- Email: [email protected]
The relationships between self-criticism, submissive behavior and depression among Turkish adolescents
Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 www.elsevier.com/locate/paid
The relationships between self-criticism, submissive behavior and depression among Turkish adolescents q ¨ ngen Demet Erol O
*
Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey Received 17 October 2005; received in revised form 17 March 2006; accepted 29 March 2006 Available online 22 May 2006
Abstract The purpose of this research was to study the relationships between two dysfunctional forms of negative self-evaluation: Comparative Self-Criticism and Internalized Self-Criticism, submissive behavior and depression. Subjects were 235 high school students and 157 university students who completed The Levels of Self-Criticism (LOSC), the Submissive Acts Scale (SAS) and the Beck Depression Inventory. Multiple regression analyses showed that Comparative Self-Criticism and submissive behavior are independent predictors of depression in both high school and university students whereas no such relationship was demonstrated for Internalized Self-Criticism. These findings provide support for sensitivity to external standards rather than internal ones in middle and late adolescence being relevant to depression. Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Adolescents; Depression; Comparative self-criticism; Internalized self-criticism; Submissive behavior
1. Introduction Adolescence is a transition from childhood to adulthood typically characterized by increased demands for coping with multiple social, biological, and psychological changes and the emergence of the cognitive precursors of adulthood (Patterson & McCubbin, 1987). Most individuals emerge q *
This research was supported by Akdeniz University Scientific research project unit. Tel.: +90 24 23 10 20 72; fax: +90 242 226 1953. E-mail address: [email protected]
0191-8869/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.03.013
794
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
from adolescence confident, with a healthy sense of who they are and where they are headed. However, in some instances, the changes and demands of adolescence may leave a teenager feeling helpless, confused, and pessimistic about the future. Such adolescents are likely to be depressed. In its mild form, depression is the most common psychological disturbance among adolescence. The heightened vulnerability to depression among adolescents likely reflects the difficulties in negotiating a complex developmental period that is marked by significant physical, psychological and social transitions. A variety of theories have been proposed to account for the depression and many dysfunctional tendencies have been linked to depression. One prominent theory that attempts to integrate a developmental model of personality and one’s vulnerability to depression is that proposed by Blatt (1974). Blatt suggests that personality development occurs along two parallel pathways that is concerned with an individual’s sense of interpersonal relatedness and belonging (anaclitic/dependent) and a second that is concerned with an individual’s sense of self definition and self worth (introjective/self critical). According to Blatt, depressive experiences classified as either dependent or self-critical originate based on early life experiences. Self-criticism which can be conceptionalized as harsh punitive evaluation of the self often accompanied by guilt, feelings of unworthiness and self-recrimination (Powers, Zuroff, & Topciu, 2004) is a dysfunctional personality factor that has been stressed by investigators from different theoretical viewpoints (Abela & Taylor, 2003; Besser, Flett, & Davis, 2002; Blatt, Schaffer, Bers, & Quinlan, 1992; Cox et al., 2000; Gudlesky & Shean, 2000; Luthar & Blatt, 1993; Thompson & Zuroff, 2004). Similarly, social rank theory (Gilbert, 2000) argues that emotions and moods are significantly influenced by the perception of one’s social status/rank; that is the degree to which one feels inferior to others and looked down on. A common outcome of such perceptions is submissive behavior. Perceiving oneself to be involuntarily subordinate to significant others might lead to increased needs for reassurance and closeness from them. Gilbert, Allan, and Trent (1995) argued that behaviors currently regarded as dependent, and linked to depression, are better understood as forms of involuntary subordination that involve judgments of personal inferiority, and submissive-appeasement behavior. There are studies that provide evidence that depressed people see themselves as inferior to others and tend to adopt submissive behaviors (Allan & Gilbert, 1997, 1995). So far most of the empirical studies which link self-criticism and depression mostly used Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (Blatt, D’afflitti, & Quinlan, 1976) which has consistently produced two distinct factors: dependency and self-criticism. However, in the present research the Levels of Self-Criticism Scale (LOSC) (Thompson & Zuroff, 2004) in which two developmental levels of self-criticism were identified and operationalized, based on Blatt and Blass’ (1992) theoretical description of introjection is used. Thompson and Zuroff (2004) designed LOSC to measure two dysfunctional forms of negative self evaluation: Comparative Self-Criticism (CSC) and Internalized Self-Criticism (ISC). Comparative Self-Criticism is defined as a negative view of the self in comparison with others. The focus at this level is on the unfavorable comparison of the self with others, who are seen as superior and as hostile or critical; consequently, there is discomfort with being evaluated or exposed to others. The other level of self-criticism, Internalized Self-Criticism is defined by a negative view of the self in comparison with internal, personal standards. According to Thompson and Zuroff (2004) these internal standards tend to be both high and constantly receding, resulting in a chronic failure to meet one’s own standards. The focus of internalized self-criticism is not on comparison with others, but on one’s own view of the self as deficient.
