The relevance of psychological factors in the ecotourist experience satisfaction through ecotourist site perceived value

Accepted Manuscript The relevance of pscyhological factors in the ecotourist experience satisfaction through ecotourist site perceived value Mario Castellanos-Verdugo, Manuela Vega-Vázquez, M. Ángeles Oviedo-García, Francisco Orgaz-Agüera PII:

S0959-6526(16)30038-5

DOI:

10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.02.126

Reference:

JCLP 6827

To appear in:

Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date: 2 July 2015 Revised Date:

22 February 2016

Accepted Date: 22 February 2016

Please cite this article as: Castellanos-Verdugo M, Vega-Vázquez M, Oviedo-García MÁ, Orgaz-Agüera F, The relevance of pscyhological factors in the ecotourist experience satisfaction through ecotourist site perceived value, Journal of Cleaner Production (2016), doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.02.126. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT WORD COUNT: 9179

The relevance of pscyhological factors in the ecotourist experience satisfaction through ecotourist site perceived

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value Mario Castellanos-Verdugoa, Manuela Vega-Vázqueza, M. Ángeles Oviedo-Garcíab*, Francisco Orgaz-Agüerac * Corresponding author

Business Management and Marketing Department, University of Seville. Tourism and

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a

Finance Faculty. Avda. San Francisco Javier s/n. 41018 Sevilla (Spain)

Business Management and Marketing Department, University of Seville. Business

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b

Management Faculty. Avda. Ramón y Cajal, 1. 41018 Sevilla (Spain) c

Universidad Tecnológica de Santiago (UTESA). Escuela de Graduados. Santiago de

los Caballeros (Dominican Republic)

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Email adresses: [email protected] (M. Castellanos-Verdugo), [email protected] (M. VegaVázquez), [email protected] (M. Ángeles Oviedo-García),

Abstract

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[email protected] (F. Orgaz-Agüera)

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Firmly linked to the natural environment, nature-based activities involve learning, recreation, and adventure in natural surroundings. Ecotourism, a powerful market force, is a low-impact nature tourism, which contributes directly and indirectly to the maintenance of species and habitats. It is based on environmentally responsible behavior, environmentally friendly destination management, and sustainable development of local human populations. The socio-psychological analysis of the tourist experience is crucial to the reassurance and the promotion of eco-friendly ways of tourism affecting the long-term success of both ecotourism products and destinations. Nevertheless, previous research has focused on the effects of tourist satisfaction on 1

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT favorable outcomes, such as the intention to recommend the destination or revisit intentions, while ecotourism knowledge and attitudes towards ecotourism have been disregarded. Various hypotheses are proposed and tested with structural equation models (Partial Least Squares), which allow the simultaneous study of various relations of dependence, on the basis of the data taken from 520 interviews with visitors to a

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protected area. The results show that knowledge of ecotourism, to a lesser extent, and that attitudes towards ecotourism, to a greater extent, explained the perceived value of the tourist site which, in turn, predicted almost half of the variance of tourist satisfaction in the context of an ecotourist site. Additionally, satisfaction can promote the return

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intentions and the willingness of ecotourists to recommend the site to both family and friends. So, a greater degree of ecotourism knowledge held by the visitor will favor a positive perception of the value of the ecotourist site as well as, to an even greater

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extent, positive attitudes towards ecotourism. These results support the importance of subjective psychological factors in shaping the tourist’s experience of protected areas. Cultivating ecotourism knowledge and attitudes towards ecotourism during ecotourist visits would increase the perceived value of protected areas and tourist satisfaction, a key element for the long-term success of ecotourism products and destinations.

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Keywords: environmental knowledge, attitudes towards ecotourism, perceived value,

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ecotourism, tourist satisfaction

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1. Introduction The 20th Century has witnessed relentless global growth of tourism. Within that sector, nature-based tourism encompasses travel for leisure undertaken largely or solely for the purposes of enjoying natural attractions and engaging in a variety of outdoor activities (Travel Industry Dictionary, 2013). Therefore, its main activities are firmly linked to the

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natural environment and its secondary activities involve learning, recreation, and adventure activities in natural surroundings (Tangeland and Aas, 2011).

Ecotourism, a powerful market force with between 5% and 10% of the global travel

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market place, has become one of the fastest-growing sectors in the tourism industry,

with an annual global growth rate of 5% (Lu and Stepchenkova, 2012). The growing popularity of ecotourism in protected areas together with its possible negative impacts

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mean that its definition as low-impact nature tourism, which can contribute directly and indirectly to the maintenance of species and habitats, now incorporates environmentally responsible behavior, environmentally friendly destination management, and the sustainable development of local human populations. So, the current conceptualization of ecotourism emphasizes natural conservation of a tourist site and builds on the

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environmental knowledge of tourists, as these tourists should keep to local regulations and behave in an environmentally responsible way that implies no harm to the natural environment (Chiu et al., 2014).

