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The reinforcement of social behavior
360
BOOK REVIEW’S
complexities of human behaviour; merely that the application of behaviour modification principles can help to alleviate sodme of the problems of everyday living. All four books adopt a programmed-text format, but in differing variations. In theory, the active involvement of the reader is valuable, but in practice it can be irritating. In particular, when the frames to be completed involve the reproducing ofjargon terms rather than the discussion of points of principle, the value of programming is questionable. None-the-less, Homme er ul. make very good use of in-built self-checking to recycle the reader to areas of misunderstanding, whilst Patterson makes the most judicious use of completion of blanks within the text to emphasize the main points. Buckley and Walker’s manual is aimed at trainee-teachers, and the text has been pre-tested with classes of such students. It appears to be a good, clear introduction to the field. It makes good use of short real-life descriptions followed by analysis of the situation in behavioural terms. However, many of the examples seem to be peculiar to an American classroom setting and teachers in other school systems might find this distracting. Homme er al’s text is more eclectic in its approach to teaching than most such manuals I have read. For example, it places emphasis on principles of good classroom organization and careful teacher preparation of lessons as well as on behavioural principles. The use of contingency contracting, based on the Premack principle, is well illustrated. Authors of instructional manuals have a great deal to learn from Homme’s presentation. Becker’s text is initially extremely off-putting because of his use of TV-style scenario in an attempt to show how behavioural principles are important in everyday life. The sooner that Marge and Gwen are dropped in future editions, the more valuable this text will be. Those who get beyond the initial chapters, will be rewarded with the sort of high quality discussion we have come to expect from Dr. Becker. In particular, he tackles the whole question of the role of punishment in the parent’s repertoire in a sensible manner. The other advantage of his presentation is that he uses examples from published work, giving the references so that interested parents can follow up this introduction. Patterson’s book is, perhaps, the most satisfactory of the four. It is a complementary text to his earlier “Living with Children”, and in it he draws heavily from his wealth of experience of working with disturbed children in their own homes. The whole style of writing is far less strident than the other texts-key points being clearly emphasized at the end of each chapter. The problems of dealing with aggressive children within the family setting are carefully discussed, and the interactions amongst family members are emphasized. One of the strengths of these books is that they are written to give practical help in real-life settings. The normal problems of normal children receive most attention. However, some of the texts were designed as course-books for organised classes of parents and teachers. This may explain some of the ideosyncratic styles, in that class-tutors may be able to use the material in ways that are not obvious to the individual reader. In our experience in working with parents, introductory texts such as these have a useful place in getting basic concepts across. Some parents, however, get the message that because their behaviour can alter their child’s behaviour, that they must be the cause of the child’s problems. Such self-blame and accompanying guilt are unnecessary by-products that can interfere with the smooth progress of treatment. This problem should be anticipated by psychologists during their discussions with parents. Together, these four books can be recommended to all who have to give advice to parents and teachers. WILLIAM YULE
ELLIOTT MCGINNIES:
Social Behaoior:
A Functional
Analysis.
Houghton
Mifflin Company,
Boston, 1970.
459 pp. ELLIOTT MCGINNIES
and C. B. FERSTER (Eds.) The Reinfbrcemenf Company, Boston, 1971. 468 pp.
BOTH
of Social
Behavior.
