

3

HC / ST

4

Central Siberia

Eastern Siberia 53

52.3

+

54

61.0

–

HC / PF

8-9**

55

64.0

+

HC / PF

3-4**

55a

62.0

–

HC / PF

3-4**

55b

61.0

–

HC / PF

4**

56

42.5

C / PF

5a-d**

Russian Far East –

*Climate: C – continental; HC – hypercontinental; PF – Pleistocene Àuctuations: ST – stadial; P – periglacial; O – cold oscillation. **Tentative dating.

N. Rolland / Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 43/4 (2015) 3–18

in monographs or detailed reports: Sainte-Anne I, Cotte St-Brelade, Scladina, Achenheim, Eiffel Basin, SalzgitterLebenstedt, Markkleeberg, ZwoleĔ, BiĞnik, Byzovaiia, Denisova Cave, Okladnikov Cave, Kara-Bom, Khotyk (Baumann, Mania, 1983; Chlachula, Drozdov, Ovodov, 2003; Chlachula, 2011; Cyrek, 2010; Derevianko, Shunkov, 2002; The Paleolithic of Siberia…, 1998; Derevianko, Petrin, Rybin, 2000; Derevianko et al., 2003; Lbova, 2000; Slimak et al., 2011), others in interim or preliminary reports. Three brieÀy reported Yakutia sites are localized on maps with artifact illustrations: Chirkuo, Mungkharyma, Kyzyl-Syr (Mochanov, Fedoseyeva, 2001: 32, ¿g. 2, 2; 3; 2002: Fig. 7, 4–6). Sites illustrate varied situations (multi-layered palimpsests, single layers, brief or seasonal occupation episodes) from less disturbed primary contexts, often from disturbed or redeposited matrices. Several occurrences indicate carcass processing: Lynford, Cotte St. Brelade 3, 6 (Scott, 1980), Mont-Dol, Achenheim 74 (Sainty, Thévenin, 1978), El’niki II, Byzovaiia, Ust’-Izhul’ (Chlachula, Drozdov, Ovodov, 2003; Guslitzer, Pavlov, 1987; Slimak et al., 2011). Direct evidence from preserved fauna (n = 50 and probably 12 more), marked prevalence of cold Pleistocene Àuctuations occurrences (OIS 8 = 7; OIS 6 = 13; OIS 4 = 24; cold oscillations = 17), indications of higher latitudes, of continental/hypercontinental meridians supports unambiguously notions that Middle Paleolithic hominids occupied Northern Eurasia’s “cold spaces” on a widespread geographic scale. Research east of the Urals has a rather long and productive history, but largely restricted to major inhabited areas concentrated in Southern Siberia along major north-Àowing Àuvial systems having their sources deep into the northern slopes of Central Asian mountains, the Altai and Sayans. Most archaeological deposits lie between 50° and 65°N latitudes (The Paleolithic of Siberia…, 1998: 352; Larichev, Khol’ushkin, Laricheva, 1988, 1990, 1992; Orlova et al., 2003: Fig. 1, 2; Orlova, Kuzmin, Zolnikov, 2000: Fig. 1, 5; Vassil’ev et al., 2002: Fig. 1). Fieldwork logistic dif¿culties contribute to this uneven record. Widespread gaps (see (The Paleolithic of Siberia…, 1998: Fig. 204; Vassil’iev, Semenov, 1993: Fig. 1)) in north Central Siberia (Larichev, 1988: 360) leave virtually blank areas north of the Upper Irtysh, Ishim, Ob’ river systems, western Siberia, the Lower Yenisei, Angara, Lena, Piiasina, the Stoney and Lower Tunguska, Kheta, Khatanga, Kotuy, Anabar, Olenek, Indigirka, Kolyma, eastern and northeastern Siberia. Drainage systems, ice-free spaces nevertheless offered life-supporting settings for northward dispersal corridors by mobile foragers equipped with cold-adapted cultural repertoires, especially during milder Kazantsevo (MIS 5e), Karginsk Àuctuations, and Sartan stadial, e.g., Berelëkh, shown by Paleolithic sites and paleoenvironmental reconstructions (Gualtieri et al., 2005; Kienast et al.,

2005), despite hypercontinental extremes and low winter minima: vast unglaciated ecological corridors (excepting glacial lakes, localized mountain glaciers, arctic seas); adequate animal food biomass; extensive north-Àowing drainage systems carrying warming effects (Suslov, 1961); long-distance inland migrations of anadromous ¿sh species. Analogous cycles with plant, animal, and human occupation traces prevailed in Northeast Europe (Chlachula, 2009; Guslitzer, Loseva, 1979; Mangerud, Astakhov, Sevendsen, 2002) and Fennoscandia (Kurtén, 1988; Ukkonen et al., 1999).