Ecotourism is therefore a form of tourism that focuses on experiencing natural areas at

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the same time as it highlights features such as learning and sustainability (ecological, socio-cultural and economic), distribution of benefits and ethics, responsibility, and

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awareness (Chiu et al., 2014; Donohue and Needham, 2006; Weaver and Lawton, 2007). With a view to defining the boundaries of ecotourism, some authors have focused on underlining the differences with other forms of tourism, such as culture, nature and adventure tourism. In brief, all definitions of ecotourism highlight its basic aim of promoting environmental conservation and ecological sustainability; preserving the natural attraction that draws in tourists (Reimer and Walter, 2013). However, ecotourism not only contributes to environmental conservation, but also to the local economy. Ecotourism is therefore considered a sustainable development path for

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT regions with plenty of touristic resources, because it channels financial benefits to the local population (Zhang and Lei, 2012). Previous research on ecotourism has focused on market segmentation, travel behavior patterns, ecotourism benefits, travel motivations, and ecotourism activities (Lu and Stepchenkova, 2012). Investigation of the travel experiences and the satisfaction of

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ecotourists is crucial for the long-term success of ecotourism products and destinations, as “ecotourists are likely to perceive ecotourism site visits in terms of their expressive experience rather than merely as a utilitarian transaction” (Chan and Baum, 2007b, p. 576).

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The tourist experience is at the same time an individual experience, marked by psychological factors, and a social experience, involving interaction between

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individuals (Chan and Baum, 2007b; Devesa et al., 2010; Kastenholz et al., 2012). Since the experience is defined as the individuals’ subjective mental state during a service encounter (Kim et al., 2012), individual cognition and feelings about the experience are of the greatest importance in determining its quality (Ross and Iso-Ahola, 1991) and the feelings and the attitudes of tourists towards their visit shape their experiences (Chan and Baum, 2007b). The interest in researching tourist experiences at the destination

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derives from the fact that those experiences are a powerful driver of future behavior, because they determine customer satisfaction (Kim, 2014). Despite the abundant literature on tourist satisfaction and its effects on favorable

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outcomes such as the intention to recommend the destination and revisit intentions (Chen and Tsai, 2007; Prayag et al., 2013; Yüksel and Yüksel, 2007), the sociopsychological analysis of the tourist experience, which implies centering attention on

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subjective elements such as knowledge and attitudes towards ecotourism, has been left out of the equation. Nature-based destination research has been neglected in the literature. Management and marketing approaches that consider tourist satisfaction and behavioral intentions, while modeling behavioral intentions, remain an important area of research in tourism studies (Prayag et al., 2013). So, it is of paramount importance to understand what contributes to the ecotourism experience of the tourist. Even though perceived value is a relatively recent concept in explaining consumer opinions and their subsequent responses (Moliner-Velázquez et al., 2011), knowledge of 4

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the drivers of the perceived value of a destination (Prebensen et al., 2012) is nevertheless poor. Hence, the aims of this study are twofold. The first aim is to introduce the concept of the perceived value of an ecotourist destination into the analysis of the satisfaction and the behavioral intention of ecotourists. The second is to examine socio-psychological

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aspects of the tourist experience, by checking the impact of knowledge and attitudes

towards ecotourism in the perceived value of an ecotourist destination. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the analysis of these relationships in an ecotourist context is

unique in the literature. By understanding the relationships between future behavioral

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intentions and satisfaction, destination managers will have more tools to design an

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attractive destination image and to make effective use of their resources.

2. Literature review and hypothesis development

The literature review, because of its scope, has been divided into two sub-sections: 2.1 Ecotourist site perceived value; and, 2.2. Visitor satisfaction. Separate analysis of these

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two key constructs gives a better understanding of the relations between the variables. 2.1 Ecotourist site perceived value

Value is the consumer’s overall assessment of the utility of a product based on perceptions of what is received and what is given (Zeithaml, 1988, p.14). Consumer

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value therefore involves a perceptive evaluation of an exchange between what is achieved (results and desired benefits) and what has been invested (money, time and

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effort) (Moliner Velázquez et al., 2011). Value, therefore, reflects the benefits and costs as perceived by customers in relation to tangible and intangible products together with the combination of quality, service and price (Chiu et al., 2014). Perceived value is paid increasing attention by researchers (Kim et al., 2015), particularly in marketing, as a key construct that facilitates the understanding of customer behavior (Woo et al., 2015). In the tourism literature, perceived value is commonly conceptualized as the personal evaluation of travel products such as service quality, price, emotions and social factors (Chiu et al., 2014): the visitor’s overall appraisal of the net worth of the trip, based on the visitor’s assessment of what is 5

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT received (benefits), and what is given (costs or sacrifice) (Chen and Tsai, 2007). Perceived value may also increase destination competitiveness (Pechlaner et al., 2002; Petrick, 2003). Most of the previous predictors of perceived value have been cognitive factors (Dumand and Mattila, 2005), while affective factors have invariably been disregarded in research

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(Prebensen et al., 2012), except for a few exceptions that show that emotional response. So, reputation, emotional value, hedonic factor, pleasure and motivation are possible antecedents of the perceived value of a destination (Lee et al., 2011; Prebensen et al.

2012, 2014). Nevertheless, more research is needed in this area to examine other factors

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that might influence perceived value (Dumand and Mattila, 2005). With this intention in mind, two possible antecedents of perceived value are proposed: knowledge of

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ecotourism and attitudes towards ecotourism.