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
795
In the present study I attempt to replicate and extend the existing literature regarding self-criticism by examining the relationships between the two levels of self-criticism; comparative self-criticism and internalized self-criticism, submissive behavior and depression on two sub samples of adolescents from Turkey. The first is a sample of high school students. The second sample comprised university students. I also examined the associations between the two levels of self-criticism, submissive behavior and depression with developmental level as the moderator.
2. Method 2.1. Participants Adolescents were drawn from a suburban high school and a publicly financed state university in Turkey. Two hundred and thirty-five of them are sampled from a state high school. There were 140 males and 95 females, 119 ninth graders and 116 tenth grades in the high school sample. A 157 of them are sampled from a university. There were 75 males and 82 females; 39 first graders, 40 second graders, 44 third graders and 34 fourth graders in the university sample. 2.2. Procedure Groups of adolescents at each school completed the questionnaires during a class period. In order to standardize the procedures, the scales were administered to all participants in the following order: the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), The Levels of Self-Criticism Scale (LOSC; CSC and ISC) and the Submissive Acts Scale (SAS). Permission for the participation of the students was obtained from the school principal and the dean. 2.3. Instruments Depression was measured by using a Turkish version of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI et al., 1961), which consists of 21 items. Adolescents were asked to choose one sentence from a group of four that best described their feelings within the last two weeks (e.g., ‘‘I do not feel like a failure’’, ‘‘I have failed more than I should have’’, ‘‘As I look back I see a lot of failures’’, ‘‘I feel I am a total failure as a person.’’). The responses were summed across 20 items (one item on suicide was deleted) so that higher scores indicate a higher incidence of depressive symptoms. Turk_ ish adaptation of the BDI had been done by Hisli (1988). The Inventory has been widely used in various studies in Turkey and it was concluded that the Turkish version of the scale had sufficient reliability and criterion-related validity (Savasßır & S ß ahin, 1997). Alpha reliabilities for the high school sample and university sample are .89 and .86 respectively in the present study. Self criticism was measured by using the Levels of Self-Criticism Scale (LOSC, Thompson & Zuroff, 2004). The adolescents were asked to indicate their degree of agreement with each statement on a five-point scale ranging from this is a very bad description of me to this is a very good description of me. The LOSC scale has two subscales: The Comparative Self-Criticism (CSC) and Internalized Self-Criticism (ISC). There are 12 CSC items (e.g., ‘‘If you are open with other people about your weaknesses, they are likely to still respect you.’’ and, ‘‘I am confident that most of the
796
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
people I care about will accept me for who I am.’’) and 10 ISC items (e.g., ‘‘I often get very angry with myself when I fail.’’ and ‘‘I frequently compare myself with my goals and ideals.’’). The Turkish adaptation study of the scale was conducted by the researcher. The scale was translated from English into Turkish by the researcher, and the Turkish version was back translated into English by a researcher with a Ph.D. degree in English Language Teaching, whose native language is Turkish. Small dissimilarities between the original scale and the back translated version were resolved by the researcher and the back translator. A principal-axis factor analysis revealed two factors with eigen values (4.36 and 2.66), accounting for 32% of the total variance. Alpha reliabilities for the CSC and ISC subscales are .67 and .77 respectively in the present study. It was concluded that the Turkish version of the scale had sufficient reliability and construct validity. Submissive acts were measured by using the Turkish version of the Submissive Acts Scale (SAS, Gilbert & Allan, 1994). The adolescents were asked to indicate their degree of agreement with each statement on a 5-point scale ranging from this is a very bad description of me to this is a very good description of me. The scale consists of 16 items (e.g., ‘‘Even if I don’t like it, I do things just because other people are also doing them.’’ and, ‘‘I allow other people to critisize and let me down and do not defend myself.’’). The measure is a response scale based on a behavioral frequency. The scale focused on social behavior and is not intended to provide a measure of depression. Turkish adaptation of the SAS had been done by S ß ahin and S ß ahin (1992) and it was concluded that the Turkish version of the scale had sufficient reliability and criterion-related validity. Alpha reliabilities for the high school sample and university sample are .74 and .77 respectively in the present study.
3. Results Two separate multiple regression analyses were performed for the whole sample using the Comparative Self-Criticism Scale scores, the Internalized Self-Criticism Scale scores, the Submissive Acts Scale scores and developmental level (high school students vs university students) as independent variables and the Beck Depression Inventory scores as dependent variable. Developmental level (DL) is included in the model as dummy independent variable. The continuous independent variables were standardized before entry. In the second hierarchial regression analysis, in order to examine the moderator effect of developmental level, interaction terms (DL X SAS, DL X CSC and DL X ISC) were entered into the model at step two. The descriptive statistics and correlations for the variables included in the study are presented in Table 1. The zero order correlations among the variables are significant except for the correlation between comparative self-criticism and developmental level. The results of multiple regression analysis testing the main effects of the variables on depression are shown in Table 2. The results of the hierarchical regression analysis testing the interaction effects on depression are provided in Table 2. When standardized beta coefficients in Table 1 are considered, CSC and SAS scores are statistically significant predictors of depression, F(4, 387) = 19.08, p < .000. CSC solely explained 31% of the variance while SAS explained 15% of the variance. Although a similar trend was demonstrated for ISC, the standardized beta coefficient of ISC was not found to be statistically significant in predicting depression. The standardized beta coefficient of developmental level was not found to be statistically significant in
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
797
Table 1 Correlations and descriptive statistics for study variables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
BDI SAS CSC ISC DL
M
SD
1
2
3
4
12.35 36.42 29.35 31.96 –
8.70 8.66 5.40 7.21 –
.25** .36** .16** .10*
.25** .21** .12*
.14** .06
.14**
Note. N = 392. * p < .05. ** p < .01, one tailed.
