The relation of career adaptability to satisfaction and turnover intentions

    The relation of career adaptability to satisfaction and turnover intentions Sow Hup Joanne Chan, Xin Mai PII: DOI: Reference:

S0001-8791(15)00059-7 doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2015.05.005 YJVBE 2905

To appear in:

Journal of Vocational Behavior

Received date:

11 April 2015

Please cite this article as: Chan, S.H.J. & Mai, X., The relation of career adaptability to satisfaction and turnover intentions, Journal of Vocational Behavior (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2015.05.005

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The relation of career adaptability to satisfaction and turnover intentions

RI P

T

Sow Hup Joanne Chan*

E22-2069 Faculty of Business Administration, University of Macau,

SC

Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau, China [email protected]

ED

MA

NU

Tel: 853-88224749

Xin Mai

[email protected] Tel:853-85988683

AC

CE

PT

Faculty of Business Administration, University of Macau, Macau, China

*Corresponding author

Word count (exclude Figure/Tables): 7161

Acknowledgement: The completion of this work was supported (in part) by the University of Macau’s research grant MYRG079(Y1-L1)-FBA11-CSH.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Abstract

T

The objective of this study is to investigate the linkage between career adaptability (CA),

RI P

turnover intentions (TI), and career satisfaction (CS). It also examines the factor structure and psychometric properties of the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS) for low-ranking employees.

SC

The findings provide further support for the incremental validity of the CAAS. CA positively

NU

predicted CS and negatively predicted TI of low-ranking employees. CS is negatively related to TI, and it mediated the association between CA and TI. CA does not mediate the relation

MA

between CS and TI. Overall, a deeper understanding of the linkage between CA and TI can help us to find ways to assist employees to navigate the increasingly complex career path, thereby

ED

preventing TI.

PT

Keywords: career adaptability, career satisfaction, China, low-ranking employees, turnover

AC

1. Introduction

CE

intentions

Despite the increasing prevalence of career literature inspiring employees to be more career-resilient and to be more involved in career development activities to facilitate their mobility (Ito & Brotheridge, 2005), research linking career adaptability, career satisfaction, and turnover is not well integrated. While the positive association between career adaptability and turnover intentions (TI) appear to be well documented (e.g., Ito & Brotheridge, 2005; Yu & Zheng, 2013), the association between career satisfaction and turnover intentions has not received as much attention. Thus, the impact of career satisfaction on the relationship between career adaptability and turnover remains unclear.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The existing literature includes very few studies in which the participants are of lower wage, low-skilled employees (Casper & Swanberg, 2011). No empirical studies specifically

T

associate low-ranking employees’ career adaptability with turnover. Their career adaptability,

RI P

satisfaction and intention to stay might not be the same as other employed adults or professionals. At the same time, the validity of the popular Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS), which has

SC

demonstrated excellent reliability in numerous countries (e.g., Porfeli & Savickas, 2012;

NU

Savickas & Porfeli, 2012; Tien et al., 2012), requires further psychometric analyses with regard to low-ranking employees. Although the Chinese version of CAAS shows strong psychometric

MA

features, Tien and colleagues (2012) suggest that further research to examine the scale is needed. This study assessed the validity of the CAAS in the context of China involving the low-

ED

ranking workforce. Recognizing the importance of low-ranking employees and low-paid

PT

employees’ contribution in various industries, we empirically tested five hypotheses regarding how employees’ career adaptability may predict employees’ turnover. The proposed framework

CE

is shown in Figure 1a and 1b.

AC

This article reports the psychometric properties of the CAAS for low-ranking employees. We then report findings on the relationship of career adaptability to turnover intentions, and career satisfaction as well as turnover intentions. We also examined whether career satisfaction mediates the relationship between career adaptability and turnover intentions, and whether career adaptability mediates the relationship between career satisfaction and turnover intentions. The study contributes to the current literature in three ways. First, we answered the call by Porfeli and Savickas (2012) to further examine the CAAS’s validity for use with employed adults by expanding its application to low-ranking employees. Second, we empirically demonstrate the usefulness of the CAAS to the study of Chinese employees. Little

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT research has empirically tested the CAAS with employees, as most of the current researches on career adaptability in China targeted students (e.g., Guan et al., 2013; Tien et al., 2012), hence

T

the information collected might not fully explain the concept of career adaptability of regular

RI P

employees. More importantly, the study adds to the broader career literature by pinpointing the impact of career satisfaction on the career adaptability –turnover intentions relationship. As a

SC

whole, this study provides deeper insights into the career satisfaction of low-ranking employees.

NU

In this paper, turnover intentions refers to the three elements in the withdrawal cognition process, covering the thoughts of quitting, the intention to search for another job, and the intention to quit

2. Theoretical background

PT

2.1. Career adaptability

ED

MA

but not the element to turnover itself (e.g. Carmeli, & Weisberg, 2006).

Numerous career models have essentially stressed the importance of career adaptability

CE

(CA) to facilitate career mobility (e.g., Ito & Brotheridge, 2005; Klehe et al., 2011; Savickas,

AC

1997; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). CA means “the readiness to cope with the predictable tasks of preparing for and participating in the work role and with the unpredictable adjustments prompted by changes in work and working conditions” (Savickas, 1997, p. 254). CA is also theorized as an array of behaviors, competencies, and attitudes that people use in matching themselves to a job that fits them as well as the ability of a person to navigate career role transitions (Tolentino et al., 2013). The CA construct is used to evaluate an individual’s strength, which enables selfpreparation for future occupational changes (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). CA is essential during a person’s career (Flum & Blustein, 2000) in order for them to deal proactively and adjust to their careers. Research shows CA could influence the retention or

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT turnover of employees (Ferreira, Coetzee & Masenge, 2013; Savickas et al., 2009), assisting employees to outline lifelong plans for career developments, as well as to set and pursue career

T

goals—whether in a particular job or organization (Gould, 1979; Klehe et al., 2011; Saks &

RI P

Ashforth, 2002), or career transitions (Ashford & Saks, 1995; Latack & Dozier, 1986). CA is also related to many work and life outcomes including CS and work engagement (Rossier et al.,

SC

2012), promotability (Tolentino et al., 2013), career-related skills (de Guzman & Ok, 2013; Guan

NU

et al., 2014), self-esteem (Van Vianen, Klehe, Koen, & Dries, 2012), career commitment (Porfeli & Savickas, 2012), and quality of life, well-being, work stress, and career barriers (Johnston et

MA

al., 2013; Maggiori et al., 2013; Soresi, Nota, & Ferrari, 2012). In other words, an individual’s adaptability comprises assets that enable an individual to solve unfamiliar, complex, and ill-

PT

(Savickas & Porfeli, 2012).

