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The potential of poppy (Papaver somniferum Linnaeus) husk for manufacturing wood-based particleboards
Construction and Building Materials 95 (2015) 224–231
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Construction and Building Materials journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
The potential of poppy (Papaver somniferum Linnaeus) husk for manufacturing wood-based particleboards Hakan Keskin a, Mustafa Kucuktuvek b,⇑, Metin Guru c a
Gazi University, Faculty of Technology, Department of Wood Products Industrial Engineering, Teknikokullar, 06500 Ankara, Turkey Gazi University, Faculty of Industrial Arts Education, Department of Industrial Technology, Teknikokullar, 06500 Ankara, Turkey c Gazi University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, 06570 Ankara, Turkey b
h i g h l i g h t s It is possible to produce particleboards from poppy husk and pine wood. Poppy husk biomass might have a recycling opportunity. Formaldehyde emission was reduced with the amount of poppy husk. Fire retardant properties were increased in manufactured particleboards. By using poppy husk (up to 25%) provide both physical and mechanical requirements.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 3 February 2015 Received in revised form 9 July 2015 Accepted 15 July 2015
Keywords: Particleboard Mechanical properties Poppy husk Formaldehyde emission Limit oxygen index Flammability Agricultural waste
a b s t r a c t This study aims to analyze the potential of poppy (Papaver somniferum Linnaeus) husk for manufacturing wood-based particleboards. On these basis three layers particleboards were produced and physical, mechanical properties, formaldehyde emission and limitation of oxygen index were analyzed. The results indicate that it is possible to produce particleboards from poppy husk and pine wood by using urea formaldehyde adhesive. Particleboards which are manufactured by using poppy husk up to 25% provide both physical and mechanical requirements in European Norm (EN 312). In addition, poppy husk particles reduced the formaldehyde emission and increased the fire retardant property for the manufactured particleboards. Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Particleboard is a wood-based board product which is manufactured under pressure and heat with the help of wood particles or other lignocellulosic materials and an adhesive. The need for alternative resources to replace wood raw material is emerged. Hence, the research conducted in both industry and academia have started to seek after new sources of lignocellulosic materials. Alternative fibers, such as agricultural residues and non-wood plant fibers, could play as the leading role in getting balance among supply and demand for the manufacturing of composite panels, such as particleboards [1]. These particleboards are generally
⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Kucuktuvek). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.07.160 0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
manufactured from the agricultural residues, walnut [2], kiwi prunings [3], cotton seed hulls [4], rice straw-wood [5], flax shiv [6], vine prunings [7], walnut, pine cone [8], almond shells [9,10], wood flour [11] sugarcane bagasse and castor oil [12], coffee husk and hulls [13] coconut fiber and castor oil [14] and peanut residues [15]. Particleboards were manufactured with sugarcane bagasse using urea formaldehyde (UF) and melamine formaldehyde (MF) adhesives in a study. The particleboards were produced with a mixture of sugarcane bagasse and pinus or eucalyptus fibers, with and without additive in the composite matrix. Nine different types of particleboards, all containing 9% of adhesive in the mixture, were produced under 4.0 MPa pressure and at a temperature of 160 °C. Physical properties of these particleboards were determined with the ASTM CS 236-66 code requirements for medium density chipboards, and in many cases, showed better results than
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other scientists reported in literature. However, when panels subjected to mechanical testing, these particleboards did not comply with the standards and, usually results were close or worse than those reported mechanical properties in literature. The potential use of coconut fiber was evaluated as raw material for particleboards manufacturing, with densities 800 and 1000 kg m 3, using castor oil based polyurethane and urea formaldehyde as binder. According to the results, thickness swelling of particleboard decreased and modulus of rupture increased in coconut fiber panels with polyurethane resin when compared to coconut fiber particleboards using an urea formaldehyde adhesive [14]. Potential use of peanut residues in the manufacture of particleboards was determined in a research. Urea formaldehyde resin was used in this work and the particleboards were pressed at a temperature of 100 °C. The test results showed a bulk density varying between 690 and 830 kg/m3, MOR between 4.37 and 5.34 MPa, and MOE between 590 and 700 MPa, for manufactured panels with and without treatments. Based on the normative document ANSI A208.1:1993, it is possible to claim that the manufactured particleboard presents a potential for using in internal areas as superficial covering of residential buildings, agricultural buildings, furniture and decorative sectors [15]. Urea formaldehyde (UF), the excellent adhesion has intrinsic cohesion, short press time, low cost, high reactivity, water solubility, and lack of color in the finished product, which is major for particleboard manufacturing. On the contrary, it contains high reversibility of the amino methylene link, and this is the reason why the low resistance of urea formaldehyde resins against the influence of water and moisture. This is one of the reasons for its formaldehyde emission, when it is hardened and in service. Formaldehyde based binders are used to produce composite commodities which are commonly in moldings, furniture, cabinetry, counter tops, shelving and stair systems, flooring and many other household furnishings. Formaldehyde (HCHO) adhesive can be dangerous for the eyes, nose and throat. Among these damages, the most sensitive one for formaldehyde exposure is eyes. It also causes some health problems such as asthma and cancer [16]. Efforts have been made to modify the chemical formula of adhesives to reduce formaldehyde emissions. Many producers of wood products work in this area. Thus, many researchers primarily focus on reducing or controlling the formaldehyde emission from urea formaldehyde adhesive bonded composites. The presence of free formaldehyde in the prepared UF resins is one of the reasons for formaldehyde emission [17]. Limitation of oxygen index (LOI), a widely used method, which is a simple and definitive method for the determination of fire self-extinguishment, was adopted to evaluate the flammability of treated wood materials [18]. Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum Linnaeus) is an annual plant, planted in Turkey, India, Australia, France, Spain and Hungary as a main legal producer at the helm of the United Nations Organization. Turkey and India are accepted as traditional opium poppy producers by the United Nations Organization. Turkey has almost 47% of poppy (P. somniferum Linnaeus) cultivation area in the world. It makes Turkey a significant poppy producer [19]. Opium poppy is processed in alkaloid factories. Poppy husks from which alkaloid substances are taken at factories are sent to waste storage space. Until today, there has not been a scientific study related to bring biomass into industry and its recycling has not been accomplished. This study aims to analyze the potential of poppy (P. somniferum Linnaeus) husk for manufacturing wood-based particleboards and evaluate physical, mechanical properties, formaldehyde emission and flammability performance. Thus, both the presence of forest will be preserved and a solution will be found to the raw material need of particleboard industry through the use poppy husk biomass in manufacturing particleboard.
