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The political economy of soil erosion in developing countries
Book reviews
chapter to each of the following conflict areas: resource extraction, recreation and preservation, the built environment, farming and forestry, and access. This may appear rather clinical and somewhat of an oversimplification to compartmentalize such conflicts. Possibly the conflicts are too complex and interrelated to separate. However, by considering one conflict at a time, the authors are able to give a semblance of order and clarity to the proceedings which proves beneficial to the reader. Cloke and Park also hint that rural conflict is inevitable by noting ‘conflicts arise through .. . competition between rural resource users seeking to meet what are often inherently incompatible goals’. Throughout the book there is an emphasis on the need for efficient resource planning. Yet such planning is presently beset by problems. The intricacies of the Common Agricultural Policy and the demands of multinational mineral companies often leave planners at the local level in a confused and more or less powerless position to affect decision making. The authors also highlight the need to preserve the countryside, not as some sort of working museum, but as a healthy and viable community which enjoys similar levels of service provision as its urban counterparts.
UK planning machine Finally, Section III considers the planning and management approaches that have, or can be, implemented in light of the conflicts outlined in Section II. In recent years the British planning machine has come in for increasing criticism, often concerning the allocation and utilization of rural resources. Cloke and Park are critical of the bureaucracy and negative approach of planning which has regularly produced a state of confusion, frustration and ultimately conflict. The present policies of planning by agreement or control leave much to be desired. Instead, the authors call for a more fully integrated approach to rural planning, especially concerning land use strategies. Overall, this book is aimed at undergraduate students of geography,
LAND USE POLICY
October 1985
environmental planning, land management and conservation. It is a comprehensive and very well researched piece of work with the authors relying heavily on the findings of other workers to illustrate their points. Indeed, more references are cited per chapter than many authors cite per book. Although basically concerned with the British countryside, the liberal use of examples from abroad helps give the book an international flavour. Unlike some rural resource authors, Cloke and Park refrain from becoming
emotive or taking sides with particular causes. Neither do they offer any novel or radical approaches to this complex subject. Instead they have adopted a logical and well ordered approach that makes this book a valuable reference source which will provide the student with a sound platform on which to develop and specialize. Trevor McKeown Environmental Institute University of Salford Salford, UK
Erosion - not just a technical issue THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SOIL EROSION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES by Piers Blaikie Longman, London 1985, 157 pp.
and
New
York,
Soil erosion by wind and water is increasing in many developing countries, notwithstanding national and international development programmes. The author analyses the social, economic and political background of the expansion of these most important forms of soil degradation. After a general introduction to the erosion problem and an explanation of the structure of the book in Chapter 1, the author explains in Chapter 2 that economists are not in agreement as to whether soil erosion is a serious problem. Some economists think that it is; others, mainly the most influential economists, think that soil erosion can be dealt with in any rural development programme and project as a cost item for soil maintenance in the farmers’ budget. Due to the general lack of reliable statistics, it is explained that it is difficult to say which standpoint is the most realistic. The author is frank in the presentation of his opinion that erosion is a very serious problem indeed which cannot be overcome as a purely technical issue. The rest of the book is dedicated to explanations as to how soil erosion becomes a social and political prob-
lem, and why solutions in these circumstances need to be found in the fabric of sociopolitical and economic life of a country and of the international community. In Chapter 6, a methodology is proposed by which complex interrelationships between different socioeconomic groups in society on the one hand, and people and the environment on the other hand, can be analysed and be used as a tool for planning. The most interesting part of the book is Chapter 4; ‘Why do policies usually fail?’ The author gives five reasons:
0
0
a 0
0
Conservation techniques do not conserve soil in practice because of technical failures through inadequate or misapplied research. Conservation techniques do not fit into agricultural and pastoral practices and therefore are not applied by farmers or pastoralists. Conservation is hampered by existing land tenure conditions. There is a lack of participation by land users in government sponsored conservation. There are also institutional weaknesses.