ED

defined problems presented by vocational tasks, occupational transitions, and work traumas

The Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS) is a popular scale used to measure CA. The

CE

scale measures four psychosocial resources of employees for managing their career development,

AC

including confidence, control, concern, and curiosity (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). Career confidence refers to questing with positive anticipation and aspirations of achievement in the face of obstacles. A person having career confidence possesses the self-efficacy to undertake actions for achieving career goals (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). Career control refers to a sense of ownership and responsibility in decision making and shaping one’s career (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). Career concern relates to a temporal orientation towards preparing for the future such as developing a career vision. Lastly, career curiosity implies exploring possible selves and opportunities that are linked to the development of the career (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). These dimensions of the CAAS scale represent an individual’s overall adaptive strategies and resources

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT needed at various career transitions. The scale has been translated, validated, and applied in various countries and cultures. It demonstrates fitting cross-national measurement similarity and

T

excellent reliability, including in China and Macau (Hou et al., 2012; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012;

RI P

Tien et al., 2014).

SC

2.2. Turnover Intentions

NU

The literature on turnover argues that intentions are immediate predictor to actual behavior (Sommer & Haug, 2010). TI signifies a person’s perceived likelihood of staying or

MA

leaving a hiring organization (Cotton & Tuttle, 1986). TI can be treated as a predictor of actual turnover (Cotton & Tuttle, 1986; Lee & Mowday, 1987; Steel & Ovalle, 1984) because it has

ED

consistently been linked to actual turnover (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000).

PT

In some studies CA and TI correlated significantly in that employee’s high in CA tend to be also high in TI (Ito & Brotheridge, 2005; Yu & Zheng, 2013). This finding suggests that CA

CE

could increase TI (Ito & Brotheridge, 2005). In contrast, other studies have reported a negative

AC

relationship, suggesting that having a high score in CA could prevent employees from having TI (Ferreira et al., 2013; Omar & Noordin, 2013). While the literature shows a mixed relationship, none of these studies investigated low-ranking employees. Since differences in terms of occupational aspects (including ranks) can contribute to different results, and since CA of lowranking employees may not significantly enhance their TI, the first hypothesis proposed: H1: There is a negative correlation between CA and TI.

2.3. Career satisfaction

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT CS is the appraisal of a person’s advancement concerning meeting distinct careerassociated objective (e.g., achievement, income) and subjective accomplishments (Boudreau et

T

al., 2001; Greenhaus, Parasuraman, & Wormley, 1990; Judge et al., 1995; Ng, Eby, Sorensen, &

RI P

Feldman, 2005). Previous studies have revealed that employees who are higher in adaptability experience more satisfaction with their career (e.g., Niu & Guo, 2009; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012;

SC

Tolentino et al., 2013; Zacher, 2014). Thus, the next hypothesis proposed:

NU

H2: There is a positive correlation between CA and CS.

The association among CS and turnover is also of interest to scholars and practitioners.

MA

Direnzo and Greenhaus (2011) suggest that organizations pay more attention to understand and improve employees’ CS, which could help to reduce the TI among those employees. Recent

ED

researches further reveal that CS is negatively linked with TI (Guan et al., 2014; Kang, Gatling,

PT

& Kim, 2015; Nauta et al., 2009). Employees reporting higher scores in CS may have lower TI (Guan et al., 2014), or experience less urgency to change to another job within or outside their

CE

organization (Nauta et al., 2009). Thus, it seems reasonable to propose that employees with

AC

greater CA are expected to experience greater CS and consequently are more unlikely to leave their organization. Therefore, the next two hypotheses proposed: H3: CS relates negatively to TI. H4: CS mediates the relation between CA and TI.

2.4 Career adaptability as mediator Individuals with higher CS tend not to leave their job (Nauta et al., 2009). Some studies also show that individuals with higher CA tend to increase their mobility (Ito, & Brotheridge, 2005). Although existing research shows that employees who experienced more satisfaction with

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT their career have higher adaptability scores (e.g., Niu & Guo, 2009; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012; Tolentino et al., 2013; Zacher, 2014) the ways by which adaptability influence the linkage

T

between career satisfaction and turnover remain unclear. It may be possible for the effects of

RI P

career satisfaction on turnover to be mediated by the effects of adaptability. In other words, we still do not know whether individuals with low satisfaction and high adaptability have higher

SC

turnover intentions while individuals with low satisfaction and low adaptability have less

NU

intentions to leave. Thus, to test for adaptability as a mediator, the next hypothesis proposed:

MA

H5: CA mediates the relation between CS and TI.

2.4. Conceptual framework

ED

The conceptual framework is presented in Figure 1a and Figure 1b. We postulate that

PT

employees with higher CA scores will have higher CS scores, and that CS is negatively linked to TI. We also proposed a negative association between CA and TI, and that career satisfaction

CE

mediates association among CA and TI as shown in Figure 1a. Furthermore, we proposed an

Figure 1b.

AC

alternate model to determine whether CA mediates the relation between CS and TI as shown in

- Insert Figure 1a and 1b here –

3. Methodology 3.1. Respondents and procedure The data for this article came from 368 low-ranking employees working in Macau. All these employees were required to work on shifts, and received lower wages in comparison to other ranks, hence meeting the criteria for the study. They consisted of 190 men (51.8%) and 177

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT women (48.2%). A majority of the respondents originated from Mainland China (76.4%), were non-Macau resident (79.6%), were less than 40 years old (77.4%), and had completed at least a

T

college-level education (69.9%). The respondents have worked in the company for less than

RI P

three years (58.8%), and were earning a monthly salary of less than MOP10,000 (74.6%) (about USD1,260) at the time the study was conducted.