2. Material and methods 2.1. Poppy (P. somniferum Linnaeus) husk Opium poppy, which is followed from its cultivation to the market by the whole world, is a significant industrial plant in Turkey as not only its seed includes 50% oil and is used for nutrition but also its capsule contains alkaloid that is used in medicine and science. Opium poppy legal cultivation areas are shown in Fig. 1 [19]. Poppy husk particles, which are used in the manufacturing of particleboards, are obtained from the alkaloid factory in Afyonkarahisar, Turkey. The particles are brought up to 3% moisture gradient in drying kiln, after that they are classified by using sieves, creating horizontal movements at Gazi University, Faculty of Technology. The diameter and length of particles, which are used as a core layer, are 1.5–6 mm and 10 mm respectively. Moreover, the diameter and length of particles which are used in outer layer, are 0.5–1.5 mm and 3 mm respectively. 2.2. Pine wood The mixture of pine particles is classified and obtained from ORMA Stock Corporation particleboard factory, Isparta, Turkey as dried up to 3% moisture gradient. The thickness of particles, which are used in the core layer, are 0.25–0.40 mm, their widths are 2–6 mm and their lengths 10–25 mm. Diameter of particles which are used in outer layer, are 0.5–1.5 mm, and also their lengths are 1.5–3 mm. 2.3. Adhesive Urea formaldehyde (UF) adhesive used in this study, and it has a density of 1.237 ± 0.020 g/cm3, an approximate pH value of 7.5 to 8.7, and a viscosity of 140 to 200 cps at 20 ± 2 °C, with a gel time of 15 to 25 s at 100 °C. The maximum free formaldehyde (HCHO) ratio of UF is 0.8%, which is produced by a local plant. 2.4. Methodology Particleboard product standard defines the mechanical and physical requirements related with the European norm EN 312. For this reason, 3 layered particleboards were manufactured by mixing poppy (P. somniferum Linnaeus) husk and pine wood in different variations and their mechanical and physical features were tested according to requirement EN 312. In addition to mechanical and physical requirements, formaldehyde emission and limitation of oxygen index which are the important properties of particleboards used in interior places were tested. 2.5. Preparation of testing samples Particles were dried in oven at 100 ± 3 °C to get the target moisture content 3%. Moreover, 8% of UF resin was used for the core layer, and 10% for the outer layer which respectively depends on oven dry weight of the core particles and outer layers. The panels matrix were designed to make up to 34% chips at the outer layer, and 66% at the core layer. The target density of the panels was 0.68 g/cm3. In order to harden the adhesive, %1 ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) was also added to resin. Particleboards were manufactured by using standardized steps which simulated industrial production at the laboratory of Gazi University Technology Faculty. So as to obtain homogenized mixture, the adhesive and the hardener were weighted and mixed. Afterwards, the particles were weighed and sprayed with the prepared adhesive in a drum mixer for 6 min. The particleboards were pressed under 2.6 N/mm2 pressure, at 160 °C, for 8 min. The glued particles were placed on the three layers, after that the layers of the glued particles were pressed by using a laboratory scale hydraulic cold press and hot press respectively. Thickness of panels was controlled via stop bars. Five panels were made for each group. The experimental design is displayed in Table 1. In addition, 500 500 18 mm was the dimension of the produced particleboards.
Hungary Spain 10%
Other 4%
Opium Poppy Culvaon Areas (%)
5% France 10%
Turkey 47%
Australia 11% India 13% Fig. 1. Opium poppy legal cultivation areas in the world.
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Table 1 Experimental design. Panel types
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
Table 2 Production parameters of particleboards. Adhesive (%) Outer
Core
10 10 10 10 10
8 8 8 8 8
Poppy husk (%)
Pine wood (%)
100 75 50 25 0
0 25 50 75 100
The manufacture processes of particleboards are shown in Fig. 2. The particleboards conditioned at 65% relative humidity and 20 °C to reach the moisture content of about 12% before trimming to final dimension of 450 450 18 mm. Production parameters of the particleboards are also presented in Table 2.
Parameter
Value
Press temperature (°C) Pressing time (min) Peak pressure (N/mm2) Thickness (mm) Dimensions (mm) 33% NH4Cl content (%) Outer layer (whole of panel %) Core layer (whole of panel %) Number of panels for each type
160 8 2.6 18 500 500 1 34 66 5
3. Result and discussion 3.1. Thickness swelling
2.6. Testing methods All test samples were prepared from the drafts, according to test standards which have 12% average value of humidity. Ten samples were tested for each group. The determinations of 2 hours (2-h) and 24 hours (24-h) thickness swelling (TS) were tested (Fig. 3a) according to European Norm (EN 317) [20]. The modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) values were determined (Fig. 3b), according to European Norm (EN 310) [21]. The internal bond strength (IB) was evaluated (Fig. 3c) according to European Norm (EN 319) [22]. Average formaldehyde (HCHO) emission was determined as per the principles of European Norm (EN 717-1) [23] in this study. Formaldehyde emission was measured by using a gas detector (Fig. 4a) produced by RAE Systems in USA and a test room (Fig. 4b). The detector uses PID technology. A photoionization detector (PID) uses an ultraviolet (UV) light source to break down chemicals to positive and negative ions. And also, the gas becomes electrically charged. In the PID, these charged particles produce a current that is amplified and displayed on the meter as Chemical shifts, which were expressed in parts per million (ppm). The limitation of oxygen index (LOI) was evaluated (Fig. 4c), according to the principles of test standard American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM D2863) [24].