As society has become aware of the need for environmental protection, efforts to foster pro-environmental behavior have multiplied through the promotion of knowledge and attitudes. Ecotourism highlights the natural conservation of a tourist site and therefore builds on the environmental consciousness of tourists (Chiu et al., 2014), so the analysis

ecotourist site.

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of knowledge and attitudes will shed light on the antecedents and perceived value of an

Environmental knowledge means knowledge and awareness of environmental problems and possible solutions to those problems (Zsóka et al., 2013). It can be defined as the

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ability to identify a number of symbols, concepts and behavioral patterns related to environmental protection (Laroche et al., 2001).

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Despite the abundant literature on environmental knowledge, the authors only know of two investigations in which knowledge of ecotourism is analyzed. Wurzinger and Johansson (2006) noted the limited knowledge of ecotourism (evaluated through an open question to a sample of Swedish tourists in Sweden on whether they knew the term and how they would describe it), regardless of the type of tourist considered (ecotourists, nature tourists, and city tourists). More recently, Moghimehfar, Halpenny and Ziaee (2014) found higher levels of knowledge on ecotourism; however it did not lead to the adoption of ideal ecotourism practices at the destination.

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Moreover, in an ecotourism context, the evaluation of tourist experiences depends on the feelings of the tourists towards the eco-site and the services available to them (Chan and Baum, 2007a). Feelings are a key part of the consumer experiences (Chiu et al., 2014), while attitudes are beliefs and feelings about an object that prompt consistent behavior toward it (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1974, 1975). Attitudes are positively or

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negatively related with special intensity and relevance to concrete situations and objects (Rokeach, 1968).

Attitudes, together with values and beliefs, are of crucial importance to understand

tourist preferences (Tyrväinen et al., 2014). Environmental attitude can be defined as a

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psychological tendency expressed by evaluating the natural environment with some

degree of favor or disfavor (Vicente-Molina et al., 2013). The interest of researching environmental attitudes derives from its potential influence on human behavior

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(Rodríguez-Barreiro, 2013). In fact, attitudes are a basic determinant of behavioral intentions and actual behavior, including tourism behavior (Han and Kim, 2010; Wurzinger and Johansson, 2006).

Attitudes towards the environment, considered a key determinant of responsible behavior at nature-based destinations, have awakened the interest of researchers in this

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area (Kim and Weiler, 2013). Nevertheless, an attitude-behavior gap has been identified in hospitality settings, indicating that attitudes alone cannot fully predict proenvironmental behavior (Miao and Wei, 2013; Ramkinsoon et al., 2012; Rodríguez-

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Barreiro et al., 2013).

Research into the relationship between environmental attitudes and pro-environmental behavior is extensive, as well as research on environmental knowledge and pro-

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environmental behavior. The first relationship is generally accepted. However, research into the second has led to inconclusive results (Vicente-Molina et al., 2013). Nevertheless, the analysis of attitudes towards ecotourism and their effect on the perceived value of an eco-site is non-existent. So, this study advances the following hypotheses on ecotourism knowledge and attitudes towards ecotourism: H1. Ecotourism knowledge has a positive influence on the perceived value of an ecosite

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT H2. Highly supportive attitudes towards ecotourism have a positive influence on the perceived value of an eco-site 2.2. Satisfaction of the visitor In general, the satisfaction of the client is key for the survival of any type of business,

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which has driven a profound investigation into satisfaction, in the areas of both marketing and tourism. Satisfaction is an overall post-purchase evaluation (Devesa et

al., 2010; Sun et al., 2013; Yoon et al., 2010). The satisfaction of the tourist increases the probability that they will return to visit and will recommend the destination to

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friends and family (Chi and Qu, 2008; Prayag and Ryan, 2012).

It is important to consider the analysis of tourist satisfaction for the management of tourism destinations, given that the greater the degree of satisfaction, the greater the

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probability that they will repeat the purchase of the product/service and that they will encourage others to do so, which is to say that they will recommend that destination to family and friends.

Previous research has shown that perceived value leads to favorable outcomes such as satisfaction and behavioral intentions (Chua et al., 2015; Correia Loureiro et al., 2014;

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Kim et al., 2015). Both repeat purchase and positive word-of-mouth recommendations are two indicators of customer loyalty and may be explained on the basis of tourist satisfaction (Prayag et al. 2013; Prebensen et al., 2014; Sun et al., 2013). Practically all of the previous investigations in this field have shown that tourist

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satisfaction is a predictor of loyalty, which is related to the success of a tourist destination. However, it is also related to the choice of destination, the consumption of

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products and services and the decision to return (Chi and Qu, 2008; Prayag and Ryan, 2012; Žabkar et al., 2010). However, research by Lee et al. (2011) has been unable to confirm in an unequivocal way the expected positive relation between satisfaction and loyalty. This unexpected result raises the question of whether it came about by chance or whether it is related to the destination under investigation (Korea) or the tourists under analysis (Chinese). The work of Brady et al. (2005), which supports the relationship between satisfactionbehavioral intentions in an international multi-industry setting, appears to indicate that 8

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the positive relation between tourist satisfaction and buying intention depends neither on the industry nor on its geographic localization. In any case, a new analysis of the relation between tourist satisfaction and purchase intention at an eco-destination will help to respond to these questions. So, all of the above supports the following hypotheses:

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H3. A higher perceived value of an eco-site has a positive influence on ecotourist satisfaction

H4. The satisfaction of the ecotourist has a positive effect on behavioral intentions.