SC

The data was collected in June 2014. After an associate of the research team described

NU

the purpose of the study to the employees, the respondents completed the questionnaire

MA

voluntarily and anonymously. They also gave permission to use the data for research purposes.

3.2. Measurement

ED

3.2.1. Career Adaptability

PT

Career adaptability (CA) was assessed with the 24 items in the Career Adaptability Scale (CAAS; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). Answers were obtained using a 5-point Likert scale (1

CE

= Not Strong; 5 = Strongest). The CAAS has four subscales. A sample item is: Thinking about

AC

what my future will be like. The internal consistency reliabilities of all the scales are as follows: concern ranged from 0.79 to 0.92, control ranged from 0.64 to 0.89, curiosity ranged from 0.71 to 0.91, confidence ranged from 0.74 to 0.93, and CA ranged from 0.89 to 0.97 in various studies (Hou et al., 2012; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012; Tien et al., 2014; Tolentino et al., 2013). The stated consistency for the CAAS-International scale was 0.92 (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012).

3.2.2. Career satisfaction Career satisfaction (CS) was measured using five items from the Career Satisfaction

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Scale (CSS; Greenhaus, Parasuraman, & Wormley, 1990). Answers were obtained on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly disagree; 5 = Strongly agree). A sample item is: I am satisfied with

SC

3.2.3 Turnover intentions

RI P

scale has been reported as 0.88 (Greenhaus et al., 1990).

T

the progress I have made toward meeting my overall career goals. The Cronbach alpha for this

NU

The turnover intentions (TI) were measured with the three-item scale from Tett and Meyer (1993). Answers were on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly disagree; 7 = Strongly

MA

agree). A sample item is: I frequently think about leaving my current organization. The Cronbach alpha coefficient for this scale has been reported as 0.93 (Bartram, Casimir, Djurkovic, Leggat &

PT

ED

Stanton, 2012).

3.3. Pilot test and statistical analysis

CE

Six low-ranking employees were involved in the pilot study. They took between six and

AC

ten minutes to complete the questionnaire. According to the feedback collected from the respondents, they fully understood the meaning of all the questions. So no items needed to be modified after the pilot testing. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, version 22) and AMOS were used for the data analysis. Exploratory factor analysis was used to test the validity of all constructs. Structural equation modeling was deployed to conduct confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).

4. Results 4.1. Psychometric statistics: Descriptive statistics and Confirmatory Factor Analysis

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT In this study, the values for skewness and kurtosis for CAAS items extended from -.27 to 1.32 and -.74 to 1.51, respectively. This result meets the assumptions for confirmatory factor

T

analysis. The reliability estimates (Cronbach alpha) for the four CA subscales ranged from 0.84

RI P

to 0.87 (see Table 1), while the Cronbach alpha for the overall CAAS was 0.94. Specifically, the subscale alphas were: confidence (α = .87), curiosity (α = .84), control (α = .87), and concern (α

SC

= .86) respectively. Overall, the reliabilities for this sample of low-ranking employees are

NU

slightly higher than the reliabilities in the CAAS-international sample (concern (α = .83), control (α = .74), curiosity (α = .79), and confidence (α = .85) (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012)). In sum, all

MA

the findings support the structural validity of the CAAS for low-ranking employees. The factor loadings from the confirmatory factor model and descriptive statistics for the items in the CAAS

ED

scales and subscales appear in Table 2. The correlations between the adaptability subscales were

PT

substantial (p < 0.01) and ranged from 0.53 to 0.71 (see Table 1). The correlation of the

-

Insert Table 1 here -

AC

0.86.

CE

subscales with the overall adaptability scale were significant (p < 0.01), ranging from 0.80 to

The Cronbach alpha for the CSS was 0.86 and the alpha for TI was 0.89, indicating strong reliability and internal consistency. The correlations between variables (see Table 1) showed that the CAAS was considerably and positively linked to the CSS (r = .34, p < 0.01), and negatively correlated with the TI (r = -.14, p < 0.01). CSS was significantly and negatively correlated with TI (r = -.30, p < 0.01). -

Insert Table 2 here -

Confirmatory factor analysis of the CAAS produced the following fit indices: Chi-square = 878.628, df = 380, Chi-square/df = 2.312 (ranging between 2 to 5), root mean square error of

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT approximation (RMSEA) = 0.060, comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.913, TLI = 0.900. A model fit is reasonable when CFI is above 0.90, and TLI is 0.90. Since the fit indices compare favorably to

T

those of the CAAS-International (with RMSEA = 0.053), we conclude that the data for the low-

RI P

ranking employees adequately fit the model.

SC

4.2. Comparison of current factor model to CAAS-International factor model

NU

When the hierarchical factor loadings of the current sample were compared to the CAASInternational data loadings, quite similar results were noted for both the first-order and second-

MA

order factors. Specifically, for the first-order factors, all the items for concern and control were either similar or slightly higher than the international loadings. The somewhat lower loading in

ED

this sample compared to the international loadings were noted for Curiosity #1 (Exploring my

PT

surroundings), Confidence #3 (Learning new skills), Confidence #4 (Working up to my ability), Confidence #6 (Solving problems), and Confidence #5 (Overcoming obstacles).

CE

For the second-order constructs, the results were very similar to the results for the

AC

international form of the CAAS (concern 0.78 vs. 0.78), control (0.85 vs. 0.86), curiosity (0.87 vs. 0.88) and confidence (0.87 vs. 0.90). With regard to the mean scores for the subscales, the sample in this study reported higher mean scores for control (4.19 vs. 3.92) and confidence (4.05 vs. 3.87) but slightly lower mean scores for concern (3.55 vs. 3.82) and curiosity (3.70 vs. 3.73) compared to the international mean score.