Table 2 Multiple regression analysis predicting depression from CSC, ISC, SAS and DL (N = 392) Variable
B
SE B
b
Constant SAS CSC ISC DL
11.94 1.28 2.66 .71 1.02
.54 .43 .42 .42 .84
.15** .31* .08 .06
R = .41, R2 = .17. * p < .000. ** p < .01.
Table 3 Hierarchical regression analysis testing the moderating effect of developmental level (N = 392) Variable
B
SE B
Step 1 Constant SAS CSC ISC DL
11.94 1.28 2.66 .71 1.02
.53 .43 .42 .42 .84
.15** .31* .08 .06
Step 2 Constant SAS CSC ISC DL DL * SAS DL * CSC DL * ISC
11.97 .95 3.19 1.01 1.05 .97 1.60 .69
.526 .561 .521 .554 .836 .868 .882 .842
.11 .37* .12 .06 .07 .11 .05
R2 = .17, DR2 = .01. * p < .000. ** p < .01.
b
798
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
predicting depression, either. Table 3 shows that standardized beta coefficients of interaction terms were not found to be statistically significant in predicting overall variance in depression, DF(3, 384) = 1.50, p > .22. This suggests that developmental level does not act as a moderator in the associations between the two levels of self-criticism namely, comparative self-criticism and internalized self-criticism and submissive behavior.
4. Discussion In the current study, I attempted to examine the relationships of two dysfunctional forms of self-evaluation, namely, comparative self-criticism and internalized self-criticism, submissive behavior and depression on two sub samples of Turkish adolescents. The first sub sample is high school students. The second sub sample comprised university students. My second aim was to test whether developmental level is a significant moderator of the association between comparative self-criticism, internalized self-criticism, submissiveness and depression. The results of regression analyses indicate that the first level of self-criticism, comparative self-criticism is an independent predictor of depression in both high school students and university students, suggesting that adolescents are more vulnerable to external standards. Unfavorable comparisons of the self with other adolescents, parents or other grown-ups seem to be a risk factor for depression. The discomfort of being exposed to others and being critically evaluated by others seem to be fostering depression in adolescents. According to Thompson and Zuroff (2004), the focus at this level is on interpersonal hostility and distrust. When the adolescents see the others hostile and demanding, they cannot trust them. Relationships are extremely important to people of all ages. However, due to the changing nature of adolescents’ social world, close relationships become especially important during this period of life (Steinberg, 1999). Several researchers have argued that friendship groups make a unique contribution to development during adolescence by serving as an important reference point for evaluation of self (Brown & Lohr, 1987; Brown, Mory, & Kinney, 1994; Tarrant, MacKenzie, & Hewitt, in press). Therefore, the harsh or critical standards of significant others seem to be a predisposition factor in depression. Regarding the other level of self-criticism, internalized self-criticism, the results of regression analyses indicate that internalized self-criticism is not a predictor of depression in Turkish adolescents. High standards of Turkish adolescents in themselves do not, however, seem to be necessarily implying a negative view of the self, fostering depression. The possible explanation for these findings is that, intrapersonal standards for Turkish adolescents are not as important as interpersonal standards. Therefore, Turkish adolescents who are highly concerned with interpersonal relationships are more likely to become depressed in response to perceived interpersonal loss or rejection. My results pertaining to the significance of internalized self-criticism as predictor of depression differ from those found in the Thompson and Zuroff (2004) study. One possible reason for this difference might be the different measures of depression. A more well-grounded explanation to this inconsistency seems to be the cultural differences. Turkish adolescents, on whom my research was conducted, are prone to be influenced by Eastern values of interdependence while the sample of adolescents in the Thompson and Zuroff (2004) study are affected by Western values of independence. Thus, self-criticism entailing criticism of the self that is self-generated is a predictor of depression among adolescents from North American cultures but not among Turkish adolescents whose self-con-
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
799
cepts are constituted by Eastern values. In that sense, I suggest that internalized self-criticism of self-centered and self-contained North American adolescent acts as a vulnerability for depression but not for other-centered and community-oriented Eastern adolescent. However, further research is needed to determine the relationships between two dysfunctional forms of negative self-evaluation and depression. The results of regression analyses indicate that submissive behavior is an independent predictor of depression in high school and university students. The possible explanation of this finding is that involuntary subordination for a high school and university student is threatening because of developing emotional and behavioral autonomy. The results regarding the relation between submissiveness and depression in this study are consistent with the findings in Western research (Gilbert et al., 1995; O’Connor, Berry, Weiss, & Gilbert, 2002; Price, Gardner, & Erickson, 2004). 4.1. Limitations The findings from these non-clinical student samples may not be generalizable to clinically depressed groups of adolescents. Furthermore, data were only gathered cross-sectionally (at a single time). This means that the relationships between self-criticism, comparative self-criticism, internalized self-criticism, submissive behavior and depression may operate differently in a longitudinal design.