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3. Methods

So as to be able to express the methodology used for testing the proposed model in a

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structured way, in the first place, the data collection process and the characteristics of the sample are explained and, in second place, the measures that have been prepared for the measurement of the five constructs of the model. 3.1 Data collection and the sample

Ecotourists on a visit to the Natural Park Saltos de la Damajagua (Puerto Plata,

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Dominican Republic) formed the population under study. The main reasons that justify the choice of this tourist resource are as follows: a) it is a protected area with the highest growth in visits over recent years in the Dominican Republic; b) it constitutes a

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fundamental element of the new tourist strategies aimed at diversification of the offer of the Dominican Republic; and, c) experts consider this enclave a paradigmatic case in the field of natural and tourist resources that is co-managed by the different destination

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stakeholders, due to the important benefits that it generates for the local communities. With a view to achieving valid results that may be extrapolated to the whole population, an optimum sample size was chosen for a simple random design with a finite population, which numbered 471 ecotourists (table 1). Table 1, insert about here The data collection method consisted of a survey based on a structured questionnaire. The interviews were carried out by interviewers trained for that purpose. The field

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT work, developed over the last three weeks of February 2014, finally obtained a total of 520 valid questionnaires. The sample was distributed to men and women in equal proportions (50%). A balanced gender distribution was forced to avoid gender bias in the sample, due to the relation noted in previous studies (Lee, 2009; Lee and Moscardo, 2005; Uysal et al., 1994),

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between gender and attitudes towards ecotourism.

A total of 61.7% were single and 65.4% were foreigners, prominent among whom were visitors from the USA, who represented 34.2% of the sample. With regard to age,

67.5% of the visitors were between 18 and 34 years old, so they were relatively young.

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A total of 39.8% were employed workers and 61.6% practiced ecotourism at least twice a year (table 2).

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Table 2, insert about here 3.2 Measures

So as to guarantee the validity of the questionnaire, the initial expression of the items was adapted from previous investigations (table 3). Although the chosen scales all taken from tourism-related investigations (adventure tourism, visitor satisfaction at destination

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level and ecotourism), it was necessary to adjust their wording to the context of the natural environment in which the present investigation was conducted. Subsequently, a filtering process was followed, in which a researcher specializing in tourism analyzed the items proposed for each construct, which were then revised by general administrator

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of the Saltos de la Damajagua natural park. The questionnaire was designed in Spanish and in English, using 5-point Likert-type scales. Because the original scales were in

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English, a three-step translation process was performed, to seek meaningful equivalences as regards meaning, nuances and connotations: first, a bilingual individual translated the original version into Spanish; second, another bilingual translator then made an inverse translation back into English; and third, a comparison of the two versions in English weeded out the discrepancies (McGorry, 2000). Procedural remedies were implemented, to minimize the potential impact of common method bias, particularly, self-reporting bias. Firstly, because it is “the most effective way to control common measurement biases” (Podsakoff et al., 2003, p. 900) when 10

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT formative constructs are involved in the research and, secondly, the predictor and criterion variable could not be measured in different contexts (Podsakoff et al., 2012; 2003). As Podsakoff et al. (2012) highlighted, two aims are important when designing the research: a) to maximize respondent motivation and ability; and, b) to minimize task

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difficulty to encourage accurate responses. With these two objectives guiding the

research design, the concrete procedural remedies applied to the questionnaire were:

clear and concise language, avoidance of complex syntax, neither vague nor unfamiliar concepts, nor double-barreled items. Additionally, and to reduce the tendency to

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respond in a socially desirable way: a) anonymity was guaranteed; b) respondents were clearly told that there were no right or wrong answers; and, c) as far as possible, the questionnaire was kept as short as possible (considering that multiple measures were

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needed for constructs) varying the wording of each item to avoid synonyms. A first model of the questionnaire was subjected to a pre-test, to test its suitability as an instrument of measurement. Aspects such as the correct selection of the variables, the clarity of the wording of the questions, the fluency of their presentation, the order and clarity of the instructions were all analyzed.

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The final questionnaire was obtained following a pilot study with 35 ecotourists in the protected area which is the object of this research.

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4. Data analysis and results

Having collected the information, it was then processed with the following two software packages: IBM SPSS 22, and Smart-PLS, version SmartPls 2.0.M3. PLS is able to

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process structural equation modeling, one of the most important recent developments of multivariate analysis, widely used in the social sciences (Richter et al., 2015). 4.1 Evaluation of the reliability and the validity of the measurement model The measurement model attempts to analyze whether the theoretical concepts are correctly measured through the observed variables. This analysis examines the attributes of the individual reliability of the item, the reliability of the constructs, the convergent validity, and the discriminant validity of the indicators as measures of the latent variables. 11

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT In accordance with the results, all the indicators of the constructs for the perceived value of the ecotourist site, ecotourist satisfaction and behavioral intentions had loads over the accepted threshold of 0.707 (Barroso et al., 2010). As a consequence of the filtering process, the variable ecotourism knowledge was finally formed of three indicators, as one of them was eliminated. As may be seen in table 3, it was decided to maintain one

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item of the scale, the load of which was slightly below 0.707. This circumstance can occur in causal models that employ items in different theoretical and investigative contexts (Claver-Cortés et al., 2011). In addition, the exploratory nature of the

investigation justifies this approach and the literature supports it, in so far as various

development of the scales (Chin, 1998a).