4.3. Hypothesis testing using regression analysis We used regression analysis to test the mediation effect among the variables following the steps suggested by Judd and Kenny (1981). First, regression was run between CAAS

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT (independent variable) and CSS (mediator). The results showed R = .34, R square = .11, adjusted R2 = .11, F = 46.17, β =.34, p = .001 (p < 0.05), which was significant. A second regression was

T

run between CAAS (independent variable) and TI (dependent variable). The results showed that

RI P

R = .14, R2 = .020, adjusted R2 = .02, F = 7.39, β = -.14, p = .007 (p < 0.05), which was significant. Then, regression was run among independent variables of CAAS and CSS, and the

SC

dependent variable TI. The results showed that R = .30, R2 = .09, adjusted R2 = .09, F = 18.30, β

NU

(CA) = -.05, β (CS) = -.28, p (CA) = .39 (p > 0.05), which was insignificant, while p (CS) = .001 (p < 0.05), which was significant. These results indicated that CS had a perfect mediation effect

MA

between CAAS and TI. Thus, Hypothesis 4 was supported. Since the regression result between CAAS and CS was significant (β = .34, p < 0.05),

ED

Hypothesis 2 (that CA is positively related to CS) was supported. Similarly, the second

PT

regression between CAAS and TI was significant (β = -.14, p < 0.05), thus Hypothesis 1 (that CA is negatively related to TI) was supported. The regression result between CS and TI was also

AC

supported.

CE

significant (β = -.30, p < 0.05). Thus, Hypothesis 3 (that CS is negatively related to TI) was

To test whether career adaptability mediates the effect between career satisfaction and turnover intentions, the first step in the regression was run between CAAS (mediator) and CS (independent variable). The results showed β(CS)=.335, p=.000 (p<0.05), which indicated significant. For the second step in the regression between TI (dependent variable) and CS (independent variable), the results showed β(CS)= -.299, p=.000 (p<0.05), which indicated significant. For the last regression step, between TI on both CS and CA, the results showed β(CS)= -.283, p=.000 (p<0.05); β(CA)= -.046, p=.387 (p>0.05), which indicated insignificant. These results do not support the hypothesis that CAAS mediates the effect between CS and TI.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Thus, H5 was not supported. Therefore, the link proposed in Figure 1b was rejected. 5. Discussion

5.1.1. Psychometric properties for low-ranking employees

RI P

T

5.1. Conclusions

SC

This study investigated the validity and psychometric properties of the CAAS for use with low-ranking employees. In line with our expectations, the findings illustrated that the

NU

overall CAAS scale and the four CAAS subscales demonstrated exceptional internal consistency

MA

estimates and a multidimensional structure consistent with that of the CAAS-International. In this study, the factor loadings for the curiosity subscale (.84), control subscale (.87),

ED

concern subscale (.86), and confidence subscale (.87) were similar to the CAAS-International loadings (.88), (.86), (.78), and (.90) respectively. When comparing the factor loading from this

PT

study with CAAS-International scores, the main difference observed was that the scores for the

CE

subscales and overall scale were higher in this study. The higher scores reported here are similar to other studies such as the CAAS-Australia, CAAS-Brazil and CAAS-Portugal (Duarte, et al.

AC

2012; Teixeira et al., 2012; Tolentino et al., 2014) perhaps due to the cultural conditions or unique characteristics in the sample under investigation. Although all respondents were lowranking employees, a majority in this sample had a diploma or a bachelor’s degree, which may improve the chances for them to have job mobility. Another plausible reason for the observation is that this sample recognized that they have adequate resources to face challenges in their career. To begin with, a majority of them are young non-local residents, suggesting that they have demonstrated abilities to improve their career circumstances and prepare for future work-related changes (Savickas, 2013) by overcoming challenges in the job search process and transitioning to a career outside of their

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT hometown. Consequently, these factors may fortify their belief, interest, sense of responsibility and control to seek greener pastures outside of their village/hometown and to explore

T

opportunities (i.e., curiosity) in a job market in Macau that is relatively open. They are more

RI P

willing to try out the low-ranking jobs (i.e., curiosity) as part of their career move compared to the locals or those without a diploma. Together with their readiness to learn (e.g. new language),

SC

they adapted to the challenges in the new environment (e.g. different culture, working with

NU

foreign supervisors and colleagues) in order for them to secure a more stable or higher paying job. Their adaptability may have strengthened their confidence that they can make it work while

MA

developing their career-related competencies and gaining work experience, although they held a low-ranking position. Such positions are seen as preferable to being idle at home, or getting

ED

another similar low-ranking job that pays about a third of what they can possibly earn in Macau.

PT

However, these explanations need to be verified in future investigation. In summary, based on the similar psychometric characteristics and factor structure

CE

reported in the previous section, we can conclude that the CAAS-International might be a useful

AC

and valid instrument for practitioners and researchers to evaluate the adaptability resources of working adults.

5.1.2. Relationship with turnover intentions Based on the career construction theory (Savickas, 2005), we designed a new framework for comprehending the mediating consequence linking career adaptability to turnover intentions, and investigated the proposed linkages between CA, CS, and TI. The results help us to understand the factors affecting the TI of low-ranking employees. They also show that management and practitioners can directly influence the TI of their low-ranking employees. The

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT findings are valuable and relevant for both the employees and the organization. Specifically, the significant relationships observed are consistent with our expectations, and consistent with the

T

career construction theory expectations (Savickas, 2002, 2005). As predicted, career satisfaction

RI P

is positively linked to career adaptability, negatively linked to turnover intentions, and mediates the association between career adaptability and turnover intentions.

SC

The first finding that career adaptability was negatively linked to turnover intentions

NU

provides further support to the extant literature (Ferreira et al., 2013; Omar & Noordin, 2013) although several studies showed that when the employee’s career adaptability is high, the

MA

employee’s turnover intentions may also be high (Ito & Brotheridge, 2005; Yu & Zheng, 2013). While career adaptabilities can facilitate mobility in the labor market (Brown et al., 2010), our

ED

finding indicates that when employees have higher career adaptability, they would have lower

PT

turnover intentions. The second finding, that career adaptability was positively correlated to career satisfaction, is consistent with the earlier research by Tolentino and colleagues (2013).