References Abela, R. Z., & Taylor, G. (2003). Specific vulnerability to depressive mood reactions in school children: the moderating role of self esteem. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 408–418. Allan, S., & Gilbert, P. (1997). Submissive behavior and psychopathology. British Journal of Psychopathology, 36, 467–488. Allan, S., & Gilbert, P. (1995). A social comparison scale: psychometric properties and relationship to psychopathology. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 293–299. Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archieves of General Psychiatry, 4, 561–571. Besser, A., Flett, G. L., & Davis, R. D. (2002). Self-criticism, dependency, silencing the self, and loneliness: a test of a mediational model. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 1735–1752. Blatt, S. J. (1974). Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 24, 107–157. Blatt, S. J., & Blass, R. B. (1992). Relatedness and self-definition: two primary dimensions in personality development, psychopathology, and psychotherapy. In J. Barron, M. Eagle, & D. Wolitsky (Eds.), The inference between psychoanalysis and psychology (pp. 399–428). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Blatt, S. J., D’afflitti, J. P., & Quinlan, D. M. (1976). Experiences of depression in normal young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 383–389. Blatt, S. J., Schaffer, S. A. C. E., Bers, S. A., & Quinlan, D. M. (1992). Psychometric properties of the depressive experiences questionnaire for adolescents. Journal of Personality Assesment, 59, 82–98. Brown, B. B., & Lohr, M. J. (1987). Peer group affiliation and adolescent self-esteem: an integration of ego-identity and symbolic-interaction theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 47–55. Brown, B. B., Mory, M. S., & Kinney, D. (1994). Casting adolescent crowds in a relational perspective: caricature, channel, and context. In R. Montemayor, G. R. Adams, & T. P. Gullota (Eds.), Personal relationships during adolescence (pp. 123–167). Beverley Hills, CA: Sage.
800
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
Cox, B. J. C., Rector, N. A., Bagby, M., Swinson, R. P., Levitt, A. J., & Joffe, R. T. (2000). Is self-criticism unique for depression? A comparison with social phobia. Journal of Affective Disorders, 57, 223–228. Gilbert, P. (2000). The relationships of shame, social anxiety and suppression: the role of the evaluation of social rank. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 7, 174–189. Gilbert, P., & Allan, S. (1994). Assertiveness, submissive behavior and social comparison. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33, 295–306. Gilbert, P., Allan, S., & Trent, D. R. (1995). Involuntary subordination of dependency as key dimensions of depressive vulnerability. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51, 740–752. Gudlesky, G. D., & Shean, G. D. (2000). Depressed and nondepressed students: differences in interpersonal perceptions. Journal of Psychology, 134, 56–62. Hisli, N. (1988). A study of the validity of the Beck depression inventory. Turkish Journal of Psychology, 6, 118–122. Luthar, S. S., & Blatt, S. J. (1993). Dependent and self critical depressive experiences among inner-city adolescents. Journal of Personality, 61, 365–386. O’Connor, L. E., Berry, J. W., Weiss, J., & Gilbert, P. (2002). Guilt, fear, submission, and empathy in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 71, 19–27. Patterson, J., & McCubbin, H. I. (1987). Adolescent coping style and behaviors. Conceptualization and measurement. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 793–824. Powers, T. A., Zuroff, D. C., & Topciu, R. A. (2004). Covert and overt expressions of self-criticism and perfectionism and their relation to depression. European Journal of Personality, 18, 61–72. Price, J. S., Gardner, R., & Erickson, M. (2004). Can depression, anxiety and somatization be understood as appeasement displays?. Journal of Affective Disorders 79, 1–11. Savasßır, I., & S ß ahin, N. H. (1997). The evaluation of cognitive-behavioral therapy: the scales used frequently. Ankara: Turkish Psychological Association Press. Steinberg, L. (1999). Adolescence (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill College. S ß ahin, N. H., & S ß ahin, N. (1992). Adolescent guilt, shame, and depression in relation to sociotropy and autonomy. The World Congress of Cognitive Therapy, Toronto, June 17–21. Tarrant, M., MacKenzie, L., & Hewitt, L. A. (in press). Friendship group identification, multidimensional self-concept, and experience of developmental tasks in adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, doi:10.1016/J.adolescence. 2005.08.012. Thompson, R., & Zuroff, D. C. (2004). The levels of self-criticism scale: comparative-self criticism and internalized selfcriticism. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 419–430.