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researchers have suggested that this rule should not be so rigid in the initial stages of the

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Table 3, insert about here

Attitude towards ecotourism is formative construct, so the weights should be analyzed rather than the factorial loads (Chin, 1998b). The weight relates to the composition and relative importance that each indicator has in the creation or formation of the latent variable. In this case, all the items of the scale were maintained (Bollen and Lennox, 1991), so that no information would be lost, although the possible existence of

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multicollinearity had to be analyzed (Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer, 2001; Mathieson et al., 2001). A VIF value of 5 and higher indicates a potential collinearity problem (Hair et al., 2011). However, in this research the most restrictive criteria of VIF<3.3 was applied (Diamantopoulos and Siguaw, 2006). All values are far from 3.3 threshold, so

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we can be sure that multicollinearity is not a limitation in this research (Roberts and Thatcher, 2009).

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Following the indicators of Fornell and Larcker (1981) and Barclay, Higgins and Thompson (1995), the reliability of the construct can be evaluated through the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and the composite reliability of the construct (Barroso et al., 2010). Although a scale is normally considered acceptable if its Cronbach Alpha is above 0.7 (Nunnally and Berstein, 1994), previous research has suggested that values of over 0.6 are acceptable (Black and Porter, 1996; Petrick and Backman, 2002) in the case of scales with six or fewer items. In the present work, the scale for knowledge of ecotourism had a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.68, while the rest of the reflective constructs were over the threshold of 0.7. In all cases, the composite reliability was over 0.80. 12

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT The convergent validity analysis was approached through Average Variance Extracted (AVE) (Fornell and Larcker, 1981), which provided the amount of variance that a construct obtains from its indicators, in relation to the quantity of variance due to measurement error (Chin, 1998a). Fornell and Larcker (1981) recommended that the average variance extracted be over 0.5 and affirmed that over 50% of the variance of the

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construct is due to its indicators. In line with this suggestion, the AVE values of the constructs of the model with reflective indicators were over 0.5. In conclusion, the

reliability of the measurement instrument and its convergent validity were considered acceptable.

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Finally, it is necessary to demonstrate that the correlations between the constructs are lower than the square root of the average variance extracted, before establishing the discriminant validity (Barclay et al., 1995). This condition is satisfied by all the

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constructs with reflective indicators (table 4).

Table 4, insert about here 4.2 Structural model

The structural model evaluates the weight and the magnitudes of the relations between

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the different variables of the model. The stability of the estimates was examined by using the t-statistic obtained from a bootstrap test with 5000 resamples. Bootstrapping provides a t-value to test the statistical significance of the relationships in the research model generating a percentile 95% confidence interval.

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In PLS path modeling, the bootstrapping sample is the mean that is used to estimate measurement model accuracy (Roldán and Sánchez-Franco, 2012). The bootstrap

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provides confidence intervals or parameter estimates and builds the bases for statistical inference, by providing an estimate of the shape, spread and bias of the sample distribution of a statistic. The procedure is as follows (Henseler et al., 2009): 1) the observed sample is treated as if it represented the population; 2) a large, pre-specified number of bootstrap samples are created (each bootstrap sample has the same number of cases as the original sample); 3) Bootstrap resampling constructs a number of resamples with replacement from the original sample and PLS estimates the path model for each of them; 4) the path model coefficients form a bootstrap distribution considered an approximation of the sampling distribution; 5) the mean value and the standard error for 13

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT each path model coefficient is provided by the PLS results for all bootstrap samples; and, 6) a student t-test is performed with this information on the significance of the path model relationships. Table 5 sets out the proposed hypotheses, the path coefficients and the t values observed with the level of significance of the bootstrap test. The results support hypothesis H1 (β

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= 0.199, ρ = 0.001), which upholds a positive relation between ecotourism knowledge and the perceived value of the ecotourist site. Likewise, with H2, the value of the tourist site perceived by the tourist is also influenced and, to a greater extent, by the attitude of the tourist towards ecotourism (β = 0.396, ρ = 0.001). The perceived value of the tourist

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site, in turn, influenced the satisfaction of the visitor (β = 0.691, ρ = 0.001), which therefore lends support to H3. The analysis also supports hypothesis H4, which

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established a relation between the satisfaction and the future behavioral intention of the visitor (β = 0.759, ρ = 0.001).

Table 5, insert about here

The amount of explained variance that each antecedent variable explains with regard to its endogenous construct is reflected in table 6. The influence of ecotourism knowledge

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on the perceived value of the ecotourist site explained 8.159% of the variance. 19.80% of the variance of the perceived value was explained by the attitude towards ecotourism. The model explained 47.679 % of the variance of visitor satisfaction. This explanatory power is due to the value of the tourist site perceived by the visitor. Likewise, the

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influence of tourist satisfaction on future behavioral intention stands out, which managed to explain 57.684% of its variance.