Toolmaking repertoires variability The Middle Paleolithic technocomplex, present throughout most of Eurasia since ca. 380 ka BP, encompassed varied recurrent reduction techniques and implement types outlined below (Bosinski, 1982; 1986b; Rolland, 1988, 1990, 1999: 318–319, Table 1). Recent ¿ndings show that some appeared recurrently but discretely since Early Pleistocene times (Walker et al., 2012). Periodization criteria compatible with these forerunners underscore both qualitative and quantitative aspects, namely “degree of variability of the retouched tools” (Bosinski, 2000: 228). Technology. Levallois flake: Mont-Dol, Beauvais, Mesvin IV, Salzgitter-Lebenstedt, Ochtmissen, Markkleeberg, Racibórz-Ocice, Molodova-5, Okladnikov Cave, Denisova Cave, Ust’-Kanskaiia Cave, Ust’Karakol-1, Tsagaan-Agui; Levallois flake-blades, points: Cotte St-Brelade, Mont-Dol, Markkleeberg, Okladnikov Cave, Ust’-Kanskaiia Cave, Denisova Cave, Chirkuo; Disc-core Àake: Sainte-Anne I, Cotte StBrelade, Beauvais, Betovo, Bogdanovka; Quina Àake: Combe-Grenal (OIS 4), Scladina, Susiluola, Khotyk; Prismatic blade: Veldtwezelt-Hazerwater, Khonako III; Planoconvex flaking: Königsaue, Tata, Dzierzsáaw, Sukhaiia Mechetka, Mungkharyma; Bifacial Àaking: Tata, Vergisson IV, Lichtenberg, ZwoleĔ, Sukhaiia Mechetka. Typology. Acheulean handaxes: Salzgitter-Lebenstedt, Ochtmissen, Markkleeberg; Cordiform handaxes: Lynford, Salzgitter-Lebenstedt, Lichtenberg; Keilmesser: Lichtenberg, Sukhaiia Mechetka; Bifacial foliates: ZwoleĔ, Khotylëvo, Anui-3, Ust’-Kanskaiia Cave, Ust’-Karakol-1; Bifacial knives: ZwoleĔ, Sukhaiia Mechetka, Okladnikov Cave, Mungkharyma; Elongated Mousterian points: Cotte St-Brelade, Okladnikov Cave; Quina racloirs: Combe-Grenal (OIS 4), Vergisson IV, Okladnikov Cave; Convergent, dejetés racloirs: Vergisson IV, Bogdanovka, Sukhaiia Mechetka, Okladnikov Cave, Chagyrskaiia Cave, Mungkharyma. Some assemblage types and micro-cultural traits show spatial clumping: “Keilmessergruppen”, Central Europe (Bosinski, 1963); Acheulean Tradition Mousterian, Atlantic and Northwest Europe; foliate biface industries,

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e.g., Khotylëvo, the Altai Mountains sites (Velichko, 1988; Characteristic Features…, 2011), combine “form-spacetime” archaeological dimensions criteria (Spaulding, 1964). Mungkharyma (Mochanov, Fedoseyeva, 2002: Fig. XI–XVIII) displays a varied suite of diagnostic Middle Paleolithic bifacial implements evoking the Volgograd “Micoquian”. Widely distributed Levallois variants (Sandgathe, 2005) include Chirkuo (Ibid.: Fig. XXI, XXIV). Quina-like Àaking recurs discretely (Bourgignon, 1998; Schultz, 2000–2001). Most assemblage types recur outside North Eurasia. Reduction techniques could be simple or specialized*. Okladnikov and Chagyrskaiia Caves display striking “polythetic” ranges of levallois and bifacial techniques, artifact sizes, dejetes, double and triple racloirs of Sibiriiachikhai variant (Derevianko, Markin, 1992, 2011; Derevianko et al., 2009)**. Lithic materials exploitation varied considerably. Selection and reduction logistics testify to increasing mastery and standardization, e.g., Achenheim (Junkmanns, 1991). Procurement ranges expanded signi¿cantly during Middle Paleolithic times (Roebroeks, Kolen, Rensink, 1988: Table 1; Slimak, Giraud, 2007) over subsistence territories. Certain exotic Àints occasionally entailed longdistance movement through group networks (Slimak, 2008).