The relationships between self-criticism, submissive behavior and depression among Turkish adolescents q ¨ ngen Demet Erol O
*
Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey Received 17 October 2005; received in revised form 17 March 2006; accepted 29 March 2006 Available online 22 May 2006
Abstract The purpose of this research was to study the relationships between two dysfunctional forms of negative self-evaluation: Comparative Self-Criticism and Internalized Self-Criticism, submissive behavior and depression. Subjects were 235 high school students and 157 university students who completed The Levels of Self-Criticism (LOSC), the Submissive Acts Scale (SAS) and the Beck Depression Inventory. Multiple regression analyses showed that Comparative Self-Criticism and submissive behavior are independent predictors of depression in both high school and university students whereas no such relationship was demonstrated for Internalized Self-Criticism. These findings provide support for sensitivity to external standards rather than internal ones in middle and late adolescence being relevant to depression. Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Adolescents; Depression; Comparative self-criticism; Internalized self-criticism; Submissive behavior
1. Introduction Adolescence is a transition from childhood to adulthood typically characterized by increased demands for coping with multiple social, biological, and psychological changes and the emergence of the cognitive precursors of adulthood (Patterson & McCubbin, 1987). Most individuals emerge q *
This research was supported by Akdeniz University Scientific research project unit. Tel.: +90 24 23 10 20 72; fax: +90 242 226 1953. E-mail address: [email protected]
0191-8869/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.03.013
794
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
from adolescence confident, with a healthy sense of who they are and where they are headed. However, in some instances, the changes and demands of adolescence may leave a teenager feeling helpless, confused, and pessimistic about the future. Such adolescents are likely to be depressed. In its mild form, depression is the most common psychological disturbance among adolescence. The heightened vulnerability to depression among adolescents likely reflects the difficulties in negotiating a complex developmental period that is marked by significant physical, psychological and social transitions. A variety of theories have been proposed to account for the depression and many dysfunctional tendencies have been linked to depression. One prominent theory that attempts to integrate a developmental model of personality and one’s vulnerability to depression is that proposed by Blatt (1974). Blatt suggests that personality development occurs along two parallel pathways that is concerned with an individual’s sense of interpersonal relatedness and belonging (anaclitic/dependent) and a second that is concerned with an individual’s sense of self definition and self worth (introjective/self critical). According to Blatt, depressive experiences classified as either dependent or self-critical originate based on early life experiences. Self-criticism which can be conceptionalized as harsh punitive evaluation of the self often accompanied by guilt, feelings of unworthiness and self-recrimination (Powers, Zuroff, & Topciu, 2004) is a dysfunctional personality factor that has been stressed by investigators from different theoretical viewpoints (Abela & Taylor, 2003; Besser, Flett, & Davis, 2002; Blatt, Schaffer, Bers, & Quinlan, 1992; Cox et al., 2000; Gudlesky & Shean, 2000; Luthar & Blatt, 1993; Thompson & Zuroff, 2004). Similarly, social rank theory (Gilbert, 2000) argues that emotions and moods are significantly influenced by the perception of one’s social status/rank; that is the degree to which one feels inferior to others and looked down on. A common outcome of such perceptions is submissive behavior. Perceiving oneself to be involuntarily subordinate to significant others might lead to increased needs for reassurance and closeness from them. Gilbert, Allan, and Trent (1995) argued that behaviors currently regarded as dependent, and linked to depression, are better understood as forms of involuntary subordination that involve judgments of personal inferiority, and submissive-appeasement behavior. There are studies that provide evidence that depressed people see themselves as inferior to others and tend to adopt submissive behaviors (Allan & Gilbert, 1997, 1995). So far most of the empirical studies which link self-criticism and depression mostly used Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (Blatt, D’afflitti, & Quinlan, 1976) which has consistently produced two distinct factors: dependency and self-criticism. However, in the present research the Levels of Self-Criticism Scale (LOSC) (Thompson & Zuroff, 2004) in which two developmental levels of self-criticism were identified and operationalized, based on Blatt and Blass’ (1992) theoretical description of introjection is used. Thompson and Zuroff (2004) designed LOSC to measure two dysfunctional forms of negative self evaluation: Comparative Self-Criticism (CSC) and Internalized Self-Criticism (ISC). Comparative Self-Criticism is defined as a negative view of the self in comparison with others. The focus at this level is on the unfavorable comparison of the self with others, who are seen as superior and as hostile or critical; consequently, there is discomfort with being evaluated or exposed to others. The other level of self-criticism, Internalized Self-Criticism is defined by a negative view of the self in comparison with internal, personal standards. According to Thompson and Zuroff (2004) these internal standards tend to be both high and constantly receding, resulting in a chronic failure to meet one’s own standards. The focus of internalized self-criticism is not on comparison with others, but on one’s own view of the self as deficient.