2.7. Data analyses One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to check the significant difference between factors and levels. When the ANOVA showed a prominent difference among factors and levels, a comparison of the means was defined by Duncan test to see whether the differences between the groups were consequential or not.
Table 3 presents the results which ANOVA meant by the separation test for the thickness swelling (TS) of particleboards, made in this study. It was realized that the difference between P4 and P5 type particleboards was not meaningful, as a result of Duncan’s mean separation test, implemented for defining the effects of variance sources on the 2-h and 24-h thickness swelling. Table 3 shows the results of homogeneous subsets for particleboards. The lowest 2-h and 24-h TS values were respectively obtained 7.27% and 10.22%, when only pine wood was used in the manufacturing of the particleboard type P5. However, the highest 2-h and 24-h TS values of 17.73% and 22.48%, respectively (Table 3), were found in the particleboards which manufactured only with poppy husk (P1). The increase in the TS of particleboards with the rise of poppy husk ratio in the panel matrix can be easily seen on (Fig. 5). TS of P3, P4 and P5 type particleboards were less than the requirements of 14%, based on EN (312) [25] for use in non-load-bearing application under humid conditions. The other scientists also obtained the same results for the particleboards, which are produced from agrofibers. A research was carried out to compare the fundamental physical and mechanical properties of some particleboards, utilized in Turkish furniture industry. It was found from the tests that
Fig. 2. The manufacture process of particleboards: (a) poppy husk biomass; (b) particleboard after cold press; (c) particleboard after hot press; (d) manufactured particleboards.
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Fig. 3. The physical and mechanical test designs: (a) thickness swelling; (b) modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity; (c) internal bond strength.
2-h and 24-h TS of particleboards, which were manufactured by 3 different firms was respectively 8% and 15% [26]. In another study [27] stated that particleboards made at different ratios of vine pruning and wood chips TS 2-h and 24-h test results were 23% and 28%, respectively. Although the rise of the poppy husk particles in composite matrix meaningfully increases the value of TS 24-h of the produced panels, the test results are compatible with the other panels, which are produced from agrofibers. In order to decrease the thickness swelling, some additives were not added in the matrix of panels. Hence, the TS ratio can be reduced by the usage of paraffin, and the other similar hydrophobic substance. Moreover, the amount of TS can be reduced by using phenol formaldehyde or melamine formaldehyde adhesive, instead of using urea formaldehyde adhesive. 3.2. Modulus of rupture According to European Norm (EN 310) [21], the modulus of rupture (MOR) of the panels was tested. Duncan’s mean separation test indicated that the effects of variance sources on the MOR and the difference were meaningful between all particleboards. The result of homogeneous subsets for particleboards can be seen in Table 4. In this study, when only pine wood was used in the manufacture of the particleboard P5 (13.70 N/mm2), the highest MOR values were detected. On the contrary, the lowest MOR values were obtained in the particleboards produced solely with poppy husk P1 (3.24 N/mm2). As it is seen in the Fig. 6, MOR values of particleboards were reduced with the amount of poppy husk ratio in the panel matrix. European Norm (EN 312) [25] standards are necessary for the minimum MOR of 11 N/mm2 for general purpose particleboards. As Table 4 indicates, P4 (11.28 N/mm2) and P5 (13.70 N/mm2) type panels which were made in this study, provided MOR values exceeding the EN 312 standards. The similar MOR values were achieved in the composite panels, which produced with only sunflower stalks [28], and the other studies also showed the similar results [29–31]. The rise of the poppy husk ratio, in particleboards, increases the thickness swelling value of panels. Consequently, poppy husk particles absorb the urea formaldehyde adhesive. Therefore, enough
cling could have been prevented on the surface. The amount of poor surface adhesive can reduce adhesion, so that the mechanical properties of produced particleboard may have caused the decrease. 3.3. Modulus of elasticity According to European Norm (EN 310) [21], the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of the manufactured particleboards was analyzed. Duncan’s mean separation test, for the effects of variance sources on the MOE, concluded that the difference was meaningful among all particleboards. The conclusions of homogeneous subsets for particleboards are shown in Table 4. The highest MOE values were observed (Fig. 7), when only pine wood was utilized in the manufacture of the particleboard P5 (2292.30 N/mm2). On the other hand, the lowest MOE values were obtained in the particleboards, made solely with poppy husk P1 (583.30 N/mm2). Whereas, the requirement of European Norm for modulus elasticity in general purpose particleboards is 1600 N/mm2. Particleboards P4 (1841.40 N/mm2) and P5 (2292.30 N/mm2) fulfill the minimum MOE that has been determined in the EN 312 for interior fitments including the furniture manufacture. In a similar literature, the MOE values were observed in the particleboards that produced sunflower stalks and sunflower concentration [28]. Similarly, lower mechanical properties have been reported for the panels which were made from using agricultural crops and residues [27,30,32]. Coating of the particleboard surfaces and use of phenolic resins can improve the mechanical properties of the panels [8]. 3.4. Internal bond strength According to European Norm (EN 319) [22], the internal bond strength (IB) of the panels was tested. What Duncan’s mean separation test shows as a result is that the difference for the effects of variance sources on the internal bond was meaningful between all types of particleboards. Table 4 displays the result of homogeneous subsets for particleboards. The highest IB values were monitored, when only pine wood was utilized in the manufacture of the particleboard P5 (0.70 N/mm2), the lowest IB values were observed
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Fig. 4. Formaldehyde emission and limitation of oxygen index test designs: (a) FE gas detector; (b) FE test room; (c) LOI experimental design.