The emerging peopling record for Lower, Intermediate, Middle and Upper Paleolithic becomes meaningful, when integrated in a time series perspective encompassing Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Middle Paleolithic culture historical horizons overlap significantly with the Mammoth-Steppe Biome (Table 2), marking unambiguously the outset of a paleocultural cold space oecumene human biogeographic con¿guration (Bosinski, 1982; Cyrek, 2010; Foltyn, Kozáowski, Waga, 2010; Nat, 1972; Slimak et al., 2011) during severe paleoclimatic conditions. This “cryopaleoanthropo-logical” realm expressed specialized land use and life style adjustments, incorporating basic Middle Paleolithic repertoires within a widespread time-space continuum over much of Eurasia, instead of drift into an idiosyncratic, marginal “desolate

landscape” hinterland (see, e.g., (Hoffecker, 2002)). The 79 Middle Paleolithic occurrences, reported in the Table 1 and map in this article, represent a minimum availability sample of known sites across Northern Eurasia. Sites loss due to geomorphological processes, the probability for future discoveries convey the notion that actual Middle Paleolithic site spread and densities must have been higher. Figure 2 compares Pleistocene marine isotopic stages with major Paleolithic periodization units featuring colonizing threshold processes set against latitude gradients. Figure 3 gives a bioclimatic isotopic stages fluctuations breakdown. These unbroken time series trajectories denote “apprenticeship” and retroactive phases, “feedback loops”, cyclical episodes, step-like cumulative trends, describing two main patterns: south to north cyclical series synchronously with Pleistocene bioclimatic cycle fluctuations; northward movements coincided first with early Mid-Pleistocene mild or temperate episodes in Europe and progressively, during more stadials. They indicate underlying time-binding Paleolithic stages and sustained tendency in occupying North Eurasia, culminating with Upper Paleolithic horizons in diverse, increasingly higher latitude habitats, and often stadial or oscillation episodes (Roebroeks, Conard, van Kolfschoten, 1992). Figure 3 underscores that Middle Paleolithic occupations began in Europe during the OIS 8 stadial (Mesvin IV, Ariendorf 1, Markkleeberg, BiĞnik, Rozumice-3), increasing during OIS 6 (Combe-Grenal, Sainte-Anne J1, Beauvais, Cotte St. Brelade 3, 6, Achenheim 74, Schweinskopf, Wannen, Ochtmissen, Dzierzysáaw), and subsequently during Late Pleistocene, e.g., OIS 5b, 5d (Betovo, Khotylëvo, Scladina 5), OIS 4 (Combe-Grenal, Vergisson IV, Mont-Dol, Lynford, Lichtenberg, ZwoleĔ, Racibórz), OIS 3 (Byzovaiia). Siberian evidence may suggest temperate or mild episodes before the Upper Paleolithic (Arkhipov, 1999), inasmuch as foragers needed longer “apprenticeship” spans to resolve the “adaptivity paradox” of hypercontinental extremes. Recently discovered European Middle Paleolithic stadial occurrences, however, presage future similar ones in Siberia, e.g., Kurtak Basin (Drozdov, Chlachula, Chekha, 1999) and “Makarovo” Stratum, plausibly OIS 4*.

*Levallois point production requires at least six linked reduction sequence steps, “a technical mastery not superseded until the Metal Ages” (Leroi-Gourhan, 1964: 145–147). **Much Middle Paleolithic polythetic variability (Rolland, 1988, 1990) reÀects situations, not micro-cultural drift clusters. Interlocking mating networks, ¿ssioning, fusion, membership Àux, anucleation (Yellen, Harpending, 1972: Fig. 15), materials, information flow covered extensive home-ranges and vast territories, fostered exogamous gene Àow, persisting cultural continua overriding differentiation trends.

*The “Makarovo” Stratum’s intensively aeolized, meteorized, redeposited artifacts from Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transitional indicate deÀation, wind “ventefacts” effects from intensive sustained xeric cold stadial conditions, plausibly Zyriansk Lower Pleniglacial OIS 4 (Aksenov et al., 1987; Butzer, 1971: 124–125; Chlachula, Medvedev, Vorobyova, 2004; Evans et al., 2003; Larichev, Khol’ushkin, Laricheva, 1990: 349–357; Medvedev, 1998: 32–35; Medvedev, 2001: 273–276; Stratigra¿ya…, 1990; Tricart, Cailleux, 1967; West, 1968: 65).

