The role of CAL in decision-making in the humanities

Comput. Educ. Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 31-34, 1984 Printed in Great Britain

0360-1315,8453.00+0.00 Pergamon Press Ltd

T H E R O L E OF CAL IN D E C I S I O N - M A K I N G IN T H E H U M A N I T I E S DERYN M . WATSON Assistant Project Director (Humanities), Chelsea College, Educational Computing Section, 552 Kings Road, London SW10 0UA, England

INTRODUCTION The Computers in the Curriculum (CIC) Project, funded by the Schools Council and Microelectronics Education Program (MEP), has, since 1973, consistently developed Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) materials in a whole range of disciplines that embrace both the sciences and humanities[l]. The cornerstone of its philosophy has always been that CAL should be seen as an integrated part of the curriculum, thus as a resource in relation to teaching and learning[2]. Accordingly the model for development has been teacher-centred, in order to ensure that the material reflected the needs and practice of teachers in the classroom[3]; a trials schedule tested this aim before the CAL unit, consisting of both the software and related educational materials was published. One of the more significant shifts of emphasis over the last few years has been the relationship between the CAL writing groups and the innovative curriculum discipline[4]. Indeed the Project now deliberately develops material that does not merely enhance the current curriculum, but also relates to the innovative movements within it. To this end, there are close links with Projects such as the Schools Council History 13-16 Project, the Schools Council Geography 16-19 Project, the Economics Association 14-16 Project and the Association for Science Education Secondary Review. Nevertheless this all takes place still within a relatively tight discipline structure. The purpose of this paper is to examine the role of the discipline content base within a wider framework of pedagogic aims.

H U M A N I T I E S AS AN I N T E R D I S C I P L I N A R Y BASE Such a discipline structure is inevitable; it is that upon which the main school curriculum is still based[5] and thus the framework from which the teachers in various CAL writing groups are drawn. It provides further credibility for the resultant software because its content base is seen to be appropriate. Since its beginning in 1973, however, the CIC Project has included history, geography and economics disciplines, which for the purpose of this paper shall be labelled "humanities". From time to time, units have emerged from those discipline bases that cut across the boundaries of one single discipline. Thus MILL[6] a Windmill Siting Industrial location game, is a true interdisciplinary unit in content in that it embraces both history and geography. M A L T H [7], which looks at the club of Rome model of demography covers history, geography and economics. And yet most of the software is designed around the content of one specific discipline. The potential for further interdisciplinary work under the umbrella of the "humanities" remains and it is to be hoped that such a framework can act as a basis for planning further material, by drawing upon the skills of teachers with a variety of backgrounds to tackle such common topics as Third World Development. The focus of this paper is to examine other strands of unity, apart from content, in the humanities material.

PROBLEM SOLVING If the potential for interdisciplinary work, despite a relatively fertile base, is not yet fully realised in the humanities, then the same cannot be said for the educational methodology which acts as 31

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its base. The concern and thus initial starting point in terms of design of materials has been the same for all units of materials in both the sciences and humanities; that is "how can a CAL Unit provide an effective additional resource for the teacher when tackling a particular problem?" One often quoted methodology is that it pertains to problem--solving, and so simulations have been designed which encourage students to ask the question "What would happen i f . . . ?"[1]. An emphasis on the interactive nature of a well-designed CAL unit has enabled this inquiry-based methodology to be used as the basis for a variety of developments. It can be seen how this approach to development resulted in CAL units that fostered active learning during the program sequence. Such an approach was also found in a variety of projects funded by N D P C A L in the mid-seventies [8]. ~WHAT SHALL I DO?" Problem solving however is not the only methodology exemplified in the CIC materials. There are other unifying stands. One of these, that is exemplified in the humanities material, is the role-playing/decision-making approach. Many units that involve simulations do so within a framework that encourages both role-playing and active decision-making. Some may be more embedded with a formal gaming framework in which role-playing[9] is more significant; others concentrate on the decision-making aspect, In either case, the pupil is faced with a variety of scenarios which encourage the question "What shall I do?" The emphasis for the students is upon their own decisions, and thus the cornerstone of the purpose has been shifting from an analysis of the model by changing the parameters ("What would happen if?") to an analysis of the users response in a variety of scenarios. Thus the humanities units are designed to accommodate two aspects of learning. The geography (history or economics) content and its application in a specific scenario will be the immediate aspect. They will also, however, encourage the use and extension of decision-making. S A I L I N G SHIPS G A M E ( W I N D S ) In the Sailing Ships Game[10], the pupil takes on the role of the captain of a large sailing ship who has to navigate between two ports. The pupil may choose the date to start the voyage, and the two ports. From then on the pupil has to respond to the information on wind speed and direction that is given to him in the ship's log. There is no engine and thus the ship is completely at the mercy of the winds. The chosen course is plotted on the screen so that the pupil can trace the coordinates and wind belts along the voyage. There is a wealth of content to be learned from this game; pupils can attempt to beat the tea clipper record from Shanghai to London in 100 days, or they can find out why it is so hard to force a passage around Cape Horn from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Thus the voyage of discovery can be re-enacted in the classroom. An equally valuable content component however relates to the wind belts of the world. This is a notoriously hard topic to teach, and geography teachers have for years made various models in an attempt to represent visually the significance of the wind belts and their seasonal shift. This topic is vital to any understanding of continental climatic patterns which many pupils fail to grasp because of their lack of understanding about the wind belts. WINDS gives them an opportunity to sail the oceans and learn about the wind from first hand[11]. Why do they keep getting becalmed off the North West coast of Africa? Why is it so easy to be shipwrecked near Rio? Why is the journey less hazardous if they set sail in the summer? The pupils can investigate such questions with an emphasis on what they themselves would do. Through the direct action of the pupil the unit is encouraging the application of their knowledge to the problems of decision making in the face of real problems. This therefore is not only active learning through the interactive potential of the micro, but also capitalising on the role-playing of the individual. W O R K E R S AND M A C H I N E S ( W O R K E R S A second example of the dual role of CAL in the humanities is taken from an economic unit, Workers and machines[12]. Here the pupils are faced with the problem of pacing the work of