Table 3 Physical properties of experimental panels. Panel types
Thickness swelling (TS) TS
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 a b
TS
2 h (%)
HSa
SDb
24 h (%)
HS
SD
17.73 14.44 10.39 8.10 7.27
A B C D D
1.4704 0.5542 2.0295 0.9801 0.8397
22.48 18.67 14.72 10.63 10.22
A B C D D
1.8613 1.0260 1.4190 0.8455 0.4645
Homogeneous subsets (p < 0.05). Standard devitations.
in the particleboards (Fig. 8) which produced solely with poppy husk P1 (0.21 N/mm2). IB values of particleboards were reduced with the amount of poppy husk ratio in the panel matrix. Depending on that fact, the particleboards, which are manufactured by using 50% and the less poppy husk particleboards fulfills the standard of IB (0.35 N/mm2) that has been determined in the European Norm (EN 312) [25] for interior fitments, including the furniture manufacture. P3, P4 and P5 panels fulfill for the standard of the internal bond. The particleboards, which were manufactured from sugarcane bagasse, urea formaldehyde and melamine formaldehyde resin,
Fig. 5. Thickness swelling of the particleboards.
showed similar IB values [33]. In another study [27] stated that particleboards produced at different ratios of vine pruning, and wood chips IB values were 0.3 N/mm2. Besides, aspect ratio value of the poppy husk and pine wood, which were used in core layer, were determined 2.5 and 4.2,
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H. Keskin et al. / Construction and Building Materials 95 (2015) 224–231 Table 4 Mechanical properties of experimental panels. Panel types
Modulus of rupture 2
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 a b
Modulus of elasticity
(MOR) (N/mm )
HS
3.24 4.89 8.15 11.28 13.70
A B C D E
a
SD
b
0.4904 0.5259 0.4302 0.9402 0.8273
2
Internal bond strength
(MOE) (N/mm )
HS
SD
(IB) (N/mm2)
HS
SD
583.30 988.10 1429.50 1841.40 2292.30
A B C D E
60.5696 85.1984 66.9946 162.1071 152.5968
0.21 0.30 0.43 0.55 0.70
A B C D E
0.0217 0.0305 0.0579 0.0362 0.0565
Homogeneous subsets (p < 0.05). Standard devitations.
Fig. 6. Modulus of rupture of the particleboards.
respectively. The low aspect ratio of poppy husk particles may be the reason of low MOR, MOE, IB values of particleboards.
Fig. 8. Internal bond strength of the particleboards.
Table 5 Formaldehyde emission and LOI properties of experimental panels. Panel types
3.5. Formaldehyde emission According to European Norm (EN 717-1) [23], the Formaldehyde (HCHO) emission (FE) of the manufactured particleboards was determined. Duncan’s mean separation test, for the effects of variance sources on the FE, concluded that the difference was meaningful between all particleboards. The conclusions of homogeneous subsets for particleboards are shown in Table 5. The highest FE values were observed, when only pine wood was utilized in the manufacture of the particleboard P5 (84.30 ppm).
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 a b
Formaldehyde emission
Limit oxygen index
FE (ppm)
HSa
SDb
LOI (%)
HS
SD
60.00 69.70 74.90 82.00 84.30
A B C D E
2.0548 2.2136 1.7920 1.4907 2.1628
48 46 42 38 36
A B C D E
1.1547 1.1547 1.1547 1.0541 1.0541
Homogeneous subsets (p < 0.05). Standard devitations.
On the other hand, the lowest FE values were obtained in the particleboards made solely with poppy husk P1 (60.00 ppm), and also FE rates of particleboards were reduced with the amount of poppy husk ratio in the panel matrix (Fig. 9). Particleboards often have problems about satisfying the El requirement, which stipulates a maximum emission of 0.124 ppm formaldehyde. Coating of the particleboard and low mole ratio of formaldehyde in adhesive can reduce the FE in the manufactured particleboard. 3.6. Limitation of oxygen index
Fig. 7. Modulus of elasticity of the particleboards.
LOI was defined as the lowest oxygen concentration in the carrier gas flow, at which full flaming combustion of the experimental samples was observed. Samples were placed in the center of the glass column with a holder, and then, they were burned in a precisely controlled atmosphere of nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2). According to American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM D2863) [24], the LOI of the panels was tested. What Duncan’s mean separation test shows as a result is that the difference for the
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fire retardant for the manufactured particleboards because of high limitation of oxygen index. This new application area for poppy husk is a potential opportunity for recycling the poppy husk biomass.
Acknowledgments This paper is a part of the Ph.D. thesis except limitation of oxygen index, prepared by Mustafa Kucuktuvek, Institute of Science and Technology, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey.
References
Fig. 9. Formaldehyde emission of the particleboards.
Fig. 10. Limitation of oxygen index of the particleboards.
effects of variance sources on the LOI was meaningful between all types of particleboards. Table 5 demonstrates the result of experiment and homogeneous subsets for particleboards. During the highest LOI values were monitored when only poppy husk was utilized in the manufacture of the particleboard P1 (48%), the lowest LOI values were found in the particleboards produced solely with mixture of pine wood P5 (36%). Flammability of particleboards was reduced with the amount of poppy husk ratio in the panel matrix (Fig. 10). The results indicated that the LOI value of wood specimens was only 23%, and there was great increase in LOI values for flame retardant treated specimens, compared to the untreated sample [18].