Discussion

N. Rolland / Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 43/4 (2015) 3–18

Table 2. Diagnostic Mammoth-Steppe Biome ungulate species exploited by Middle Palaeolithic populations Locality

Mammal

1

2 Western Europe

Carrière Thomasson

Woolly mammoth

Combe-Grenal 61–59

Reindeer*, saiga, ibex, deer

Combe-Grenal 25-21, 19–17

Reindeer*, horse, bison, deer

La Chaise (Riss)

Reindeer**, horse, bison, saiga

Sainte-Anne 1J

Horse, mammoth**, w. rhino, reindeer, ibex

Vergisson IV

Reindeer*

Lynford

Mammoth, w. rhino, reindeer, horse, bison

Cotte St. Brelade, OIS 6

Same

Mont-Dol

Mammoth, w. rhino, reindeer, horse, Bos

Beauvais-la-Justice

Mammoth, w. rhino, reindeer-, horse, bison

Hénin-sur-Cojeul G

Mammoth, w. rhino, reindeer, horse, Bison*

Mesvin IV

Mammoth**, horse**, w. rhino, reindeer, bison, Megaceros giganteus

Mützig

Mammoth, bison, reindeer

Central Europe Achenheim Sol 74

Mammoth, w. rhino, reindeer, bison, Megaceros giganteus

Salzbitter-Lebenstedt

Mammoth**, w. rhino, bison, saiga, reindeer*

Ariendorf 1

W. rhino, horse, red deer

Ariendorf 2

M. trogontherii, w. rhino, horse, bison, red deer

Schweinskopf 1

Horse

Schweinskopf 2

W. rhino, horse

Schweinskopf 3

Reindeer

Schweinskopf 4

Mammoth, w. rhino, horse, reindeer, M. gigantheus, red deer

Wannen 1

W. rhino, horse, E. hydruntinus, red deer

Wannen 2

W. rhino, horse, red deer, chamois

Wannen 3

W. rhino, horse, reindeer, red deer, chamois

Lichtenberg

Mammoth, reindeer, bison

Königsaue A, B

Mammoth, w. rhino, saiga, reindeer, bison, E. hydruntinus, red deer

Tata

Mammoth**, bison, E. hydruntinus, red deer, M. giganteus

ZwoleĔ

Mammoth, w. rhino, saiga, reindeer, bison**

Raj

Mammoth, w. rhino, reindeer, horse, bison, muskox

BiĞnik OIS 8

W. rhino, horse, reindeer, bison

DzierĪyslaw

W. rhino, horse, bison, reindeer, M. giganteus

Molodova IV

W. rhino, horse, bison, reindeer, red deer

Eastern and Northeastern Europe

Betovo

Mammoth, w. rhino

Khotylëvo

Mammoth, w. rhino, horse, bison, reindeer, red deer

Sukhaiia Mechetka

Mammoth, saiga, horse, bison

El’niki II

M. trogontherii

Bol’shoi Glukhoi

Reindeer, M. giganteus

Peshchërnyi log

Saiga Western Siberia

Bogdanovka

Mammoth, w. rhino, saiga, horse, bison, reindeer, red deer

Okladnikov Cave

Mammoth, w. rhino, horse, bison, reindeer, Siberian ibex, red deer, E. hydruntinus, ovis

9

10

N. Rolland / Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 43/4 (2015) 3–18

Table 2 (end) 1

2

Denisova Cave

Mammoth, w. rhino, saiga, bison, reindeer, Siberian mountain goat, E. hundruntinus, mongolian gazelle, red deer, ovis

Ust’ Kanskaiia Cave

W. rhino, horse, E. hydruntinus, Siberian antelope, mongolian gazelle, ovis

Kara-Bom-1, -2 (Moustier)

Mammoth, w. rhino, horse, bison, Siberian ibex, Siberian ram

Chagyrskaiia Cave-6a, b/2, c/2

Mammoth, w. rhino, horse, bison*, yak, reindeer, red deer, Siberian ibex, ram Central, Eastern Siberia

Ust’-Izhul’

Mammoth, w. rhino, horse, bison, reindeer, red deer

Dvuglazka-5–7

W. rhino, saiga, horse, bison, red deer

Khotyk-4–6

W. rhino, horse, bison, Mongolian gazelle, red deer, ovis

Mungkharyma

Mammoth, w. rhino, horse (?), bison (?) reindeer (?)