The role of CAL in decision-makingin the humanities

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different processes within a factory---cutting, welding and shaping metal in order to make supermarket trolleys as an end product. Thirty workers are engaged in the whole factory and their aim is to maximise the potential of each shift of the workforce by allocating enough workers to each process. After deciding the allocation and total output expected the pupils can then see one shift's worth of metal as it moves through the processes, the product at each stage and how much the work force was used, or left idle for want of enough shaped (or cut) metal. As they juggle with the balances in subsequent shifts in an attempt to maximise the potential, they then have to cope with random shocks, such as "work to rules in one shift" that affect production. Thus in their role-playing as managers that cannot just learn the best possible combination; they also have to have learnt the principles behind the combination in order to adjust production effectively according to the shocks. "What shall I do?" takes on a key meaning in such a situation. GROUP DYNAMICS--THE

DISCURSIVE ELEMENT

The interactive work that such simulations encourage can also be considered in relation to the group dynamics of a small group of decision-making pupils who are discussing their work around the keyboard and screen. The discussion amongst teams of pupils in a normal educational board game is already thought to be of educational worth[11]. This suggests that the interplay of ideas amongst a group of pupils, away from the "direction" or "intervention" of the teacher is to be encouraged. A logical extension of this is to encourage similar discursive work to take place around the keyboard. It is possible for both the examples quoted to be played by a group rather than individual. Thus the question " W h a t shall I do?" is complemented by "What would you do?" "Why? .... What should we try next?" with a subsequent policy or planning meeting before a final decision is taken. Although more evaluation work is needed here, initial trials and certain videos[13] of children indicate this important activity that is taking place during the running of a CAL unit. Nor need the emphasis be "at or around" the keyboard. It was reported by McDonald et al. that " M a n y of the important student experiences take place away from the computer" ( N D P C A L Final Report 8). The logical extension to the work in the humanities is now to incorporate this discursive, decision making element into CAL design. In this way the CAL designer/teacher/programmer team will address themselves to questions not only relating to the content of the unit but also to the learning methodology. This can result in some really imaginative material as the authors struggle with the need to encourage the pupils' to discuss their next stage. An example of the way this is working can be found in a languages working group. Language specialists have a real concern for communicative teaching. Already familiar with the stimulation of discursive work in the classroom, they are using a series of "clues" as a framework for the pupils to choose their path through the software. Thus in a program such as CROSSWORD the pupil is offered clues of a variety of difficulties. These clues encourage them to discuss amongst themselves not only the possible meanings, but also why each one thinks the meaning is either correct or relevant. Further discussion is fostered by the advantage of seeking yet more clues. The resultant answers themselves give clues as to the overall "shape" of the crossword pattern, but note that there is no unique "best route" through the learning sequence since this is determined by the pupils' choice of path and pace. The emphasis of the discursive work can be seen to be clearly related to the examination by the pupils of the material. An increasing number of CAL units in the humanities are thus not asking questions on the screen, but creating an environment in which the pupils ask the questions for themselves, deciding a path to follow, and seeing the impact of their decision on the screen. A MOTIVATIONAL TOOL It is clear that we barely know enough to make any claims about the value of the micro as a motivational aid. An examination of many pupils excitedly crowding around the screen rarely shows those who are not interested, in the other corner of the room. However there would seem to be the need to capitalise on what for some pupils at least seems an exciting medium. It would be false to design material for the micro simply "because they like to use it". Nevertheless there is the possibility of recognizing one particular asset that relates closely to the aims previously