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In relation to the predictive relevance of the dependent constructs of the model, for the three variables under study, a positive Q2 value was obtained, suggesting that the model possessed sufficient predictive relevance in relation to the endogenous variables (Figure 1).

Table 6, insert about here The discussion of the results and both the theoretical and practical implications for the management of the relations observed between the constructs is presented in the following section. 14

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Figure 1, insert about here

5. Discussion The results have confirmed that both knowledge of ecotourism and attitudes towards ecotourism positively influenced the perceived value of the Natural Monument Saltos

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de la Damajagua which, in turn, predicted the degree of satisfaction of the ecotourist with the experience. In addition, the degree of satisfaction to a great extent explained

the behavioral intentions of the ecotourist, with regard to both the intention to return and recommendations to family and friends.

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Knowledge of ecotourism, to a lesser extent, and attitudes towards ecotourism, to a

greater extent, explained the perceived value of the tourist site which, in turn, predicted

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almost half of the variance of tourist satisfaction in the context of an ecotourist site. The explanatory power of both ecotourist satisfaction and behavioral intentions is high. However, the relatively low explanatory capacity of attitudes towards ecotourism and ecotourism knowledge, which together explain almost 28% of the variance of the ecotourist site perceived value construct, points to the existence of other variables, not considered in this model, which could contribute to explaining ecotourist site perceived

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value.

Considering the high number of variables that constitute the perceived value of a destination, the explanation of almost 28% of the variance of the 'ecotourist-site-

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perceived-value' construct by means of only two variables (ecotourism knowledge and attitudes towards ecotourism) conveys an idea of their importance. Nevertheless, future studies should approach the analysis of the variables that explain ecotourist site

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perceived value by incorporating other variables such as service quality, emotional experience, monetary and non-monetary costs, tourist motivation and involvement (Bajs, 2015; Prebensen et al., 2012; Polo Peña et al., 2012), among others. The joint consideration of all these variables might not only achieve a higher degree of explanation of the variance of 'ecotourist site perceived value', but might also determine the relative importance of their explanatory capacity with regard to ecotourist site perceived value.

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT In all cases, although the explanatory capacity of attitudes towards ecotourism and ecotourism knowledge is relatively low, this research has uncovered the role of two psychological factors connected with the tourist experience in ecotourist satisfaction. This is the first time, to the best of the authors' knowledge, that those two factors have been analyzed in connection with a protected area.

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It should be pointed out that the PLS methodology attempts to specify predictability

through the values of explained variance (R2) and redundancy (Q2) in the model that is tested, as well as the decomposition of the explained variance, which contributes useful information from which practical and theoretical conclusions may be drawn. The model

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tested in this study achieved high values for explained variance (R2 far above 0.33)

except for ecotourist site perceived value which can be considered moderate (Chin, 1998b). Besides, the cross-validated redundancy measures (Q2) show that the structural

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model has satisfactory predictive relevance for all the constructs (all Q2>0). So, the results show that perceived value and satisfaction can promote positive responses from ecotourists, such as positive recommendations and the intention to repeat the visit to the ecotourist destination, which operationalize attitudinal destination loyalty (Sun et al., 2013) and can serve as a surrogate for behavioral loyalty measures (Izogo, 2015). These

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results confirm previous investigations and support our understanding of the relation between satisfaction and loyalty that is not dependent on either the type of tourist nor on the destination under analysis. Consequently, the results of Lee et al. (2011), in which that relationship was not confirmed, might appear to have arisen by chance.

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A greater degree of ecotourism knowledge held by the visitor will favor a positive perception of the value of the ecotourism site and, to an even greater extent, positive

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attitudes towards ecotourism. These subjective elements shed light on the importance of psychological factors linked to the experience of the tourist. The investigation by Chiu et al. (2014) shows that the relation between perceived value and environmentally responsible behavior is partially mediated by satisfaction. However, the research developed at the Saltos de la Damajagua (Dominican Republic) centers on behavioral intentions as a desirable output, and leaves environmentally responsible behavior to one side.

16

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Despite all this, it should be considered that the positive economic impacts of tourism activity cannot be disconnected, in both the medium and the long-term, from the need to guarantee that tourist behavior provokes a minimal impact in the natural area. In this way, the behavioral intentions (e.g. revisit intention) that materialize as real behaviors, will contribute to economic growth at all levels (local, regional and national), without it

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being at the cost of causing irreversible damage to the ecotourist site that has permitted such growth.

Given that the previous investigation into ecotourism was unable to establish the

relation between environmental attitudes and support for sustainable tourism in an

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unequivocal way (Xu and Fox, 2014), future investigations should analyze that relation by considering that environmental knowledge might even moderate or mediate the relation between attitudes and pro-environmental behavior (Fraj-Andrés and Martínez-

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Salinas, 2007). Previous studies have shown that attitudes, within the concept of environmental awareness, are a factor that is related to responsible environmental behavior, although external factors also have to be considered (such as the infrastructure, the economic situation, and social and cultural factors) and the context (Rodríguez-Barreiro et al. 2013; Ramkissoon et al. (2012).