Houghton
Mifflin
these books are intended to be introductory textbooks to social psychology reflecting an operant viewpoint. McGinnies’s own book is an attempt to rewrite and reinterpret social psychology in reinforcement terms. In the volume he jointly edits with Ferster he has a similar aim, but chooses the medium of other people’s writing rather than his own. Thus the latter book consists a compendium of over 70 articles, chosen we are told from over 400, with a roll-call of several illustrious authors, including Bandura, Aronfreed, Kanfer, Zigler, Skinner, Staats and many others in the supporting cast. This is the main difference between the two books. For the content areas covered are practically identical. Ten of McGinnies’s 12 chapters and 10 of the 12 sections into which he and Ferster have divided their collection of articles use similar title head-
BOOK
REVIEWS
361
ings. Jointly covered are chapters or sections on theory, the reinforcement process, socialization, conformity, perceptual judgement, leadership, social groups, verbal behaviour, attitude formation and attitude change. McGinnies has an extra chapter on attitudes covering various scales of measurement,and a tinal chapter on games theory, risk taking and decision making. In the compendium, he and Fenter have, justifiably in my view, allotted a separate section to vicarious reinforcement and observational learning, and have ended the volume with a theoretical flourish by a chapter on the ethics of social change, including an artic!e hy the sociologist Daniel Moynihan on social science policy, an interview with Skinner by Richard Evans on aLet-sive control, as well as more traditional theoretical articles by Ferster, Skinner and Kanfer. Looking first at McGinnies’s own textbook, it is clear that its glaring failing is in its avowed purpose, McGinnies’s reinterpretation of current work on social psychology in reinforcement terms. It is indicative of the simplistic way “reinforcement” is defined in this book that McGinnies is blithely able to carry out his analysis without encountering any real difficulties. Even that traditional bugbear of reinforcement theorists, cognitive dissonance, which at face value seems to make contradictory predictions to reinforcement theory, is neatly side-stepped. M&inn&, after viewing some of Festinger’s and others’ experimental work with a caustic eye, then suggests that reinforcement is still the operative variable in the standard dissonance experiments because the subjects receiving the larger reward are being more strongly reinforced for their original perception of the task as dull, an explanation which he admits to be somewhat ad hoc! The book consists in the main of a fairly readable and succinct description of key work in a certain area followed by a reanalysis in terms of reinforcement theory. Thus in child rearing practices, a nurturant mother becomes a generalized reinforcer; in experiments on conformity, those who conform readily do so because they have been reinforced for conforming. Deviants naturally have been reinforced for deviating. Co-operation, leadership, perceptual judgement, etc., are all seen through the rose-tinted spectacles of operant analysis. While it seems perfectly possible to reinterpret research work in terms of one theory or another. it is rather like-and as much value as-rewriting War and Peace in the jargon of a woman’s magazine. Integration and simplification are at the expense of the vitality and subtlety of the original work. McGinnies’s attempt to reach “a unified and parsimonious theory of social behavior” is premature. Not only is reinforcement theory too overinclusive, amorphous and uninteresting for this purpose, but what results is a sacrifice of the real stuff of current social psychology, the different explanations advanced to account for the research findings. In an introductory textbook, this seems to me of as great or more importance than the research itself. I should not like to dismiss McGinnies’s book completely. It contains some chapters that are good value as general introductions despite the operant bias. The chapter on leadership and the three chapters on attitudes in particular are well worth reading through. But taken as a whole, the book does not justify its rather ambitious aims. The McGinnies-Ferster compendium on the other hand is more succesful, precisely because the original authors are allowed to state their own cases. Although the selection reflects a general operant orientation, considerable differences between various authors are immediately apparent. McGinnies and Ferster preface each section and each article with short, factual summaries which will be useful to the introductory student. The selection is on the whole thoughtfully made. It contains a number of dud articles, but also a fair number of gems, such as Kanfer on verbal conditioning, Zigler critically reviewing the experimental work on social reinforcement, Gewirtz and Stingle with a strong reply to Bandura’s theoretical analysis of observational learning as well as several sections from Skinner whose impressive rational argumentation is always worthwhile. Perhaps not a book for readers of this journal to buy, as it contains little of direct clinical application. But a book worth dipping into from time to time. JOHN S. MARZILLIER
D. L. WATSON and R. G. THARP: Self Directed Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, California, THIS book
Behavior:
Self
Modifcarion
for
Personal
Adjustment.
1972. XIV + 264 pp.
is addressed to the student rather than the trained clinician and is intended “as a guide to the self use of behaviour modification”. Eight of the fourteen chapters deal with the modification of operant behaviour and are devoted to instructing the student in such procedures as gathering baseline data and analysing antecedants. Liberal use is made of examples from students’ self modification projects. These eight chapters provide a very good “cook book” for anyone interested in behavioural analysis and the use of self reinforcement in the modification of operant behaviour. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said of the discussion of respondent behaviour. The authors’ somewhat apprehensive approach to “Emotional Problems” may well reflect their limited experience in this field.