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discussed--that is the neutrality of the keyboard. Pupils may be stimulated by the software to think and learn in a variety of ways, without the "intervention" or mediation of the teacher, with the personality/character problems that this can entail. This is not to deny the crucial role of the teacher as a stimulator and organiser of learning[14]. Nevertheless there are times when the role of the teacher can inhibit progress. Work in Edinburgh[15] has shown the value of text-editing on the micro as a tool for pupils who previously have failed when the teachers acted in that role. Pupils became motivated to write and continually re-draft their work, not just because of the speed of the process compared with the laborious task of hand-writing, but also because they themselves rather than through the mediation of the teacher, were encouraged to re-draft the material. It has been reported[16] that pupils in Birmingham became so involved with using the micro that they included the teacher as "one of them", in their discussions, in an attempt to "'beat that machine". Thus the neutrality of the machine enabled the pupils to work with, rather than via, the teacher, a position with which many members of staff would envy. It would seem therefore that CAL designers cannot but feel free to explore questions that go beyond "how can I encourage the learning of more geography?" to "how can I design for decision-making? . . . . What motivational assets can I trap in order to foster a positive learning environment around the keyboard?" CONCLUSIONS

The aim of this paper is to indicate that CAL can be thought of as a significant interdisciplinary and motivational aid to learning. The interdisciplinary approach referred to here is not intended to be principally a commonality of content across the disciplines, but rather a commonality of certain educational aims and methods. Indeed I would suggest that one asset of CAL in the humanities is that it provides an excellent opportunity to extend the potential from that of serving primarily as a resource function in relation to teaching one discipline, into a resource for considering the application of certain pedagogies. Although the particular methodology here has been related to discursive decision-making, there is potential to apply this to other directions, e.g. study skills or value education that are part of the general debate on aspects of curriculum development[17]. As long as CAL has a firm discipline base it can be seen to enhance and possibly affect the discipline curriculum. But by the same token, CAL that has clear educational aims that cut across discipline frameworks opens up other possibilities. The potential of the micro as an educational tool may well have implications for the overall future directions of the curriculum. REFERENCES I . Computer,; in the Curriculum. Longmans, Harlow (1981) (38 titles): Computers in the Currieulum--new titles. Longmans, Harlow (1983) (45 titles). 2. Lewis R. and Want D., Educational computing at Chelsea (1969-79). In Computer Assisted Learning--Scope, Progress and Limits. Proceedings q/'IFIP TC3 Conference (Edited by Lewis R. and Tagg E, D.), pp. 163-173. Heinemann. London (1981). 3. Watson D., CAL in the humanities. In Computers in Education. Proceedings of lFIP TC3 Con/erence WCCE 81 (Edited by Lewis R. and Tagg E. D.), pp. 11-17. North Holland, Amsterdam (1981). 4. Watson D., Some implications of micros on curriculum development. In lm,oh,ing Micros in Education--Proceedings ¢?/'IFIP TC3 Con/'erence (Edited by Lewis R. and Tagg E. D.). North Holland, Amsterdam (1982). 5. HMI. Discussion Paper. lO Good Schools. HMSO, London (1982). 6. Killbery I. and Watson D., Windmill game. In Computers in the Geography Curriculum (Edited by Watson D.). Computers in the Curriculum, Longmans, Harlow (1981 ). 7. Killbery I., Malthus. Computers in the curriculum, Longmans, Harlow (1983). 8. Hooper R., National Development Programme in Computer Assisted Learning--Final Report of the Director. CET, London (1977). 9. Walford R., Games in Geography. Longmans, Harlow (1969). 10. Killbery I., Sailing Ships Game. Computers in the Curriculum. Longmans, Harlow (1983). 11. Tansey D. and Unwin D., Games h7 Education. Methuen, London (1969). 12. Murley A. J., Workers and Machines. Computers in the Curriculum Unit under development (1983). 13. Hassell D. and Kent A., CAL in the geography classroom. Video, Institute of Education, (Ed.) London University (1982). 14. Rushby N. (Ed.) Educational innovation and computer based learning. Selected Readings in Computer Based Learning, pp. 13-29. Kogan Page, London (1981). 15. Pain H., Computer aid for spelling error classification remedial teaching. In Computer Education Proceedings (4/'IFIP TC3 Conference WCCE 81 (Edited by Lewis R. and Tagg E. D.), pp. 297-302. North Holland, Amsterdam (198I). 16. Proceedings Educational Computing Con/erenee 1982 (Edited by Bradbeer R.). Polytechnic of North London (1982). 17. The School Curriculum in the 1980"s Aspects c?['I:~tucation: 26. University of Hull Institute of Education (1981).