*Dominant, abundant. **Highly dominant/very abundant.

1 2 3

Fig. 2. Pleistocene isotopic stages. 1 – Intermediate Paleolithic; 2 – Middle Paleolithic; 3 – Upper Paleolithic.

1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 3. Adaptive stages in the peopling of Northern Eurasia and Beringia. 1 – stadial advances; 2 – interglacials; 3 – moderately temperate or cool interglacials, or interstadials; 4 – early glacial – temperate or cool; 5 – last Tardiglacial – waning Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and oscillating transition to the Neothermal.

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Adaptive strategies Natural history intelligence, ecological polymorphism, cultural repertoires made feasible a progressive settling of higher latitudes, hypercontinental meridians, and seasonal darkness. “Paleoanthropic” (Neanderthals, archaic modern humans) subspecies or demes developed ef¿cient land use and subsistence logistics in varied topographic, biotopic, meterorological conditions. Mesoclimates, or localized responses to prevailing regional climates in the landscape, distinct from microclimates, are de¿ned by ground surface proximity-reÀecting slopes, hills, valleys, plateaus, daily temperatures, solar exposure, differing precipitation rates and wind directions: e.g., the Massif Central broken Saalian landscape at Sainte-Anne J1 (Sainte-Anne 1…, 2007: 24); the Eiffel Basin bioclimatic changes (Bosinski, 1986a: Fig. II–IV; Turner, 1990); Late Pleistocene Middle Paleolithic open-air and cave settings in Siberian Altai, e.g., Okladnikov Cave, Denisova Cave, Ust’Kanskaiia Cave, Kara-Bom (Derevianko et al., 2003; The Paleolithic of Siberia…, 1998); topographic, altitudinal, microenvironmental, and periglacial climatic contrasts in Transbaikalia (Lbova, 2000; Lbova et al., 2003). Burned bones as fuel residues are rarely associated with hearths in Siberia*, but this may overshadow past uses of Siberian larch (Larix sibirica), a rapid growth lignic resource whose hardy, Àexible, resinous texture could provide an alternative fuel for slow, long lasting combustion (Suslov, 1961: 36–37). Larch phytoliths residues may be retrievable from excavations.

Animal food exploitation Specific bioclimatic circumstances and ungulate behavioral ecology induced effective resource monitoring, land use (see Fig. 2), and mobility strategies (Kelly, 1983). The English Channel and North Sea Zeeland Ridge during glacial eustatic sea level low stands became now-drowned landbridges and periglacial steppe-tundra landscapes, with incised paleorivers and Neanderthal campsites, where large mammals ranged (Hublin et al., 2009; Tuffreau, Marcy, 1988: 4, ¿g. 1). The north Britanny and Normandy coastline cliffs show logistically positioned Middle Paleolithic game monitoring sites clusters (RocheTonnerre, Goaréva, Trinité, Mont-Dol, Cotte St. Brelade, and Cotte à la Chèvre) (Monnier, 1980: Fig. 230, 235). In Jersey Island, the Cotte St. Brelade and Cotte à la Chèvre home ranges shifted in tandem with ice age cycle Àuctuations (La Cotte de St. Brelade…, 1986: Fig. 31, 2, 5). In eastern Germany, Markkleeberg, a Pleisse River quarry site, laminated gravels terrace formed by proglacial lakes occurred near the converging Drenthe-Saale ice *Chris Turner, personal communication, Novosibirsk, 2003

sheets, OIS 8 (Mania, 1998: Fig. 23). Meltwaters bordering ice sheets supported biotically-rich steppe habitats attracting woolly mammoths, rhinos, horses favouring interception by hunters (Grahmann, 1955: Fig. 2). The OIS 8 Odra stadial occurrences cluster of BiĞnik, Trzebca, Tomaszów, Rozumice-3 in southern Poland indicates migratory transit movements close to ice sheet foreland (Foltyn, Kozáowski, Waga, 2010: 107) and/or mobile foraging home ranges. The Ust’-Izhul’ mammoth, rhino, and bison butchering site (Chlachula, Drozdov, Ovodov, 2003; Drozdov, Chlachula, Chekha, 1999), 55.1°N, Kurtak Archaeological Region, Minusinsk Basin, was located in a rich steppe-parkland ecotone continental setting next to the Ust’-Izhul and Yenisei rivers conÀuence during Kazantsevo OIS 5e. These situations suggest various animal food harvesting methods, fire drives, thrusting weapons, corralling, stealth pursuit, according to game species’ feeding habits, behavioral ecology, and sizes.