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In addition, future investigations should centre on determining the extent to which knowledge and attitudes towards ecotourism held by the residents influence the development of interaction with tourists, given that one of the peculiarities of ecotourists is their desire to know and to live the local culture, and to relate and to learn

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from the local population.

The results of this investigation have their limitations, which mean that they should be

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interpreted within their own context rather than extrapolated to another. Firstly, the statistical technique we used is not intended to demonstrate causality but is based on the concept of predictability (Roldán and Sánchez-Franco, 2012). In fact, the search for a description of causal mechanisms in a closed system is too ambitious in the case of the social and the behavioral sciences. A restrictive set of theoretical measurement and distributional requirements have to be met (Roldán and SánchezFranco, 2012) where distributions are often unknown or far from normal, and where there are nascent theories and scarce knowledge. Association, temporal precedence, and 17

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT isolation should be guaranteed, to assure causality. However, those conditions are not possible in the social sciences. For this reason, Wold (1980) developed a so-called soft methodology to reflect the theoretical and the empirical conditions of social sciences. Besides, statistical analysis alone, without having established isolation and temporal precedence, cannot tentatively

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prove causation. Therefore, “the concept of causation was abandoned and replaced by the concept of predictability” (Roldán and Sánchez-Franco, 2012, p. 196).

Secondly, it is a study that establishes direct relations given that non-recursive relations may not be tested through PLS methodology (Barroso et al., 2010), because “the basic

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PLS design assumes a recursive inner model that is subject to predictor specification” (Henseler et al., 2009, p. 285).

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Thirdly, the tested model leaves to one side the evaluation of the possible mediating or moderating role that other variables can play. Thus, gender can moderate the proposed relations as previous investigations have found that women hold different environmental attitudes, and even, pro-environmental behavior (Vicente-Molina et al., 2013). Moreover, knowledge of ecotourism could mediate the relation between attitudes

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towards ecotourism and the perceived value of the ecotourist site or, the attitudes could be the mediating variable between knowledge of ecotourism and perceived value. It should be taken into account that the results of previous investigations on the relation between environmental attitude and pro-environmental behavior are contradictory

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field.

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(Vicente-Molina et al., 2013), which points to the need for further investigations in this

6. Conclusion

The theoretical and the practical importance of this research is derived from: a) the fact that visitor satisfaction with ecotourism experiences determines the long-term success of this type of product in an essential way (Chan and Baum, 2007b); and, b) the need to gain a deeper comprehension of the factors that can influence perceived value (Dummand and Mattila, 2005). This research contributes evidence on the relation between the perceived value of an ecotourist destination and satisfaction (considering 18

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT knowledge of ecotourism and attitudes towards ecotourism as antecedents of perceived value) and behavioral intentions as a consequence of satisfaction. An understanding of which dimensions constitute the tourist experience is important both for quality management and for resource sustainability (Chan and Baum, 2007b). This investigation has identified that both knowledge of ecotourism and attitudes

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towards ecotourism are antecedents of perceived value of the tourist site, which in turn predicts ecotourist satisfaction. Nurturing knowledge of ecotourism and attitudes

towards ecotourism during ecotourist visits would increase protected area perceived

value and satisfaction; a key element for the long-term success of ecotourism products

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and destinations.

A response to increasingly generalized social concern for the protection of the

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environment should be found through the promotion of knowledge and the development of attitudes during the stay at the eco-destination. Therefore, future research should verify the relationship between knowledge of and attitudes towards ecotourism and environmentally responsible behavior through ecotourist site perceived value and

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Target population

56,000 ecotourists Natural Park “Saltos de la Damajagua” February 2014 Survey 471 546 520 4.28 95%

Geographical area

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Timeline Sampling method Optimal size of sample Questionnaires collected Valid questionnaires Sampling error Confidence Level

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Table 1. Data Sheet

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Table 2. Sociodemographic profile and sample control factors Variable

Valid percentage (%) 50.0% 50.0% Civil Status

Married Single

38.3% 61.7% Nationality 34.6% 34.2% 9.0% 3.8% 3.3% 3.1% 12.0%

Age

31.2% 36.3% 21.7% 7.9% 1.9% 1.0%

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18-25 26-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65 or over

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Dominican Republic United States Canada France Germany Russia Others

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Men Women

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Gender

Activity

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30.6% 20.2% 39.8% 1.7% 3.5% 4.2% Num. of ecotourism trips a year Once 38.5% Twice 30.2% Three times 10.4% More than three times 21.0%

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Student Self-employed Employed Unemployed Retired House wife