CE

This finding is unsurprising, since capable employees who can participate in the work role are

AC

more likely to be happy with their career due to prospects including promotion, recognition, suitable medical welfare benefits, better shift schedule, and other benefits (e.g., monetary rewards, more annual leave) packages. In other words, career adaptability (comprised of resources of confidence, curiosity, control, and concern), enables the low-ranking employees to adapt to the changing work environment. Given that employees’ capacity to adjust to meet challenges at work can enhance their positive attitudes towards their career, management could invest more company resources on improving the employees’ career adaptability (e.g., selfcontrol skill, work-related knowledge and self-confidence), in order to improve their CS. The third finding, that career satisfaction was negatively correlated with TI, is consistent

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT with previous research (Guan et al., 2014; Kang, Gatling, & Kim, 2015; Nauta et al., 2009). This finding suggests that when employees are satisfied with their career achievement or welfare, they

T

would feel less urgent to move to another job outside the organization. Since low-ranking

RI P

employees have less opportunity to advance into areas where they can demonstrate managerial competencies or perform other work due to their limited knowledge, skills and training,

SC

management could pay more attention to enhancing the employees’ career satisfaction, in order

NU

to reduce their turnover intentions. Examples of relevant activities or programs include providing job rotation, job enrichment incentives, and various learning opportunities to improve their job-

MA

related skills and career competency. Moreover, management could better retain talented workers by encouraging and stimulating the employees to improve their marketability,

PT

engage in continuous learning.

ED

knowledge and skills by adopting proactive strategies to improve career adaptability, and to

The fourth finding, which shows that career satisfaction mediates the linkage between

CE

career adaptability and turnover intentions, is new. This finding suggests that employees scoring

AC

higher in career adaptabilities are more likely to be contented with the achievements of their current goals and have career satisfaction, and they will have less tendency to leave because they are satisfied with their career. In other words, if the employees are adaptable, competent and have confidence in their work, they will have less tendency to voluntarily leave the organization. This result verifies the theoretical assumption that developing career capabilities in the form of adaptability resources such as concern or confidence can help the employees to be more competent. Consequently, they are expected to perceive a greater degree of career satisfaction. This form of association implies that career adaptability is a necessary antecedent to career satisfaction; and the decision to turnover is not based only on the employees’ career adaptability.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The findings demonstrate that developing career capabilities such as adaptabilities is necessary for career satisfaction. This supports the observation that career adaptability is linked to

T

negotiating vocational tasks, coping, and for making successful moves (Savickas, 2013).

RI P

Although there is a significant positive relationship between career satisfaction and career adaptability, the mediating relationship proposed in Figure 1b does not apply. This last finding

SC

that career adaptability does not mediates the linkage between career satisfaction and turnover

NU

intentions, is also new. One possible explanation could be due to the occupational aspects since the respondents in this study are low ranking employees. These employees have few

MA

opportunities for development and few reasons to perceive their works as meaningful (Winkler, Busch, Clasen & Vowinkel, 2014). Moreover, the labor market for low ranking positions in

ED

Macau is very competitive; employees in low skilled positions can be easily replaced by other

PT

imported labor from mainland China, Philippines, or Nepal. Therefore, career satisfaction is not as important factor as compared to career adaptability because they have to be adaptable (to the

AC

skills.

CE

physically demanding and monotonous work) or be replaced if they do not possess adaptability

Overall, career satisfaction is an important factor in the career adaptability –turnover intentions relationship. Enhancing low-ranking employees’ career satisfaction and career adaptability can help to improve staff retention. Given that career adaptability is a hallmark for success, our results imply that turnover in organizations can be minimized when adequate attention/resources are allocated to improve employees’ adaptability. The findings also suggest that career satisfaction might be a stronger predictor of turnover intentions than career adaptability. Collectively, the findings presented here support the notion that career adaptability is an essential capability in vocational management (Savickas et al., 2009). Moreover, by

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT demonstrating that career satisfaction is a mediator between career adaptability and turnover

T

intentions, this research adds to the literature in the area of career.

RI P

5.2 Implications

Educators, career counselors and practitioners can gain a greater understanding regarding

SC

ways to help low-ranking employees to engage in forward-looking career development activities,

NU

or behaviors that contribute to satisfaction of one’s career and one’s career outcomes. Practitioners can also consider ways to establish positive organizational cultures (Ogbonna &

MA

Harris, 2002) that prevent employees’ turnover by assisting employees from the lower rank to better manage their careers, and improve their competencies. Organizations can also play a

ED

significant part in searching for strategies to enhance employees’ adaptability, and career

PT

satisfaction, and to ensure that their trained motivated workforce do not voluntarily leave. For example, management practitioners can consider providing helpful vocational management

CE

activities such as development programs, performance appraisal, mentoring, and training to their

employees.

AC

workforces (Kong et al., 2010) which are valuable to the improvement of career capability in the

Examples of training include providing diversity and professional training to the employees periodically in order to improve their career adaptability further. The knowledge and skills obtained from the diversity training can help them to better manage and adjust to the constantly changing work situation, and be better prepared for higher positions in the organization’s hierarchy. Such training is also vital to help employees to improve career adaptability or cushion against the reduction of career adaptability, which in turn can improve their employment excellence (Koen, Van Vianen, & Klehe, 2012). Moreover, the employees can

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT gain work-related knowledge from the training and develop a sense of mission by knowing the important role they play in the work they perform.

T

Since employees are more likely to enhance their positive attitude towards satisfaction at

RI P

work when they have opportunities for learning and self-development (Ahmad, Mohamad, Mohd, Ahamad, & Abang, 2012), management can also arrange for training courses that can help

SC

employees to raise their adaptability, problem solving skills, and communication skills, among

NU

others. More importantly, when the employees are more adaptable to the job, they will likely develop the sense of satisfaction with their career and have less tendency to think about leaving

MA

the job.