BOOK REVIEW’S
complexities of human behaviour; merely that the application of behaviour modification principles can help to alleviate sodme of the problems of everyday living. All four books adopt a programmed-text format, but in differing variations. In theory, the active involvement of the reader is valuable, but in practice it can be irritating. In particular, when the frames to be completed involve the reproducing ofjargon terms rather than the discussion of points of principle, the value of programming is questionable. None-the-less, Homme er ul. make very good use of in-built self-checking to recycle the reader to areas of misunderstanding, whilst Patterson makes the most judicious use of completion of blanks within the text to emphasize the main points. Buckley and Walker’s manual is aimed at trainee-teachers, and the text has been pre-tested with classes of such students. It appears to be a good, clear introduction to the field. It makes good use of short real-life descriptions followed by analysis of the situation in behavioural terms. However, many of the examples seem to be peculiar to an American classroom setting and teachers in other school systems might find this distracting. Homme er al’s text is more eclectic in its approach to teaching than most such manuals I have read. For example, it places emphasis on principles of good classroom organization and careful teacher preparation of lessons as well as on behavioural principles. The use of contingency contracting, based on the Premack principle, is well illustrated. Authors of instructional manuals have a great deal to learn from Homme’s presentation. Becker’s text is initially extremely off-putting because of his use of TV-style scenario in an attempt to show how behavioural principles are important in everyday life. The sooner that Marge and Gwen are dropped in future editions, the more valuable this text will be. Those who get beyond the initial chapters, will be rewarded with the sort of high quality discussion we have come to expect from Dr. Becker. In particular, he tackles the whole question of the role of punishment in the parent’s repertoire in a sensible manner. The other advantage of his presentation is that he uses examples from published work, giving the references so that interested parents can follow up this introduction. Patterson’s book is, perhaps, the most satisfactory of the four. It is a complementary text to his earlier “Living with Children”, and in it he draws heavily from his wealth of experience of working with disturbed children in their own homes. The whole style of writing is far less strident than the other texts-key points being clearly emphasized at the end of each chapter. The problems of dealing with aggressive children within the family setting are carefully discussed, and the interactions amongst family members are emphasized. One of the strengths of these books is that they are written to give practical help in real-life settings. The normal problems of normal children receive most attention. However, some of the texts were designed as course-books for organised classes of parents and teachers. This may explain some of the ideosyncratic styles, in that class-tutors may be able to use the material in ways that are not obvious to the individual reader. In our experience in working with parents, introductory texts such as these have a useful place in getting basic concepts across. Some parents, however, get the message that because their behaviour can alter their child’s behaviour, that they must be the cause of the child’s problems. Such self-blame and accompanying guilt are unnecessary by-products that can interfere with the smooth progress of treatment. This problem should be anticipated by psychologists during their discussions with parents. Together, these four books can be recommended to all who have to give advice to parents and teachers. WILLIAM YULE
ELLIOTT MCGINNIES:
Social Behaoior:
A Functional
Analysis.
Houghton
Mifflin Company,
Boston, 1970.
459 pp. ELLIOTT MCGINNIES
and C. B. FERSTER (Eds.) The Reinfbrcemenf Company, Boston, 1971. 468 pp.
BOTH
of Social
Behavior.