Of particular interest in this part of the book is the explanation of why government officers and representatives of trade and industries in developing countries are usually not interested in soil conservation and erosion control projects. A salient point is that land users, particularly in British colonial
355
Book reviews
Africa before 1960, used to be under pressure by colonial administrators to practice soil conservation. This practice is today regarded by many rural people in those areas as an unnecessary encroachment on their private and local affairs. The book goes on to describe how many African tribal communities in the past developed excellent methods to conserve and maintain soil fertility. Most of these communities have ceased their traditional farming practices. The reasons given for this are: growing competition in land occupation and in local markets, from modern commercial agriculture, as in Zambia, or the introduction of cash crops for which no suitable rotation schedule was worked out in relation to animal husbandry, as in Sukumaland in Tanzania. These types of commercial agriculture were begun in colonial times and were continued after independence and sometimes even reinforced, as in Zambia, because established influential groups were not concerned with problems of soil erosion in original tribal lands. Other causes of large-scale soil erosion are discussed in Chapters 7 and 8, such as large-scale commercial logging in tropical forests, often followed by subsistence cultivators and, finally, the phenomenon usually called ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’. This means overutilization of land held under communal tenure conditions for which often no organization and regulation for soil conservation is applied, such as in many tribal grazing lands in Africa. The practices and programmes of foreign aid have so far achieved only limited success in soil conservation because of, as the author points out, conflicting interests and the necessity of local food production for the population. The comparison with methodology and achievements of the international movement for family planning is interesting and helpful. The success of this movement to date is described as ‘limited’ because of the complexity of social, political and economic interrelationships. Soil conservation is often equally complex in its interrelationships and consequences. The conclusions of the book are that
356
soil conservation programmes in developing countries will continue to have only limited success as long as politicians and groups with vested interests, both nationally and internationally, do not really see their own situations threatened by soil erosion and other forms of soil degradation. In the meantime, farmers and pastoralists on marginal and submarginal lands in developing countries will have little choice left but to exhaust the soils they are using. According to the author, usually much depends on the social situations and possibilities for change, in which ideologies play an important role. The effectiveness of these social changes will depend very much on the ideology in question.
Global view Although the book’s reference list (with 493 entries) is rather impressive, it represents only part of the AngloSaxon literature on the subject. An equally impressive list could be given for the literature in French or in Russian, Spanish, Italian and Chinese. Soil conservation efforts in Spain and Portugal during the past 50 years have been considerable; so have been the achievements in Russia and China. Serious soil conservation in Latin America has yet to become part of operational programmes and policies. The author’s observations on interrelationships between land tenure and soil conservation could be an interesting approach for that continent. Almost everything mentioned in this book is important, stimulating and refreshing. It is presented in a very readable text, giving numerous examples and ample reference. The main shortcoming of this publication is its
shortness and that its field of attention is confined to developing countries. An introductory chapter on the real international scene of soil erosion would have facilitated the development of a general theory on soil degradation and soil conservation in a global context. Still, the methodology proposed for the way ahead is interesting and would be worthwhile: publications, seminars, conferences, courses and preparation of internationally acceptable methodologies for assessment of land use, land use planning and land use policy. Surprisingly, present methodologies used by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and other multi- and bi-lateral development agencies are not mentioned, such as land evaluation and the programme of correlation of soil suitability in a number of agroecological zones in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Nor does the author mention the declaration of the World Soils Charter by the FAO Conference in 1981, and acceptance of the World Soil Policy by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) in 1982. This was followed by publication of guidelines for the preparation of national soil policies in 1984, and acceptance of the Plan of Action for implementation of the World Soils Pohcy by the Governing Council of UNEP during its session in 1984. Notwithstanding, the book is a suitable and timely contribution to all efforts to combat soil degradation at all levels, from the individual to global approaches.
Ir. Ary M. van Oosten Agricultural Economist Mbrignac, Bordeaux, France
Contributions The submission of items for inclusion in the Report, Conference review sections are welcome.