4. Conclusion This study investigated the potential of poppy (P. somniferum Linnaeus) husk to manufacture wood-based particleboards. The results claim that it is possible to produce particleboards from poppy husk and pine wood by using urea formaldehyde adhesive. Manufactured particleboards which are produced by using poppy husk (up to 25%) provide both physical and mechanical requirements for interior fitments to use under dry conditions in European Norm (EN 312) [25]. Furthermore, poppy husk particles reduced the formaldehyde emission and increased the feature of
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
The potential of poppy (Papaver somniferum Linnaeus) husk for manufacturing wood-based particleboards Hakan Keskin a, Mustafa Kucuktuvek b,⇑, Metin Guru c a
Gazi University, Faculty of Technology, Department of Wood Products Industrial Engineering, Teknikokullar, 06500 Ankara, Turkey Gazi University, Faculty of Industrial Arts Education, Department of Industrial Technology, Teknikokullar, 06500 Ankara, Turkey c Gazi University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, 06570 Ankara, Turkey b
h i g h l i g h t s It is possible to produce particleboards from poppy husk and pine wood. Poppy husk biomass might have a recycling opportunity. Formaldehyde emission was reduced with the amount of poppy husk. Fire retardant properties were increased in manufactured particleboards. By using poppy husk (up to 25%) provide both physical and mechanical requirements.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 3 February 2015 Received in revised form 9 July 2015 Accepted 15 July 2015
Keywords: Particleboard Mechanical properties Poppy husk Formaldehyde emission Limit oxygen index Flammability Agricultural waste
a b s t r a c t This study aims to analyze the potential of poppy (Papaver somniferum Linnaeus) husk for manufacturing wood-based particleboards. On these basis three layers particleboards were produced and physical, mechanical properties, formaldehyde emission and limitation of oxygen index were analyzed. The results indicate that it is possible to produce particleboards from poppy husk and pine wood by using urea formaldehyde adhesive. Particleboards which are manufactured by using poppy husk up to 25% provide both physical and mechanical requirements in European Norm (EN 312). In addition, poppy husk particles reduced the formaldehyde emission and increased the fire retardant property for the manufactured particleboards. Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Particleboard is a wood-based board product which is manufactured under pressure and heat with the help of wood particles or other lignocellulosic materials and an adhesive. The need for alternative resources to replace wood raw material is emerged. Hence, the research conducted in both industry and academia have started to seek after new sources of lignocellulosic materials. Alternative fibers, such as agricultural residues and non-wood plant fibers, could play as the leading role in getting balance among supply and demand for the manufacturing of composite panels, such as particleboards [1]. These particleboards are generally
⇑ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Kucuktuvek). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.07.160 0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
manufactured from the agricultural residues, walnut [2], kiwi prunings [3], cotton seed hulls [4], rice straw-wood [5], flax shiv [6], vine prunings [7], walnut, pine cone [8], almond shells [9,10], wood flour [11] sugarcane bagasse and castor oil [12], coffee husk and hulls [13] coconut fiber and castor oil [14] and peanut residues [15]. Particleboards were manufactured with sugarcane bagasse using urea formaldehyde (UF) and melamine formaldehyde (MF) adhesives in a study. The particleboards were produced with a mixture of sugarcane bagasse and pinus or eucalyptus fibers, with and without additive in the composite matrix. Nine different types of particleboards, all containing 9% of adhesive in the mixture, were produced under 4.0 MPa pressure and at a temperature of 160 °C. Physical properties of these particleboards were determined with the ASTM CS 236-66 code requirements for medium density chipboards, and in many cases, showed better results than
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other scientists reported in literature. However, when panels subjected to mechanical testing, these particleboards did not comply with the standards and, usually results were close or worse than those reported mechanical properties in literature. The potential use of coconut fiber was evaluated as raw material for particleboards manufacturing, with densities 800 and 1000 kg m 3, using castor oil based polyurethane and urea formaldehyde as binder. According to the results, thickness swelling of particleboard decreased and modulus of rupture increased in coconut fiber panels with polyurethane resin when compared to coconut fiber particleboards using an urea formaldehyde adhesive [14]. Potential use of peanut residues in the manufacture of particleboards was determined in a research. Urea formaldehyde resin was used in this work and the particleboards were pressed at a temperature of 100 °C. The test results showed a bulk density varying between 690 and 830 kg/m3, MOR between 4.37 and 5.34 MPa, and MOE between 590 and 700 MPa, for manufactured panels with and without treatments. Based on the normative document ANSI A208.1:1993, it is possible to claim that the manufactured particleboard presents a potential for using in internal areas as superficial covering of residential buildings, agricultural buildings, furniture and decorative sectors [15]. Urea formaldehyde (UF), the excellent adhesion has intrinsic cohesion, short press time, low cost, high reactivity, water solubility, and lack of color in the finished product, which is major for particleboard manufacturing. On the contrary, it contains high reversibility of the amino methylene link, and this is the reason why the low resistance of urea formaldehyde resins against the influence of water and moisture. This is one of the reasons for its formaldehyde emission, when it is hardened and in service. Formaldehyde based binders are used to produce composite commodities which are commonly in moldings, furniture, cabinetry, counter tops, shelving and stair systems, flooring and many other household furnishings. Formaldehyde (HCHO) adhesive can be dangerous for the eyes, nose and throat. Among these damages, the most sensitive one for formaldehyde exposure is eyes. It also causes some health problems such as asthma and cancer [16]. Efforts have been made to modify the chemical formula of adhesives to reduce formaldehyde emissions. Many producers of wood products work in this area. Thus, many researchers primarily focus on reducing or controlling the formaldehyde emission from urea formaldehyde adhesive bonded composites. The presence of free formaldehyde in the prepared UF resins is one of the reasons for formaldehyde emission [17]. Limitation of oxygen index (LOI), a widely used method, which is a simple and definitive method for the determination of fire self-extinguishment, was adopted to evaluate the flammability of treated wood materials [18]. Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum Linnaeus) is an annual plant, planted in Turkey, India, Australia, France, Spain and Hungary as a main legal producer at the helm of the United Nations Organization. Turkey and India are accepted as traditional opium poppy producers by the United Nations Organization. Turkey has almost 47% of poppy (P. somniferum Linnaeus) cultivation area in the world. It makes Turkey a significant poppy producer [19]. Opium poppy is processed in alkaloid factories. Poppy husks from which alkaloid substances are taken at factories are sent to waste storage space. Until today, there has not been a scientific study related to bring biomass into industry and its recycling has not been accomplished. This study aims to analyze the potential of poppy (P. somniferum Linnaeus) husk for manufacturing wood-based particleboards and evaluate physical, mechanical properties, formaldehyde emission and flammability performance. Thus, both the presence of forest will be preserved and a solution will be found to the raw material need of particleboard industry through the use poppy husk biomass in manufacturing particleboard.