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
795
In the present study I attempt to replicate and extend the existing literature regarding self-criticism by examining the relationships between the two levels of self-criticism; comparative self-criticism and internalized self-criticism, submissive behavior and depression on two sub samples of adolescents from Turkey. The first is a sample of high school students. The second sample comprised university students. I also examined the associations between the two levels of self-criticism, submissive behavior and depression with developmental level as the moderator.
2. Method 2.1. Participants Adolescents were drawn from a suburban high school and a publicly financed state university in Turkey. Two hundred and thirty-five of them are sampled from a state high school. There were 140 males and 95 females, 119 ninth graders and 116 tenth grades in the high school sample. A 157 of them are sampled from a university. There were 75 males and 82 females; 39 first graders, 40 second graders, 44 third graders and 34 fourth graders in the university sample. 2.2. Procedure Groups of adolescents at each school completed the questionnaires during a class period. In order to standardize the procedures, the scales were administered to all participants in the following order: the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), The Levels of Self-Criticism Scale (LOSC; CSC and ISC) and the Submissive Acts Scale (SAS). Permission for the participation of the students was obtained from the school principal and the dean. 2.3. Instruments Depression was measured by using a Turkish version of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI et al., 1961), which consists of 21 items. Adolescents were asked to choose one sentence from a group of four that best described their feelings within the last two weeks (e.g., ‘‘I do not feel like a failure’’, ‘‘I have failed more than I should have’’, ‘‘As I look back I see a lot of failures’’, ‘‘I feel I am a total failure as a person.’’). The responses were summed across 20 items (one item on suicide was deleted) so that higher scores indicate a higher incidence of depressive symptoms. Turk_ ish adaptation of the BDI had been done by Hisli (1988). The Inventory has been widely used in various studies in Turkey and it was concluded that the Turkish version of the scale had sufficient reliability and criterion-related validity (Savasßır & S ß ahin, 1997). Alpha reliabilities for the high school sample and university sample are .89 and .86 respectively in the present study. Self criticism was measured by using the Levels of Self-Criticism Scale (LOSC, Thompson & Zuroff, 2004). The adolescents were asked to indicate their degree of agreement with each statement on a five-point scale ranging from this is a very bad description of me to this is a very good description of me. The LOSC scale has two subscales: The Comparative Self-Criticism (CSC) and Internalized Self-Criticism (ISC). There are 12 CSC items (e.g., ‘‘If you are open with other people about your weaknesses, they are likely to still respect you.’’ and, ‘‘I am confident that most of the
796
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
people I care about will accept me for who I am.’’) and 10 ISC items (e.g., ‘‘I often get very angry with myself when I fail.’’ and ‘‘I frequently compare myself with my goals and ideals.’’). The Turkish adaptation study of the scale was conducted by the researcher. The scale was translated from English into Turkish by the researcher, and the Turkish version was back translated into English by a researcher with a Ph.D. degree in English Language Teaching, whose native language is Turkish. Small dissimilarities between the original scale and the back translated version were resolved by the researcher and the back translator. A principal-axis factor analysis revealed two factors with eigen values (4.36 and 2.66), accounting for 32% of the total variance. Alpha reliabilities for the CSC and ISC subscales are .67 and .77 respectively in the present study. It was concluded that the Turkish version of the scale had sufficient reliability and construct validity. Submissive acts were measured by using the Turkish version of the Submissive Acts Scale (SAS, Gilbert & Allan, 1994). The adolescents were asked to indicate their degree of agreement with each statement on a 5-point scale ranging from this is a very bad description of me to this is a very good description of me. The scale consists of 16 items (e.g., ‘‘Even if I don’t like it, I do things just because other people are also doing them.’’ and, ‘‘I allow other people to critisize and let me down and do not defend myself.’’). The measure is a response scale based on a behavioral frequency. The scale focused on social behavior and is not intended to provide a measure of depression. Turkish adaptation of the SAS had been done by S ß ahin and S ß ahin (1992) and it was concluded that the Turkish version of the scale had sufficient reliability and criterion-related validity. Alpha reliabilities for the high school sample and university sample are .74 and .77 respectively in the present study.
3. Results Two separate multiple regression analyses were performed for the whole sample using the Comparative Self-Criticism Scale scores, the Internalized Self-Criticism Scale scores, the Submissive Acts Scale scores and developmental level (high school students vs university students) as independent variables and the Beck Depression Inventory scores as dependent variable. Developmental level (DL) is included in the model as dummy independent variable. The continuous independent variables were standardized before entry. In the second hierarchial regression analysis, in order to examine the moderator effect of developmental level, interaction terms (DL X SAS, DL X CSC and DL X ISC) were entered into the model at step two. The descriptive statistics and correlations for the variables included in the study are presented in Table 1. The zero order correlations among the variables are significant except for the correlation between comparative self-criticism and developmental level. The results of multiple regression analysis testing the main effects of the variables on depression are shown in Table 2. The results of the hierarchical regression analysis testing the interaction effects on depression are provided in Table 2. When standardized beta coefficients in Table 1 are considered, CSC and SAS scores are statistically significant predictors of depression, F(4, 387) = 19.08, p < .000. CSC solely explained 31% of the variance while SAS explained 15% of the variance. Although a similar trend was demonstrated for ISC, the standardized beta coefficient of ISC was not found to be statistically significant in predicting depression. The standardized beta coefficient of developmental level was not found to be statistically significant in
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
797
Table 1 Correlations and descriptive statistics for study variables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
BDI SAS CSC ISC DL
M
SD
1
2
3
4
12.35 36.42 29.35 31.96 –
8.70 8.66 5.40 7.21 –
.25** .36** .16** .10*
.25** .21** .12*
.14** .06
.14**
Note. N = 392. * p < .05. ** p < .01, one tailed.