Perennial occupation of the Mammoth-Steppe Biome realm Middle Paleolithic sites across North Eurasia imply life ways contingent on a carnivorous diet, natural history intelligence, and culture repertoires without resorting to land use shifts and relocating over major spatial distances. European evidence testifies to survival strategies developing progressively since late Mid-Pleistocene stadials to exploit biotic potentials adjacent to ice sheets. Woolly mammoths persisted as perennial resource into the Last Glacial Maximum in England (Lister, 2009), high latitudes of Finland and Urals during interglacials or interstadials. Stadial occupation prior to Late Pleistocene appears less clearly so far in the hypercontinental Northeast European and Siberian landmass. Massive human “evacuations” of ice-free MammothSteppe Biome areas during Late Pleistocene cold Àuctuations faced suf¿ciently serious logistic impediments to cease being a viable option. Displacements towards distant hypothetical southern refugia along Black Sea or Caspian coastlines or Central Asia entailed negotiating huge distances that would jeopardize the reproductive survival of scattered small groups, by overextending and dislocating mating and information networks, while overlooking local resources. Migratory searches for remote, scarce, secluded Late Pleistocene oases valleys (Olsen, 1987; 1992) south of the northern Central Asian steppes required overcoming or bypassing scattered barriers of barren arid plateaus and basins, alpine glaciers, and steep mountain ranges (Suslov, 1961). Quaternary uplifts (Yongqiu et al., 2001) created increasingly arid belt expansions, lower temperatures impoverishing primary productivity, circumstances making southbound moves less attractive than subsisting in xeric cold grasslands

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Table 3. Stages of North Eurasia colonization Date, Ka PB

Zone

10–30

IV

Formative stage

Epoch

“Apogée” or “Classical”

Upper Palaeolithic

30–40

III

“Emergent” or “Initial”

“Cristallization”

40–50

II

“Transitional” or “Incipient”

Middle Palaeolithic

50–300

I

“Settling-in” or “Formative”

“Threshold”

300+

0

“Human Biogeographic” antecedents

Intermediate Palaeolithic

600–1400

–

Initial Peopling of Eurasia

Lower Palaeolithic

supporting rich ungulate herds (Orlova et al., 2000: Fig. 1–5; Vereshchagin, 1971; Zenin, 2002: 42). These may account partly for relatively scarce Upper Paleolithic sites in Central Asia (Davis, Ranov, 1999: 186; 191–192; Vishnyatsky, 1999). A land use strategy capitalizing on intimate knowledge of productive mosaics of steppe habitats water, food resources, of varied, stochastic microclimatic oscillations in Northeast Europe and Siberia (Matasova et al., 2001) would prove less problematic. It would rely on diverse, improved extractive technologies ef¿cacy, information repertoires acquired during long-term colonization episodes, about game species seasonal or cyclical variations, e.g., reindeer demographic cycles (Haber, Walters, 1980), resource Àuctuations scheduling, to bridge scarcity episodes by winter storage, exploiting freshwater fish species (Ust’-Kanskaiia Cave, Ust’-Karakol-1, Denisova Cave), mesoclimatic variations tackled by redeploying to nearby sheltered, ice-free microhabitats, afÀuent valleys, foothills, plateaus (e.g., Altai, Sayans) (Sovremennye problemy…, 2001: 74) to avoid cold air masses from barren wind-swept lowland basins or open valleys (Suslov, 1961: 12, 68, 242). The Figure 1 mapped sites spatial magnitude evokes with time depth “beacons” or “Christmas tree lights in the dark”. Their distribution scatter suggests a social morphological con¿guration of “lights Àashing on-and-off” revealing relicts of extensive past “wiring” systems: home ranges and social territories of clustered, loosely linked, interlocking, low density, mobile founder population local group networks in flux and fissioning. Microcultural traditions, widely distributed cultural traits, convey oscillating high latitudes colonization “frontlines” (Rolland, 2009: 28).