2. Material and methods 2.1. Poppy (P. somniferum Linnaeus) husk Opium poppy, which is followed from its cultivation to the market by the whole world, is a significant industrial plant in Turkey as not only its seed includes 50% oil and is used for nutrition but also its capsule contains alkaloid that is used in medicine and science. Opium poppy legal cultivation areas are shown in Fig. 1 [19]. Poppy husk particles, which are used in the manufacturing of particleboards, are obtained from the alkaloid factory in Afyonkarahisar, Turkey. The particles are brought up to 3% moisture gradient in drying kiln, after that they are classified by using sieves, creating horizontal movements at Gazi University, Faculty of Technology. The diameter and length of particles, which are used as a core layer, are 1.5–6 mm and 10 mm respectively. Moreover, the diameter and length of particles which are used in outer layer, are 0.5–1.5 mm and 3 mm respectively. 2.2. Pine wood The mixture of pine particles is classified and obtained from ORMA Stock Corporation particleboard factory, Isparta, Turkey as dried up to 3% moisture gradient. The thickness of particles, which are used in the core layer, are 0.25–0.40 mm, their widths are 2–6 mm and their lengths 10–25 mm. Diameter of particles which are used in outer layer, are 0.5–1.5 mm, and also their lengths are 1.5–3 mm. 2.3. Adhesive Urea formaldehyde (UF) adhesive used in this study, and it has a density of 1.237 ± 0.020 g/cm3, an approximate pH value of 7.5 to 8.7, and a viscosity of 140 to 200 cps at 20 ± 2 °C, with a gel time of 15 to 25 s at 100 °C. The maximum free formaldehyde (HCHO) ratio of UF is 0.8%, which is produced by a local plant. 2.4. Methodology Particleboard product standard defines the mechanical and physical requirements related with the European norm EN 312. For this reason, 3 layered particleboards were manufactured by mixing poppy (P. somniferum Linnaeus) husk and pine wood in different variations and their mechanical and physical features were tested according to requirement EN 312. In addition to mechanical and physical requirements, formaldehyde emission and limitation of oxygen index which are the important properties of particleboards used in interior places were tested. 2.5. Preparation of testing samples Particles were dried in oven at 100 ± 3 °C to get the target moisture content 3%. Moreover, 8% of UF resin was used for the core layer, and 10% for the outer layer which respectively depends on oven dry weight of the core particles and outer layers. The panels matrix were designed to make up to 34% chips at the outer layer, and 66% at the core layer. The target density of the panels was 0.68 g/cm3. In order to harden the adhesive, %1 ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) was also added to resin. Particleboards were manufactured by using standardized steps which simulated industrial production at the laboratory of Gazi University Technology Faculty. So as to obtain homogenized mixture, the adhesive and the hardener were weighted and mixed. Afterwards, the particles were weighed and sprayed with the prepared adhesive in a drum mixer for 6 min. The particleboards were pressed under 2.6 N/mm2 pressure, at 160 °C, for 8 min. The glued particles were placed on the three layers, after that the layers of the glued particles were pressed by using a laboratory scale hydraulic cold press and hot press respectively. Thickness of panels was controlled via stop bars. Five panels were made for each group. The experimental design is displayed in Table 1. In addition, 500 500 18 mm was the dimension of the produced particleboards.
Hungary Spain 10%
Other 4%
Opium Poppy Culvaon Areas (%)
5% France 10%
Turkey 47%
Australia 11% India 13% Fig. 1. Opium poppy legal cultivation areas in the world.
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Table 1 Experimental design. Panel types
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
Table 2 Production parameters of particleboards. Adhesive (%) Outer
Core
10 10 10 10 10
8 8 8 8 8
Poppy husk (%)
Pine wood (%)
100 75 50 25 0
0 25 50 75 100
The manufacture processes of particleboards are shown in Fig. 2. The particleboards conditioned at 65% relative humidity and 20 °C to reach the moisture content of about 12% before trimming to final dimension of 450 450 18 mm. Production parameters of the particleboards are also presented in Table 2.
Parameter
Value
Press temperature (°C) Pressing time (min) Peak pressure (N/mm2) Thickness (mm) Dimensions (mm) 33% NH4Cl content (%) Outer layer (whole of panel %) Core layer (whole of panel %) Number of panels for each type
160 8 2.6 18 500 500 1 34 66 5
3. Result and discussion 3.1. Thickness swelling
2.6. Testing methods All test samples were prepared from the drafts, according to test standards which have 12% average value of humidity. Ten samples were tested for each group. The determinations of 2 hours (2-h) and 24 hours (24-h) thickness swelling (TS) were tested (Fig. 3a) according to European Norm (EN 317) [20]. The modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) values were determined (Fig. 3b), according to European Norm (EN 310) [21]. The internal bond strength (IB) was evaluated (Fig. 3c) according to European Norm (EN 319) [22]. Average formaldehyde (HCHO) emission was determined as per the principles of European Norm (EN 717-1) [23] in this study. Formaldehyde emission was measured by using a gas detector (Fig. 4a) produced by RAE Systems in USA and a test room (Fig. 4b). The detector uses PID technology. A photoionization detector (PID) uses an ultraviolet (UV) light source to break down chemicals to positive and negative ions. And also, the gas becomes electrically charged. In the PID, these charged particles produce a current that is amplified and displayed on the meter as Chemical shifts, which were expressed in parts per million (ppm). The limitation of oxygen index (LOI) was evaluated (Fig. 4c), according to the principles of test standard American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM D2863) [24].