Table 2 Multiple regression analysis predicting depression from CSC, ISC, SAS and DL (N = 392) Variable
B
SE B
b
Constant SAS CSC ISC DL
11.94 1.28 2.66 .71 1.02
.54 .43 .42 .42 .84
.15** .31* .08 .06
R = .41, R2 = .17. * p < .000. ** p < .01.
Table 3 Hierarchical regression analysis testing the moderating effect of developmental level (N = 392) Variable
B
SE B
Step 1 Constant SAS CSC ISC DL
11.94 1.28 2.66 .71 1.02
.53 .43 .42 .42 .84
.15** .31* .08 .06
Step 2 Constant SAS CSC ISC DL DL * SAS DL * CSC DL * ISC
11.97 .95 3.19 1.01 1.05 .97 1.60 .69
.526 .561 .521 .554 .836 .868 .882 .842
.11 .37* .12 .06 .07 .11 .05
R2 = .17, DR2 = .01. * p < .000. ** p < .01.
b
798
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
predicting depression, either. Table 3 shows that standardized beta coefficients of interaction terms were not found to be statistically significant in predicting overall variance in depression, DF(3, 384) = 1.50, p > .22. This suggests that developmental level does not act as a moderator in the associations between the two levels of self-criticism namely, comparative self-criticism and internalized self-criticism and submissive behavior.
4. Discussion In the current study, I attempted to examine the relationships of two dysfunctional forms of self-evaluation, namely, comparative self-criticism and internalized self-criticism, submissive behavior and depression on two sub samples of Turkish adolescents. The first sub sample is high school students. The second sub sample comprised university students. My second aim was to test whether developmental level is a significant moderator of the association between comparative self-criticism, internalized self-criticism, submissiveness and depression. The results of regression analyses indicate that the first level of self-criticism, comparative self-criticism is an independent predictor of depression in both high school students and university students, suggesting that adolescents are more vulnerable to external standards. Unfavorable comparisons of the self with other adolescents, parents or other grown-ups seem to be a risk factor for depression. The discomfort of being exposed to others and being critically evaluated by others seem to be fostering depression in adolescents. According to Thompson and Zuroff (2004), the focus at this level is on interpersonal hostility and distrust. When the adolescents see the others hostile and demanding, they cannot trust them. Relationships are extremely important to people of all ages. However, due to the changing nature of adolescents’ social world, close relationships become especially important during this period of life (Steinberg, 1999). Several researchers have argued that friendship groups make a unique contribution to development during adolescence by serving as an important reference point for evaluation of self (Brown & Lohr, 1987; Brown, Mory, & Kinney, 1994; Tarrant, MacKenzie, & Hewitt, in press). Therefore, the harsh or critical standards of significant others seem to be a predisposition factor in depression. Regarding the other level of self-criticism, internalized self-criticism, the results of regression analyses indicate that internalized self-criticism is not a predictor of depression in Turkish adolescents. High standards of Turkish adolescents in themselves do not, however, seem to be necessarily implying a negative view of the self, fostering depression. The possible explanation for these findings is that, intrapersonal standards for Turkish adolescents are not as important as interpersonal standards. Therefore, Turkish adolescents who are highly concerned with interpersonal relationships are more likely to become depressed in response to perceived interpersonal loss or rejection. My results pertaining to the significance of internalized self-criticism as predictor of depression differ from those found in the Thompson and Zuroff (2004) study. One possible reason for this difference might be the different measures of depression. A more well-grounded explanation to this inconsistency seems to be the cultural differences. Turkish adolescents, on whom my research was conducted, are prone to be influenced by Eastern values of interdependence while the sample of adolescents in the Thompson and Zuroff (2004) study are affected by Western values of independence. Thus, self-criticism entailing criticism of the self that is self-generated is a predictor of depression among adolescents from North American cultures but not among Turkish adolescents whose self-con-
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
799
cepts are constituted by Eastern values. In that sense, I suggest that internalized self-criticism of self-centered and self-contained North American adolescent acts as a vulnerability for depression but not for other-centered and community-oriented Eastern adolescent. However, further research is needed to determine the relationships between two dysfunctional forms of negative self-evaluation and depression. The results of regression analyses indicate that submissive behavior is an independent predictor of depression in high school and university students. The possible explanation of this finding is that involuntary subordination for a high school and university student is threatening because of developing emotional and behavioral autonomy. The results regarding the relation between submissiveness and depression in this study are consistent with the findings in Western research (Gilbert et al., 1995; O’Connor, Berry, Weiss, & Gilbert, 2002; Price, Gardner, & Erickson, 2004). 4.1. Limitations The findings from these non-clinical student samples may not be generalizable to clinically depressed groups of adolescents. Furthermore, data were only gathered cross-sectionally (at a single time). This means that the relationships between self-criticism, comparative self-criticism, internalized self-criticism, submissive behavior and depression may operate differently in a longitudinal design.