Culture historical development and adaptive zonation patterns The steadily cohesive North Eurasia colonization trajectory reaching the Arctic Circle is expressed by periodization horizon series up to Upper Paleolithic (Arkheologiya…, 1998; Escutenaire, 1994; Larichev, Kholyushkin, Laricheva, 1988; 1990; 1992; Pavlov,

Indrelid, 2000; Pavlov, Roebroeks, Swendsen, 2004; Vassil’ev, 1992) (Table 3). Preconditioning Pleistocene antecedent developments reached a climax expressed by specialized Holocene adaptations in Circumpolar and subarctic Eurasia and North America (Clark, 1975; Cooper, 1946; Narody Sibiri; 1956; McGhee, 1996; Okladnikov, 1962; Prehistoric Foragers…, 2003).

The Middle Paleolithic formative stage As a developmental stage, instead of merely archaeological age (Childe, 1944; Roe, 1982; Rolland, 1999), it marked the onset of full-Àedged, oscillating Paleolithic oecumenes and settlement frontlines throughout North Eurasian “cold spaces” (Bosinski, 1963, 1982, 1983; Nat 1971, 1972, 1974; Rolland, 2001, 2008). Discoveries accumulating in northern Europe testify to this trend: Cotte St. Brelade, Lynford, Pontnewydd, Beauvais, Mesvin IV, Lichtenberg, Ochtmissen, Susiluola. The huge high latitude continental/ hypercontinental landmass from the Urals to the Lena, likely contained ice-free ecological corridors supporting human life. This vast human biogeographic system encompassed Middle Paleolithic sites in Central Asia, Mongolia: Teshik-Tash, Anghilak, Kulbulak, Aman-Kutan, Amir-Temir, Obi-Rakhmat (Davis, Ranov, 1999; Derevianko, Petrin, Rybin, 2000; Sovremennye problemy…, 2001; Glantz et al., 2003; Nat, 1971: 148–166; Vishnyatsky, 1996, 1999). When fully explored, the North Eurasian high latitude Middle Paleolithic sites list (Susiluola*), Garchi I, El’niki II,

*The isolated high latitude, 62.2°N, Susiluola (“Wolf Cave”) discovery (The Susiluola…, 1999–2003; Norrman, 1993–1997; Schultz, 1998) raised ongoing skepticism, debates about reported archaeological contents (Schultz, 2010: 47; Vishnyatsky, Pitulko, 2012: 8–10) dismissed as gravelly sediments and “geofacts” like in local quarries. Investigators counter this verdict (Schultz, 2000–2001; 2010; Schultz et al., 2002) with petrographic, photos, drawings, tables, and graphs observations. Despite identi¿cation “noise” from physical alterations (frost, mechanical pressure, littoral surge, cryo-turbation, current

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Peshchernyi Log, Bol’shaiia Glukhaiia, Khvalynsk, Byzovaiia, Diring, Chirkuo, Mungkharyma) will likely lengthen, making the paraphrased Roman adage apposite “de Sibiria semper aliquid novi”.