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SC

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Scales/Items Average SD Loading Weight VIF Ecotourism knowledge (Reflective construct) Adapted from Zhang and Lei (2012). Cronbach’s α = 0.68; CR= 0.80; AVE = 0.57 Ecotourism is an environmentally responsible form of tourism 4.688 0.595 0.673 Ecotourism involves traveling, visiting natural areas and encourages 4.723 0.538 0.831 active involvement, and brings socioeconomic benefits to the local population Ecotourism is a form of sustainable tourism, which in turn is 4.563 0.691 0.754 inserted into the overall framework of sustainable development Attitudes towards ecotourism- (Formative construct) Adapted from Zhang and Lei (2012) Ecotourism should be based on enjoying and appreciating nature and 4.719 0.600 0.183 1.59 cultural features (natural or cultural features) Tourism in protected areas should avoid interfering with the habitat 4.490 0.889 -0.184 1.45 of local flora and wildlife (avoiding interference) The role of conservation of protected areas beyond their economic 4.323 0.963 0.223 1.66 function Ecotourism development should focus on environmental education 4.596 0.699 -0.102 1.71 Ecotourism promotes public environmental awareness 4.625 0.633 0.401 1.84 Ecotourism promotes public participation in conservation actions 4.506 0.780 -0.226 2.03 Tourism in protected areas should be carried out in small groups 4.396 0.988 0.200 1.53 The low-impact transportation, such as bicycling and walking, is 4.471 0.888 0.187 1.46 suitable for tourism in protected areas Use of recreational facilities such as disused buildings is a priority to 4.371 0.949 0.026 1.65 avoid overbuilding Visiting protected areas should take prior appointment and should be 4.210 1.105 0.323 1.94 subject to a payment for tourists Tourism in protected areas should restrict visits during important 4.492 0.851 -0.053 1.80 periods such as breeding seasons Part of the income from tourism in protected areas should fund the 4.644 0.685 0.135 1.92 promotion of environmental conservation Ecological monitoring should be carried out continuously to develop 4.585 0.697 0.232 2.02 appropriate management measures Tourism in protected areas should have a pay-per-visitor policy 4.244 1.007 0.102 1.77 Perceived value of ecotourist site (Reflective construct) Adapted from Yoon et al. (2010) and Chiu et al. (2014). Cronbach’s α = 0.77; CR= 0.87; AVE = 0.68 The visit was great (money, time, effort) 4.800 0.455 0.825 The visit offers more value than expected 4.662 0.675 0.871 Visiting this protected area offers more value than other protected 4.450 0.845 0.782 areas Ecotourist satisfaction (Reflective construct) Adapted from Yoon et al. (2010) and Žabkar et al. (2010). Cronbach’s α = 0.93; CR = 0.94; AVE = 0.69 I am glad I decided to visit this protected area 4.815 0.465 0.824 I am delighted to have visited this protected area 4.802 0.486 0.825 This visit has exceeded my expectations 4.731 0.576 0.831 I feel happy having decided to visit this protected area 4.792 0.464 0.850 Overall, I am satisfied with this visit 4.771 0.523 0.869 Overall, I am happy with this visit 4.781 0.475 0.837 I think I did the right thing in choosing to visit this protected area 4.779 0.519 0.794 Behavioral intentions (Reflective construct) Adapted from Martín-Ruíz et al. (2010), Žabkar et al., (2010) and Williams and Soutar (2009). Cronbach’s α =0.89; CR= 0.92; AVE = 0.69 I am likely to recommend this protected area to family and friends 4.785 0.464 0.834 I would repeat the visit to this protected area on another occasion 4.733 0.579 0.796 If I have to choose again, I would choose this newly protected area 4.729 0.584 0.834 I will recommend this practice of ecotourism to family and friends 4.802 0.445 0.853 I speak highly of this protected area to family and friends 4.800 0.455 0.840 CR= Composite reliability. SD = Standard deviation; AVE = Average variance extracted

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 4. Discriminant validity Attitude towards ecotourism

Behavioral intentions

Ecotourist satisfaction

n.a. 0.53

0.76

0.38

0.37

0.83

0.50

0.41

0.60

0.45

0.45

0.76

0.83 0.69

0.83

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

Note: n.a., not applicable. Square-root of AVE in the diagonal

RI PT

Attitude towards ecotourism Ecotourism knowledge Behavioral intentions Ecotourist site perceived value Ecotourist satisfaction

Ecotourism knowledge

Perceived value of ecotourist site

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 5. Hypotheses statistics Hypotheses H1: Ecotourism knowledge
Ecotourist site perceived value H2: Attitudes towards ecotourism
Ecotourist site perceived value H3: Ecotourist site perceived value
Ecotourist satisfaction H4: Ecotourist satisfaction
Behavioral intentions

Path coefficients 0.199*** 0.396*** 0.691*** 0.759***

t values 3.549 7.933 13.669 16.246

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

Note: ***p< 0.001 (based on a t-student (4999) distribution with one tail); t (0.001, 4999) = 3.09

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 6. Effect on endogenous variables 0.28

0.17

0.48

0.33

0.58

0.40

Direct effect

Correlation

Explained Variance

0.199 0.396

0.41 0.50

8.159 % 19.80 %

0.691

0.69

47.679 %

0.759

0.76

57.684 %

RI PT

Q2

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

Ecotourist site perceived value H1: Ecotourism knowledge H2: Attitudes towards ecotourism Ecotourist satisfaction H3: Ecotourist site perceived value Behavioral intentions H4: Ecotourist satisfaction

R2

34

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

AC C

EP

TE D

M AN U

SC

RI PT

Figure 1. Proposed model

35