ED

5.3. Limitations and suggestions for future research

PT

Several limitations in this study could be tackled in future research. First, this cross-sectional study collected self-report data, which runs the risk of common method bias (Podsakoff et al.,

CE

2003); although the CFA analysis confirmed that common method variance was not an important

AC

issue. The nature of the study also could not provide strong support for establishing causality. Second, the respondents in this study were low-ranking employees. This may somewhat limit the generalizability of the findings to other working adults. Third, this study focused on employees’ turnover intentions rather than their actual turnover. Further research is needed to determine the effect on actual turnover behavior using longitudinal design and multi-source data. Although there is no association between career adaptability and general mental ability (van Vianen et al., 2012), it is worth investigating this important individual characteristic to ascertain whether it exists with low-ranking employees. Since “psychosocial constructs, such as adaptability, are highly sensitive to context and

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT age” (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012, p. 666), additional research is essential to verify the findings across other samples/contexts (e.g., minorities, hourly rated employees), and to compare

T

different age groups/career stages to confirm generalizability to other populations. Future

RI P

research may also investigate if demographic characteristics such as ethnicity, gender, and tenure might influence the linkage between career adaptability and career satisfaction, and between

SC

career adaptability and turnover intentions. Moreover, correlating career satisfaction with

NU

objective data such as the number of salary increments and promotions received over time is a vital step to further corroborate the findings of the study. Qualitative data collection can also be

MA

helpful to gain further insights regarding the nature of career adaptability and turnover in lowranking employees. Lastly, based on the career construction theory, future research may extend

ED

the current model to include job performance as an outcome variable, and it may explore other

PT

mediators/moderators of the relationships between career adaptability and turnover intentions

AC

5.4. Conclusion

CE

such as promotability and career commitment.

This study has demonstrated that the current CAAS form have robust possibility for use in vocational intervention and career expansion research for working adults, and low-ranking employees in particular. The findings contribute to the ongoing validation efforts of the CAAS, as a tool to assess the psychosocial resources of employees that are vital to manage their career development (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). The study extended the literature by presenting results that support the career adaptability and career construction theory, which are based on a sample of low-ranking employees. This is a major contribution, as no previous researchers have investigated the career adaptability of the low-ranking workforce. Career adaptability positively

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT predicted career satisfaction, and negatively predicted turnover intentions. Improving employees’ career adaptability and career satisfaction can reduce employees’ turnover intentions. Overall, a

T

deeper understanding of the career adaptability-turnover intentions relationship can help us to

RI P

find ways to assist employees to navigate their increasingly complex career path, thereby

SC

preventing turnover intentions.

NU

References

Ashforth, B. E., & Saks, A. M. (1995). Work-role transitions: A longitudinal examination of the

MA

Nicholson model. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 68, 157−175. Bartram, T., Casimir, G., Djurkovic, N., Leggat, S., & Stanton, P., (2012). Do perceived high

ED

performance work systems influence the relationship between emotional labour, burnout and

PT

intention to leave? A study of Australian nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 68(7), 15671578.

CE

Boudreau, J. W., Boswell, W. R., & Judge, T. A. (2001). Regular article: Effects of personality

AC

on executive career success in the United States and Europe. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58(1), 53-81.

Brown, A., Bimrose, J., Barnes, S. A, Kirpal, S., Grønning, T., & Daehlen, M. (2010). Changing patterns of working, learning and career development across Europe. Coventry: IER, University of Warwick. Available:http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/ier/people/abrown/publications/eacea_warwick _final_report_31st_may_2010.doc. [Accessed 27 March 2015]. Carmeli, A., & Weisberg, J. (2006). Exploring turnover intentions among three professional groups of employees. Human Resource Development International, 9(2), 191-206.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Casper, W. J., & Swanberg, J. E. (2011). Career and work concerns of diverse and understudied workers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79(3), 611-612.

T

Cotton, J. & Tuttle, J. M. (1986). Employee turnover: A meta- analysis and review with

RI P

implications for research. Academy of Management Review, 11(1), 55-70. de Guzman, A. B., & Ok, C. K. (2013). The relations of employability skills to career

SC

adaptability among technical school students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 82(3), 199–207.

NU

Direnzo, M., & Greenhaus, J. H. (2011). Job search and voluntary turnover in a boundaryless world: A control theory perspective. Academy of Management Review, 36(3), 567-589.

MA

Duarte, M. E., Soares, M. C., Fraga, S., Rafael, M., Lima, M. R., Paredes, I., Agostinho, R., & Djaló, A. (2012). The psychometric characteristics and construct validity of the Portugal Form

ED

of Career Adapt-Abilities Scale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(3), 725-729.

PT

Ferreira, N., Coetzee, M., & Masenge, A. (2013). Psychological career resources, career adaptability and hardiness in relation to job embeddedness and organizational commitment.

CE

Journal of Psychology in Africa, 23(1), 31-40.

AC

Flum, H., & Blustein, D. L. (2000). Reinvigorating the study of vocational exploration: A framework for research, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56(3), 380–404. Gould, S. (1979). Characteristics of career planners in upwardly mobile occupations. Academy of Management Journal, 22, 539−550. Greenhaus, J. H., Parasuraman, S., & Wormley, W. M. (1990). Effects of race on organizational experiences, job performance evaluations, and career outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 33(1), 64-86.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Griffeth, R.W., Hom, P.W., & Gaertner, S. (2000). A meta-analysis of antecedents and correlates of employee turnover: Update, moderator tests, and research implications for the next

T

millennium. Journal of Management, 26(3), 463-488.

RI P

Guan, Y., Sun, J., Wang, Y., Cai, Z., Fu, R., Wang, Y., Zhang, S., Li, Y., Deng, H., & Ye, L. (2013). Career adaptability, job search self-efficacy and outcomes: A three-wave investigation

SC

among Chinese university graduates. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(3), 561–570.