Upper Paleolithic emergence Notions of a spreading monocentric “Upper Paleolithic Revolution” linked with fully modern humans from Africa or Near East (Bar-Yosef, 2002; Mellars, 2006) are challenged by ¿ndings across Eurasia with alternative perspectives (Clark, Riel-Salvatore, 2009; Derevianko, 2009, 2011; Characteristic Features…, 2011; Kuzmin, 2007; Otte, 1994; Teyssandier, 2008; Vishnyatsky, 2005; Djindjian, Kozáowski, Bazile, 2003), supporting empirically a model of continuous, polycentric, multilinear transitions stemming from Middle Paleolithic forerunners (Vishnyatsky, 2000, 2008). Scattered late Middle Paleolithic occurrences (Byzovaiia, 28.5 ka BP, Dvuglazka, 27.2 and 26.6 ka BP, Aryshevskoe-2 (-6), 33.6 ka BP, Mokhovo II, 30.3 ka BP, Okladnikov Cave, 33.3 and 37.4 ka BP) raise issues calling for a closer look, since they overlap in time with early OIS 3 Upper Paleolithic horizons. Multilinear Upper Paleolithic entities amalgamating from cultural intensification and homotaxial trends developed into classic Upper Paleolithic horizons across Eurasia, including subarctic and arctic habitats. abrasion, available raw materials poor/moderate chipping quality), ¿ndings reveal archaeological structure by geologically “improbable” artifacts requiring consideration and support retaining tentatively Susiluola as bona ¿de Middle Paleolithic, Eemian OIS 5e occurrence (Niemelä, Jungner, 1989–1990; Hütt et al., 1993; Mahaney et al., 2001). Despite abrasion (Schultz et al., 2002: Fig. 9), layers IV, V particularly contain many Àakes, cores (n = 747) preserving discernible anthropogenic lithic reduction traits: dorsal negative scars, impact points, butts, percussion bulbs, strain lines (The Susiluola…, 1999–2003; Schultz, 2010: Fig. 4–10; Schultz et al., 2002: Fig. 8, 1–3), and one particularly telling quartz Àake-blade (this author’s unpublished drawing); lithic material exploitation frequencies departing clearly from expected naturally deposited rocks patterns, indicating selective preferences (35.9 %) for locally scarce red siltstones, sandstones, “exotic” ¿ne-grained quartzite introduced in the cave by human agencies. Independent evidence from horizontal structures inside the cave con¿rms anthropogenic activities: 2 partly preserved “pavements” (produced rapidly by gravel surface trampling) residues under highest ceiling areas. Layer IV-2, 7.4 m², nearer cave mouth, associated with aligned surface stones and in situ artifacts (Schultz et al., 2002: Fig. 3). The other 1 m², lies at the back. Geochemical analysis established that a (X) 10 cm thick dark lens-shaped oval structure, 1.1–1.9 m (Schultz, 2010: Fig. 3), contains charcoal residues of repeated ¿replace use, ruling out manganese, and irregular forest ¿re traces.

Holocene colonization of Arctic habitats These Pleistocene antecedents foreshadowed intensifying and specializing cultural adjustments to circumpolar environments, encompassing the hitherto Canadian Arctic, unoccupied harsh settings. Techno-ecological series, initiating in the Bering and Chukchi Seas, spread through Alaska to Arctic Canada and West Greenland (Eastern Arctic Prehistory…, 1976; McGhee, 2001; Rolland, Cinq-Mars, 2011; Rudenko, 1961; Sheehan, 1985; Wright, 2001). Rapidly expanding groups of Pre-Dorset horizon series, with high mobility, cultural homogeneity, focus on land mammals (muskoxen, reindeer), some sealing and fishing; these enhanced during Dorset horizon by coping with colder conditions, subsistence combining land and sea mammals (walrus, seal) and specialized technology. Subsequently, the rapid spread of Thule (Inuit) groups involved population replacement, sea mammal specialization, and advanced technologies.

Conclusion The key arguments of the paper were that (1) peopling northern Eurasian high latitudes required developing cultural means, critical for surviving in challenging habitats, (2) this unfolded in linear fashion over a considerable time span back to Mid-Pleistocene. Direct evidence demonstrates the decisive role played by the culture historical antecedents of the Middle Paleolithic Formative Stage coalescing into a human biogeographic con¿guration with time perspectivistic depth. Integrated with the Mammoth-Steppe Biome, it actualized a “peopling of the north” long-term trend coeval with underlying bioclimatic variations, fluctuations, and oscillations. Hominid ecological diversification and cultural intensi¿cation (Bader, 1965; Otte, 1994; Otte, Kozáowski, 2001; Semenov, 1970: Fig. 1; Zeuner, 1963) ampli¿ed and intensi¿ed in continental, high, subpolar latitudes throughout Eurasia during the Upper Paleolithic and Holocene Mesolithic/New World Archaic horizons.

Acknowledgements Helpful assistance and valuable information sharing over the years by colleagues and institutions in France, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Finland, Russia is fully acknowledged. Special thanks are extended to Professor Pavel Pavlov, Institute of Language, Literature and History, Syktyvkar, Komi A. Republic, and especially Academician Anatoly P. Derevianko and colleagues, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Novosibirsk, Dr. Yaroslav V. Kuzmin, Institute of Geology and Mineralogy, Novosibirsk, and Dr. Leonid Vishnyatsky, Institute for the History of Material Culture,

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St.Petersburg, read the manuscript with valuable comments and suggestions. My Canadian colleague Jacques Cinq-Mars’ profound ¿rst-hand archaeological and ethnographic experience in the Yukon, knowledge of Siberian Paleolithic contributed stimulating discussions and ideas bene¿ting the paper.

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