Houghton
Mifflin
these books are intended to be introductory textbooks to social psychology reflecting an operant viewpoint. McGinnies’s own book is an attempt to rewrite and reinterpret social psychology in reinforcement terms. In the volume he jointly edits with Ferster he has a similar aim, but chooses the medium of other people’s writing rather than his own. Thus the latter book consists a compendium of over 70 articles, chosen we are told from over 400, with a roll-call of several illustrious authors, including Bandura, Aronfreed, Kanfer, Zigler, Skinner, Staats and many others in the supporting cast. This is the main difference between the two books. For the content areas covered are practically identical. Ten of McGinnies’s 12 chapters and 10 of the 12 sections into which he and Ferster have divided their collection of articles use similar title head-
BOOK
REVIEWS
361
ings. Jointly covered are chapters or sections on theory, the reinforcement process, socialization, conformity, perceptual judgement, leadership, social groups, verbal behaviour, attitude formation and attitude change. McGinnies has an extra chapter on attitudes covering various scales of measurement,and a tinal chapter on games theory, risk taking and decision making. In the compendium, he and Fenter have, justifiably in my view, allotted a separate section to vicarious reinforcement and observational learning, and have ended the volume with a theoretical flourish by a chapter on the ethics of social change, including an artic!e hy the sociologist Daniel Moynihan on social science policy, an interview with Skinner by Richard Evans on aLet-sive control, as well as more traditional theoretical articles by Ferster, Skinner and Kanfer. Looking first at McGinnies’s own textbook, it is clear that its glaring failing is in its avowed purpose, McGinnies’s reinterpretation of current work on social psychology in reinforcement terms. It is indicative of the simplistic way “reinforcement” is defined in this book that McGinnies is blithely able to carry out his analysis without encountering any real difficulties. Even that traditional bugbear of reinforcement theorists, cognitive dissonance, which at face value seems to make contradictory predictions to reinforcement theory, is neatly side-stepped. M&inn&, after viewing some of Festinger’s and others’ experimental work with a caustic eye, then suggests that reinforcement is still the operative variable in the standard dissonance experiments because the subjects receiving the larger reward are being more strongly reinforced for their original perception of the task as dull, an explanation which he admits to be somewhat ad hoc! The book consists in the main of a fairly readable and succinct description of key work in a certain area followed by a reanalysis in terms of reinforcement theory. Thus in child rearing practices, a nurturant mother becomes a generalized reinforcer; in experiments on conformity, those who conform readily do so because they have been reinforced for conforming. Deviants naturally have been reinforced for deviating. Co-operation, leadership, perceptual judgement, etc., are all seen through the rose-tinted spectacles of operant analysis. While it seems perfectly possible to reinterpret research work in terms of one theory or another. it is rather like-and as much value as-rewriting War and Peace in the jargon of a woman’s magazine. Integration and simplification are at the expense of the vitality and subtlety of the original work. McGinnies’s attempt to reach “a unified and parsimonious theory of social behavior” is premature. Not only is reinforcement theory too overinclusive, amorphous and uninteresting for this purpose, but what results is a sacrifice of the real stuff of current social psychology, the different explanations advanced to account for the research findings. In an introductory textbook, this seems to me of as great or more importance than the research itself. I should not like to dismiss McGinnies’s book completely. It contains some chapters that are good value as general introductions despite the operant bias. The chapter on leadership and the three chapters on attitudes in particular are well worth reading through. But taken as a whole, the book does not justify its rather ambitious aims. The McGinnies-Ferster compendium on the other hand is more succesful, precisely because the original authors are allowed to state their own cases. Although the selection reflects a general operant orientation, considerable differences between various authors are immediately apparent. McGinnies and Ferster preface each section and each article with short, factual summaries which will be useful to the introductory student. The selection is on the whole thoughtfully made. It contains a number of dud articles, but also a fair number of gems, such as Kanfer on verbal conditioning, Zigler critically reviewing the experimental work on social reinforcement, Gewirtz and Stingle with a strong reply to Bandura’s theoretical analysis of observational learning as well as several sections from Skinner whose impressive rational argumentation is always worthwhile. Perhaps not a book for readers of this journal to buy, as it contains little of direct clinical application. But a book worth dipping into from time to time. JOHN S. MARZILLIER
D. L. WATSON and R. G. THARP: Self Directed Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, California, THIS book
Behavior:
Self
Modifcarion
for
Personal
Adjustment.
1972. XIV + 264 pp.
is addressed to the student rather than the trained clinician and is intended “as a guide to the self use of behaviour modification”. Eight of the fourteen chapters deal with the modification of operant behaviour and are devoted to instructing the student in such procedures as gathering baseline data and analysing antecedants. Liberal use is made of examples from students’ self modification projects. These eight chapters provide a very good “cook book” for anyone interested in behavioural analysis and the use of self reinforcement in the modification of operant behaviour. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said of the discussion of respondent behaviour. The authors’ somewhat apprehensive approach to “Emotional Problems” may well reflect their limited experience in this field.