References Abela, R. Z., & Taylor, G. (2003). Specific vulnerability to depressive mood reactions in school children: the moderating role of self esteem. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 408–418. Allan, S., & Gilbert, P. (1997). Submissive behavior and psychopathology. British Journal of Psychopathology, 36, 467–488. Allan, S., & Gilbert, P. (1995). A social comparison scale: psychometric properties and relationship to psychopathology. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 293–299. Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archieves of General Psychiatry, 4, 561–571. Besser, A., Flett, G. L., & Davis, R. D. (2002). Self-criticism, dependency, silencing the self, and loneliness: a test of a mediational model. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 1735–1752. Blatt, S. J. (1974). Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 24, 107–157. Blatt, S. J., & Blass, R. B. (1992). Relatedness and self-definition: two primary dimensions in personality development, psychopathology, and psychotherapy. In J. Barron, M. Eagle, & D. Wolitsky (Eds.), The inference between psychoanalysis and psychology (pp. 399–428). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Blatt, S. J., D’afflitti, J. P., & Quinlan, D. M. (1976). Experiences of depression in normal young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 383–389. Blatt, S. J., Schaffer, S. A. C. E., Bers, S. A., & Quinlan, D. M. (1992). Psychometric properties of the depressive experiences questionnaire for adolescents. Journal of Personality Assesment, 59, 82–98. Brown, B. B., & Lohr, M. J. (1987). Peer group affiliation and adolescent self-esteem: an integration of ego-identity and symbolic-interaction theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 47–55. Brown, B. B., Mory, M. S., & Kinney, D. (1994). Casting adolescent crowds in a relational perspective: caricature, channel, and context. In R. Montemayor, G. R. Adams, & T. P. Gullota (Eds.), Personal relationships during adolescence (pp. 123–167). Beverley Hills, CA: Sage.
800
¨ ngen / Personality and Individual Differences 41 (2006) 793–800 D.E. O
Cox, B. J. C., Rector, N. A., Bagby, M., Swinson, R. P., Levitt, A. J., & Joffe, R. T. (2000). Is self-criticism unique for depression? A comparison with social phobia. Journal of Affective Disorders, 57, 223–228. Gilbert, P. (2000). The relationships of shame, social anxiety and suppression: the role of the evaluation of social rank. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 7, 174–189. Gilbert, P., & Allan, S. (1994). Assertiveness, submissive behavior and social comparison. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 33, 295–306. Gilbert, P., Allan, S., & Trent, D. R. (1995). Involuntary subordination of dependency as key dimensions of depressive vulnerability. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51, 740–752. Gudlesky, G. D., & Shean, G. D. (2000). Depressed and nondepressed students: differences in interpersonal perceptions. Journal of Psychology, 134, 56–62. Hisli, N. (1988). A study of the validity of the Beck depression inventory. Turkish Journal of Psychology, 6, 118–122. Luthar, S. S., & Blatt, S. J. (1993). Dependent and self critical depressive experiences among inner-city adolescents. Journal of Personality, 61, 365–386. O’Connor, L. E., Berry, J. W., Weiss, J., & Gilbert, P. (2002). Guilt, fear, submission, and empathy in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 71, 19–27. Patterson, J., & McCubbin, H. I. (1987). Adolescent coping style and behaviors. Conceptualization and measurement. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 793–824. Powers, T. A., Zuroff, D. C., & Topciu, R. A. (2004). Covert and overt expressions of self-criticism and perfectionism and their relation to depression. European Journal of Personality, 18, 61–72. Price, J. S., Gardner, R., & Erickson, M. (2004). Can depression, anxiety and somatization be understood as appeasement displays?. Journal of Affective Disorders 79, 1–11. Savasßır, I., & S ß ahin, N. H. (1997). The evaluation of cognitive-behavioral therapy: the scales used frequently. Ankara: Turkish Psychological Association Press. Steinberg, L. (1999). Adolescence (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill College. S ß ahin, N. H., & S ß ahin, N. (1992). Adolescent guilt, shame, and depression in relation to sociotropy and autonomy. The World Congress of Cognitive Therapy, Toronto, June 17–21. Tarrant, M., MacKenzie, L., & Hewitt, L. A. (in press). Friendship group identification, multidimensional self-concept, and experience of developmental tasks in adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, doi:10.1016/J.adolescence. 2005.08.012. Thompson, R., & Zuroff, D. C. (2004). The levels of self-criticism scale: comparative-self criticism and internalized selfcriticism. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 419–430.