Book review and
Contributions should be sent to Cohn Blackman, Editor, Land Use Policy, Butterworth Scientific Limited, PO Box 63, Westbury House, Bury Street. Guildford GU2 5BH. UK. Tel: 0483 31261
LAND USE POLICY
October 1985
chapter to each of the following conflict areas: resource extraction, recreation and preservation, the built environment, farming and forestry, and access. This may appear rather clinical and somewhat of an oversimplification to compartmentalize such conflicts. Possibly the conflicts are too complex and interrelated to separate. However, by considering one conflict at a time, the authors are able to give a semblance of order and clarity to the proceedings which proves beneficial to the reader. Cloke and Park also hint that rural conflict is inevitable by noting ‘conflicts arise through .. . competition between rural resource users seeking to meet what are often inherently incompatible goals’. Throughout the book there is an emphasis on the need for efficient resource planning. Yet such planning is presently beset by problems. The intricacies of the Common Agricultural Policy and the demands of multinational mineral companies often leave planners at the local level in a confused and more or less powerless position to affect decision making. The authors also highlight the need to preserve the countryside, not as some sort of working museum, but as a healthy and viable community which enjoys similar levels of service provision as its urban counterparts.
UK planning machine Finally, Section III considers the planning and management approaches that have, or can be, implemented in light of the conflicts outlined in Section II. In recent years the British planning machine has come in for increasing criticism, often concerning the allocation and utilization of rural resources. Cloke and Park are critical of the bureaucracy and negative approach of planning which has regularly produced a state of confusion, frustration and ultimately conflict. The present policies of planning by agreement or control leave much to be desired. Instead, the authors call for a more fully integrated approach to rural planning, especially concerning land use strategies. Overall, this book is aimed at undergraduate students of geography,
LAND USE POLICY
October 1985
environmental planning, land management and conservation. It is a comprehensive and very well researched piece of work with the authors relying heavily on the findings of other workers to illustrate their points. Indeed, more references are cited per chapter than many authors cite per book. Although basically concerned with the British countryside, the liberal use of examples from abroad helps give the book an international flavour. Unlike some rural resource authors, Cloke and Park refrain from becoming
emotive or taking sides with particular causes. Neither do they offer any novel or radical approaches to this complex subject. Instead they have adopted a logical and well ordered approach that makes this book a valuable reference source which will provide the student with a sound platform on which to develop and specialize. Trevor McKeown Environmental Institute University of Salford Salford, UK
Erosion - not just a technical issue THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SOIL EROSION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES by Piers Blaikie Longman, London 1985, 157 pp.
and
New
York,
Soil erosion by wind and water is increasing in many developing countries, notwithstanding national and international development programmes. The author analyses the social, economic and political background of the expansion of these most important forms of soil degradation. After a general introduction to the erosion problem and an explanation of the structure of the book in Chapter 1, the author explains in Chapter 2 that economists are not in agreement as to whether soil erosion is a serious problem. Some economists think that it is; others, mainly the most influential economists, think that soil erosion can be dealt with in any rural development programme and project as a cost item for soil maintenance in the farmers’ budget. Due to the general lack of reliable statistics, it is explained that it is difficult to say which standpoint is the most realistic. The author is frank in the presentation of his opinion that erosion is a very serious problem indeed which cannot be overcome as a purely technical issue. The rest of the book is dedicated to explanations as to how soil erosion becomes a social and political prob-
lem, and why solutions in these circumstances need to be found in the fabric of sociopolitical and economic life of a country and of the international community. In Chapter 6, a methodology is proposed by which complex interrelationships between different socioeconomic groups in society on the one hand, and people and the environment on the other hand, can be analysed and be used as a tool for planning. The most interesting part of the book is Chapter 4; ‘Why do policies usually fail?’ The author gives five reasons:
0
0
a 0
0
Conservation techniques do not conserve soil in practice because of technical failures through inadequate or misapplied research. Conservation techniques do not fit into agricultural and pastoral practices and therefore are not applied by farmers or pastoralists. Conservation is hampered by existing land tenure conditions. There is a lack of participation by land users in government sponsored conservation. There are also institutional weaknesses.