2.7. Data analyses One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to check the significant difference between factors and levels. When the ANOVA showed a prominent difference among factors and levels, a comparison of the means was defined by Duncan test to see whether the differences between the groups were consequential or not.
Table 3 presents the results which ANOVA meant by the separation test for the thickness swelling (TS) of particleboards, made in this study. It was realized that the difference between P4 and P5 type particleboards was not meaningful, as a result of Duncan’s mean separation test, implemented for defining the effects of variance sources on the 2-h and 24-h thickness swelling. Table 3 shows the results of homogeneous subsets for particleboards. The lowest 2-h and 24-h TS values were respectively obtained 7.27% and 10.22%, when only pine wood was used in the manufacturing of the particleboard type P5. However, the highest 2-h and 24-h TS values of 17.73% and 22.48%, respectively (Table 3), were found in the particleboards which manufactured only with poppy husk (P1). The increase in the TS of particleboards with the rise of poppy husk ratio in the panel matrix can be easily seen on (Fig. 5). TS of P3, P4 and P5 type particleboards were less than the requirements of 14%, based on EN (312) [25] for use in non-load-bearing application under humid conditions. The other scientists also obtained the same results for the particleboards, which are produced from agrofibers. A research was carried out to compare the fundamental physical and mechanical properties of some particleboards, utilized in Turkish furniture industry. It was found from the tests that
Fig. 2. The manufacture process of particleboards: (a) poppy husk biomass; (b) particleboard after cold press; (c) particleboard after hot press; (d) manufactured particleboards.
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Fig. 3. The physical and mechanical test designs: (a) thickness swelling; (b) modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity; (c) internal bond strength.
2-h and 24-h TS of particleboards, which were manufactured by 3 different firms was respectively 8% and 15% [26]. In another study [27] stated that particleboards made at different ratios of vine pruning and wood chips TS 2-h and 24-h test results were 23% and 28%, respectively. Although the rise of the poppy husk particles in composite matrix meaningfully increases the value of TS 24-h of the produced panels, the test results are compatible with the other panels, which are produced from agrofibers. In order to decrease the thickness swelling, some additives were not added in the matrix of panels. Hence, the TS ratio can be reduced by the usage of paraffin, and the other similar hydrophobic substance. Moreover, the amount of TS can be reduced by using phenol formaldehyde or melamine formaldehyde adhesive, instead of using urea formaldehyde adhesive. 3.2. Modulus of rupture According to European Norm (EN 310) [21], the modulus of rupture (MOR) of the panels was tested. Duncan’s mean separation test indicated that the effects of variance sources on the MOR and the difference were meaningful between all particleboards. The result of homogeneous subsets for particleboards can be seen in Table 4. In this study, when only pine wood was used in the manufacture of the particleboard P5 (13.70 N/mm2), the highest MOR values were detected. On the contrary, the lowest MOR values were obtained in the particleboards produced solely with poppy husk P1 (3.24 N/mm2). As it is seen in the Fig. 6, MOR values of particleboards were reduced with the amount of poppy husk ratio in the panel matrix. European Norm (EN 312) [25] standards are necessary for the minimum MOR of 11 N/mm2 for general purpose particleboards. As Table 4 indicates, P4 (11.28 N/mm2) and P5 (13.70 N/mm2) type panels which were made in this study, provided MOR values exceeding the EN 312 standards. The similar MOR values were achieved in the composite panels, which produced with only sunflower stalks [28], and the other studies also showed the similar results [29–31]. The rise of the poppy husk ratio, in particleboards, increases the thickness swelling value of panels. Consequently, poppy husk particles absorb the urea formaldehyde adhesive. Therefore, enough
cling could have been prevented on the surface. The amount of poor surface adhesive can reduce adhesion, so that the mechanical properties of produced particleboard may have caused the decrease. 3.3. Modulus of elasticity According to European Norm (EN 310) [21], the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of the manufactured particleboards was analyzed. Duncan’s mean separation test, for the effects of variance sources on the MOE, concluded that the difference was meaningful among all particleboards. The conclusions of homogeneous subsets for particleboards are shown in Table 4. The highest MOE values were observed (Fig. 7), when only pine wood was utilized in the manufacture of the particleboard P5 (2292.30 N/mm2). On the other hand, the lowest MOE values were obtained in the particleboards, made solely with poppy husk P1 (583.30 N/mm2). Whereas, the requirement of European Norm for modulus elasticity in general purpose particleboards is 1600 N/mm2. Particleboards P4 (1841.40 N/mm2) and P5 (2292.30 N/mm2) fulfill the minimum MOE that has been determined in the EN 312 for interior fitments including the furniture manufacture. In a similar literature, the MOE values were observed in the particleboards that produced sunflower stalks and sunflower concentration [28]. Similarly, lower mechanical properties have been reported for the panels which were made from using agricultural crops and residues [27,30,32]. Coating of the particleboard surfaces and use of phenolic resins can improve the mechanical properties of the panels [8]. 3.4. Internal bond strength According to European Norm (EN 319) [22], the internal bond strength (IB) of the panels was tested. What Duncan’s mean separation test shows as a result is that the difference for the effects of variance sources on the internal bond was meaningful between all types of particleboards. Table 4 displays the result of homogeneous subsets for particleboards. The highest IB values were monitored, when only pine wood was utilized in the manufacture of the particleboard P5 (0.70 N/mm2), the lowest IB values were observed
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Fig. 4. Formaldehyde emission and limitation of oxygen index test designs: (a) FE gas detector; (b) FE test room; (c) LOI experimental design.