NU

Guan, Y., Wen, Y., Liu, H., Si, W., Liu, Y., Wang, Y., Fu, R., Zhang, Y., Dong, Z., & Chen, S.X. (2014). When do salary and job level predict career satisfaction and turnover intention among

MA

Chinese managers? The role of perceived organizational career management and career anchor. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 23(4), 596-607.

ED

Hou, Z. J., Leung, S.A., Li, X.X., Li., X, & Xu, H. (2012). Career Adapt-Abilities Scale—China

PT

Form: Construction and initial validation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(3), 686-691. Ito, J. K., & Brotheridge, C. M. (2005). Does supporting employees career adaptability lead to

CE

commitment, turnover, or both? Human Resource Management, 44(1), 5-19.

AC

Johnston, C. S., Luciano, E. C., Maggiori, C., Ruch, W., & Rossier, J. (2013). Validation of the German version of the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale and its relation to orientations to happiness and work stress. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(3), 295–304. Judd, C. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1981). Process analysis: estimating mediation in treatment evaluations. Evaluation Review, 5(5), 602-619. Judge, T. A., Cable, D. M., Boudreau, J. W., & Bretz, JR., R.D. (1995). An empirical investigation of the predictors of executive career success. Personnel Psychology, 48(3), 485519

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Kang, H. J. A., Gatling, A., & Kim, J. S. (2015). The impact of supervisory support on organizational commitment, career satisfaction, and turnover intention for hospitality frontline

T

employees. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality and Tourism, 14(1), 68-89.

RI P

Klehe, U., Zikic, J., Van Vianen, A. E. M., & De Pater, I. E. (2011). Career adaptability, turnover and loyalty during organizational downsizing. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79(1),

SC

217-229.

NU

Koen, J., Van Vianen, A. E. M., & Klehe, U. C. (2012). Training career adaptability to facilitate a successful school-to-work transition. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 81(3), 395-408.

MA

Kong, H., Cheung, C., & Zhang, H. (2010). Career management systems: What are China’s state-owned hotels practicing? International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality

ED

Management, 22(4), 467–482.

PT

Latack, J. C., & Dozier, J. B. (1986). After the ax falls - Job loss as a career transition. Academy of Management Review, 11, 375−392.

CE

Lee, T. W., & Mowday, R. T. (1987). Voluntarily leaving an organization: An empirical

AC

investigation of Steers and Mowday’s model of turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 30(4), 721-743.

Maggiori, C., Johnston, C. S., Krings, F., Massoudi, K., & Rossier, J. (2013). The role of career adaptability and work conditions on general and professional well-being. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(3), 437–449. Nauta, A., van Vianen, A., van der Heijden, B., van Dam, K., & Willemsen, M. (2009). Understanding the factors that promote employability orientation: The impact of employability culture, career satisfaction, and role breadth self-efficacy. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 82(2), 233-251.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Ng, T. W., Eby, L. T., Sorensen, K. L., & Feldman, D. C. (2005). Predictors of objective and subjective career success: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 58(2), 367-408.

T

Niu, S., & Guo, W. (2009). Exploration of the relationship between career adaptability and

RI P

career success in the era of boundaryless career. Journal of Dalian University of Technology (Social Sciences), 1, 34-39.

SC

Ogbonna, E., & Harris, L.C. (2002). Managing organizational culture: Insight from the

NU

hospitality industry. Human Resource Management Journal, 12(1), 33-53. Omar, S., & Noordin, F. (2013). Career adaptability and intention to leave among ICT

MA

professionals: an exploratory study. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology TOJET, 12(4), 11-18.

ED

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method

PT

biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879−903.

CE

Porfeli, E. J., & Savickas, M. L. (2012). Career Adapt-Abilities Scale—USA form: Psychometric

AC

properties and relation to vocational identity. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(3), 748–753. Rossier, J., Zecca, G., Stauffer, S. D., Maggiori, C., & Dauwalder, J. P. (2012). Career adaptabilities scale in a French-speaking Swiss sample: Psychometric properties and relationships to personality and work engagement. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80, 734–743. Saks, A. M., & Ashforth, B. E. (2002). Is job search related to employment quality? It all depends on the fit. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 646−654. Savickas, M. L. (1997). Career adaptability: An integrative construct for life-span, life-space theory. Career Development Quarterly, 45(3), 247-259.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Savickas, M. L. (2002). Career construction: A developmental theory of vocational behavior. In D. A. Brown (Ed.), Career choice and development (4th ed., pp.149-205). San Francisco, CA:

T

Jossey-Bass.

RI P

Savickas, M. L. (2005). The theory and practice of career construction. In S. D. Brown & R.

(pp. 42-70). Hokoben, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

SC

W. Lent (Eds.), Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research to work

NU

Savickas, M. L., Nota, L., Rossier, J., Dauwalder, J., Duarte, M.E., Guichard, J., Soresi, S., Van Esbroeck, R., & van Vianen, A.E. (2009). Life designing: A paradigm for career

MA

construction in the 21st century. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 75(3), 239-250. Savickas, M. L., & Porfeli, E. J. (2012). Career Adapt-Abilities Scale: Construction, reliability,

ED

and measurement equivalence across 13 countries. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 80(3),

PT

661-673.

Savickas, M. L. (2013). Career construction theory and practice. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent

CE

(Eds.), Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research Into Work (2nd ed.,

AC

pp. 147–183). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Sommer, L., & Haug, M. (2010). Intention as cognitive antecedent to international entrepreneurship-understanding the moderating role of knowledge and experience. International Entrepreneurship Management Journal, 7(1), 111-142. Soresi, S., Nota, L., & Ferrari, L. (2012). Career Adapt-Abilities Scale—Italian form: Psychometric properties and relationships to breadth of interests, quality of life, and perceived barriers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(3), 705–711.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Steel, R. P., & Ovalle, N. K. (1984). A review and meta-analysis of research on the relationship between behavioral intentions and employee turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(4),

T

673-686.