Of particular interest in this part of the book is the explanation of why government officers and representatives of trade and industries in developing countries are usually not interested in soil conservation and erosion control projects. A salient point is that land users, particularly in British colonial
355
Book reviews
Africa before 1960, used to be under pressure by colonial administrators to practice soil conservation. This practice is today regarded by many rural people in those areas as an unnecessary encroachment on their private and local affairs. The book goes on to describe how many African tribal communities in the past developed excellent methods to conserve and maintain soil fertility. Most of these communities have ceased their traditional farming practices. The reasons given for this are: growing competition in land occupation and in local markets, from modern commercial agriculture, as in Zambia, or the introduction of cash crops for which no suitable rotation schedule was worked out in relation to animal husbandry, as in Sukumaland in Tanzania. These types of commercial agriculture were begun in colonial times and were continued after independence and sometimes even reinforced, as in Zambia, because established influential groups were not concerned with problems of soil erosion in original tribal lands. Other causes of large-scale soil erosion are discussed in Chapters 7 and 8, such as large-scale commercial logging in tropical forests, often followed by subsistence cultivators and, finally, the phenomenon usually called ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’. This means overutilization of land held under communal tenure conditions for which often no organization and regulation for soil conservation is applied, such as in many tribal grazing lands in Africa. The practices and programmes of foreign aid have so far achieved only limited success in soil conservation because of, as the author points out, conflicting interests and the necessity of local food production for the population. The comparison with methodology and achievements of the international movement for family planning is interesting and helpful. The success of this movement to date is described as ‘limited’ because of the complexity of social, political and economic interrelationships. Soil conservation is often equally complex in its interrelationships and consequences. The conclusions of the book are that
356
soil conservation programmes in developing countries will continue to have only limited success as long as politicians and groups with vested interests, both nationally and internationally, do not really see their own situations threatened by soil erosion and other forms of soil degradation. In the meantime, farmers and pastoralists on marginal and submarginal lands in developing countries will have little choice left but to exhaust the soils they are using. According to the author, usually much depends on the social situations and possibilities for change, in which ideologies play an important role. The effectiveness of these social changes will depend very much on the ideology in question.
Global view Although the book’s reference list (with 493 entries) is rather impressive, it represents only part of the AngloSaxon literature on the subject. An equally impressive list could be given for the literature in French or in Russian, Spanish, Italian and Chinese. Soil conservation efforts in Spain and Portugal during the past 50 years have been considerable; so have been the achievements in Russia and China. Serious soil conservation in Latin America has yet to become part of operational programmes and policies. The author’s observations on interrelationships between land tenure and soil conservation could be an interesting approach for that continent. Almost everything mentioned in this book is important, stimulating and refreshing. It is presented in a very readable text, giving numerous examples and ample reference. The main shortcoming of this publication is its
shortness and that its field of attention is confined to developing countries. An introductory chapter on the real international scene of soil erosion would have facilitated the development of a general theory on soil degradation and soil conservation in a global context. Still, the methodology proposed for the way ahead is interesting and would be worthwhile: publications, seminars, conferences, courses and preparation of internationally acceptable methodologies for assessment of land use, land use planning and land use policy. Surprisingly, present methodologies used by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and other multi- and bi-lateral development agencies are not mentioned, such as land evaluation and the programme of correlation of soil suitability in a number of agroecological zones in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Nor does the author mention the declaration of the World Soils Charter by the FAO Conference in 1981, and acceptance of the World Soil Policy by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) in 1982. This was followed by publication of guidelines for the preparation of national soil policies in 1984, and acceptance of the Plan of Action for implementation of the World Soils Pohcy by the Governing Council of UNEP during its session in 1984. Notwithstanding, the book is a suitable and timely contribution to all efforts to combat soil degradation at all levels, from the individual to global approaches.
Ir. Ary M. van Oosten Agricultural Economist Mbrignac, Bordeaux, France
Contributions The submission of items for inclusion in the Report, Conference review sections are welcome.
Book review and
Contributions should be sent to Cohn Blackman, Editor, Land Use Policy, Butterworth Scientific Limited, PO Box 63, Westbury House, Bury Street. Guildford GU2 5BH. UK. Tel: 0483 31261
LAND USE POLICY
October 1985