Table 3 Physical properties of experimental panels. Panel types
Thickness swelling (TS) TS
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 a b
TS
2 h (%)
HSa
SDb
24 h (%)
HS
SD
17.73 14.44 10.39 8.10 7.27
A B C D D
1.4704 0.5542 2.0295 0.9801 0.8397
22.48 18.67 14.72 10.63 10.22
A B C D D
1.8613 1.0260 1.4190 0.8455 0.4645
Homogeneous subsets (p < 0.05). Standard devitations.
in the particleboards (Fig. 8) which produced solely with poppy husk P1 (0.21 N/mm2). IB values of particleboards were reduced with the amount of poppy husk ratio in the panel matrix. Depending on that fact, the particleboards, which are manufactured by using 50% and the less poppy husk particleboards fulfills the standard of IB (0.35 N/mm2) that has been determined in the European Norm (EN 312) [25] for interior fitments, including the furniture manufacture. P3, P4 and P5 panels fulfill for the standard of the internal bond. The particleboards, which were manufactured from sugarcane bagasse, urea formaldehyde and melamine formaldehyde resin,
Fig. 5. Thickness swelling of the particleboards.
showed similar IB values [33]. In another study [27] stated that particleboards produced at different ratios of vine pruning, and wood chips IB values were 0.3 N/mm2. Besides, aspect ratio value of the poppy husk and pine wood, which were used in core layer, were determined 2.5 and 4.2,
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H. Keskin et al. / Construction and Building Materials 95 (2015) 224–231 Table 4 Mechanical properties of experimental panels. Panel types
Modulus of rupture 2
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 a b
Modulus of elasticity
(MOR) (N/mm )
HS
3.24 4.89 8.15 11.28 13.70
A B C D E
a
SD
b
0.4904 0.5259 0.4302 0.9402 0.8273
2
Internal bond strength
(MOE) (N/mm )
HS
SD
(IB) (N/mm2)
HS
SD
583.30 988.10 1429.50 1841.40 2292.30
A B C D E
60.5696 85.1984 66.9946 162.1071 152.5968
0.21 0.30 0.43 0.55 0.70
A B C D E
0.0217 0.0305 0.0579 0.0362 0.0565
Homogeneous subsets (p < 0.05). Standard devitations.
Fig. 6. Modulus of rupture of the particleboards.
respectively. The low aspect ratio of poppy husk particles may be the reason of low MOR, MOE, IB values of particleboards.
Fig. 8. Internal bond strength of the particleboards.
Table 5 Formaldehyde emission and LOI properties of experimental panels. Panel types
3.5. Formaldehyde emission According to European Norm (EN 717-1) [23], the Formaldehyde (HCHO) emission (FE) of the manufactured particleboards was determined. Duncan’s mean separation test, for the effects of variance sources on the FE, concluded that the difference was meaningful between all particleboards. The conclusions of homogeneous subsets for particleboards are shown in Table 5. The highest FE values were observed, when only pine wood was utilized in the manufacture of the particleboard P5 (84.30 ppm).
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 a b
Formaldehyde emission
Limit oxygen index
FE (ppm)
HSa
SDb
LOI (%)
HS
SD
60.00 69.70 74.90 82.00 84.30
A B C D E
2.0548 2.2136 1.7920 1.4907 2.1628
48 46 42 38 36
A B C D E
1.1547 1.1547 1.1547 1.0541 1.0541
Homogeneous subsets (p < 0.05). Standard devitations.
On the other hand, the lowest FE values were obtained in the particleboards made solely with poppy husk P1 (60.00 ppm), and also FE rates of particleboards were reduced with the amount of poppy husk ratio in the panel matrix (Fig. 9). Particleboards often have problems about satisfying the El requirement, which stipulates a maximum emission of 0.124 ppm formaldehyde. Coating of the particleboard and low mole ratio of formaldehyde in adhesive can reduce the FE in the manufactured particleboard. 3.6. Limitation of oxygen index
Fig. 7. Modulus of elasticity of the particleboards.
LOI was defined as the lowest oxygen concentration in the carrier gas flow, at which full flaming combustion of the experimental samples was observed. Samples were placed in the center of the glass column with a holder, and then, they were burned in a precisely controlled atmosphere of nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2). According to American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM D2863) [24], the LOI of the panels was tested. What Duncan’s mean separation test shows as a result is that the difference for the
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fire retardant for the manufactured particleboards because of high limitation of oxygen index. This new application area for poppy husk is a potential opportunity for recycling the poppy husk biomass.
Acknowledgments This paper is a part of the Ph.D. thesis except limitation of oxygen index, prepared by Mustafa Kucuktuvek, Institute of Science and Technology, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey.
References
Fig. 9. Formaldehyde emission of the particleboards.
Fig. 10. Limitation of oxygen index of the particleboards.
effects of variance sources on the LOI was meaningful between all types of particleboards. Table 5 demonstrates the result of experiment and homogeneous subsets for particleboards. During the highest LOI values were monitored when only poppy husk was utilized in the manufacture of the particleboard P1 (48%), the lowest LOI values were found in the particleboards produced solely with mixture of pine wood P5 (36%). Flammability of particleboards was reduced with the amount of poppy husk ratio in the panel matrix (Fig. 10). The results indicated that the LOI value of wood specimens was only 23%, and there was great increase in LOI values for flame retardant treated specimens, compared to the untreated sample [18].
4. Conclusion This study investigated the potential of poppy (P. somniferum Linnaeus) husk to manufacture wood-based particleboards. The results claim that it is possible to produce particleboards from poppy husk and pine wood by using urea formaldehyde adhesive. Manufactured particleboards which are produced by using poppy husk (up to 25%) provide both physical and mechanical requirements for interior fitments to use under dry conditions in European Norm (EN 312) [25]. Furthermore, poppy husk particles reduced the formaldehyde emission and increased the feature of
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