RI P

Teixeira, M. A. P., Bardagi, M. P., Lassance, M. C. P., Magalhães, M. O., Duarte, M. E. (2012). Career Adapt-Abilities Scale—Brazilian Form: Psychometric properties and relationships to

SC

personality. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(3), 680–685.

NU

Tett, R. P., & Meyer, J. P. (1993). Job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intention, and turnover: Path analyses based on met-analytic findings. Personnel Psychology,

MA

46(2), 259-293.

Tien, H. S., Wang, Y., Chu, H., & Huang, T. (2012). The Career Adapt-Abilities Scale: The

ED

psychometric characteristics and construct validity of the Taiwan form. Journal of Vocational

PT

Behavior, 80, 744–747.

Tien, H. L. S., Lin, S. H., Hsieh, P. J., & Jin, S. R. (2014). The career adapt-abilities scale in

AC

84(3), 259-265.

CE

Macau: Psychometric characteristics and construct validity. Journal of Vocational Behavior,

Tolentino, L. R., Garcia, P. R. J. M., Restubog, S. L. D., Bordia, P., & Tang, R. L. (2013). Validation of the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale and an examination of a model of career adaptation in the Philippine context. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(3), 410–418. Tolentino, L. R., Garcia, P. R. J. M., Lu, V. N., Restubog, S. L. D., Bordia, P., & Plewa, C. (2014). Career adaptation: The relation of adaptability to goal orientation, proactive personality, and career optimism. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 84(1), 39–48.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Van Vianen, A. E. M., Klehe, U. C., Koen, J., & Dries, N. (2012). Career adapt-abilities scale — Netherlands form: Psychometric properties and relationships to abilities, personality, and

T

regulatory focus. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80, 716–724.

RI P

Winkler, E., Busch, C., Clasen, J., & Vowindel, J. (2014). Leadership behavior as a healthpromoting resource for workers in low-skilled jobs and the moderating role of power distance

SC

orientation. German Journal of Research in Human Resource Management, 28(1/2), 96-116.

Acta Psychologica Sinica, 45(6), 680-693.

NU

Yu, H., & Zheng, X. (2013). The impact of employee career adaptability: Multilevel analysis.

MA

Zacher, H. (2014). Career adaptability predicts subjective career success above and beyond

AC

CE

PT

ED

personality traits and core self-evaluations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 84(1), 21-30.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Figure 1a: Conceptual framework with career satisfaction as mediator

Career Adaptability

RI P

T

Career Satisfaction

NU

SC

Turnover Intentions

ED

PT

Career Adaptability

MA

Figure 1b: Conceptual framework with career adaptability as mediator

Career Satisfaction

AC

CE

Turnover Intentions

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 1 – Descriptive statistics, reliabilities, and inter-correlations among variables 2

3

1. CAAS

1

5

3.87

0.65

(.94)

2. Concern

1

5

3.55

0.85

.80**

3. Control

1

5

4.19

0.74

.84**

4. Curiosity

1

5

3.70

0.79

.86**

5. Confidence

1

5

4.05

0.70

6. CSS

1

5

3.28

0.76

7. TI

1

7

3.38

1.54 -.14** -.14**

(.86)

4

T

1

5

(.87)

.57**

.62**

.85**

.53**

.67** .71**

(.87)

.34**

.32**

.18** .31**

.31**

MA

NU

.55**

ED

PT

2. **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

AC

CE

4. N＝368

7

-.13*

(.84)

(.86)

-.04 -.16** -.30** (.89)

Notes: 1. CAAS: career adaptability; CSS: career satisfaction; TI: turnover intentions.

3. *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

6

RI P

S.D

SC

Min Max Mean

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 2 – Career adapt-abilities scale: items, descriptive statistics, and standardized loadings

Confidence

Loading

1.12

.72

CA2

Realizing that today’s choices shape my future.

3.22

1.20

.74

CA3

Preparing for the future.

3.66

1.13

.77

CA4

Becoming aware of the educational and vocational choices that I must make.

3.43

1.10

.68

CA5

Planning how to achieve my goals.

3.69

1.08

.72

CA6

Concerned about my career.

3.73

1.05

.60

CA7

Keeping upbeat.

4.10

1.03

.68

CA8

Making decisions by myself.

4.04

1.03

.65

CA9

Taking responsibility for my actions.

4.41

.80

.66

CA10

Sticking up for my beliefs.

4.18

.95

.67

CA11

Counting on myself.

4.17

1.02

.70

CA12

Doing what’s right for me

4.23

.87

.70

Exploring my surroundings

3.65

1.01

.61

CA14

Looking for opportunities to grow as a person

3.83

1.02

.72

CA15

Investigating options before making a choice

3.60

1.10

.71

CA16

Observing different ways of doing things

3.77

1.08

.71

CA17

Probing deeply into questions I have

3.57

1.01

.60

CA18

Becoming curious about new opportunities

3.78

1.11

.58

CA19

Performing tasks efficiently

4.13

.84

.68

CA20

Taking care to do things well

4.38

.78

.66

CA21

Learning new skills

3.97

1.00

.55

CA22

Working up to my ability

3.93

.96

.64

CA13

ED

MA

NU

SC

RI P

3.54

T

Curiosity

SD

Thinking about what my future will be like.

PT

Control

M

CA1

CE

Concern

Item (First order)

AC

Construct

Overcoming obstacles

3.86

.94

.67

CA24

Solving problems

4.00

.88

.68

M

SD

Loading

3.55

.85

.78

4.19

.74

.85

3.70

.79

.87

4.04

.70

.87

Concern

2

Control

3

Curiosity

4

Confidence

SC

1

MA ED PT CE AC

Adaptability

Construct (Second order)

NU

Construct

T

CA23

RI P

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

CE

PT

ED

MA

NU

SC

RI P

The CAAS have robust possibility for use with low-ranking employees CA was negatively linked to TI CS was negatively correlated with TI CA was positively correlated to CS CS mediates the linkage between CA and TI CA does not mediate the linkage between CS and TI

AC

     

T

Highlights