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The role of interpersonal attachment styles in shaping consumer preferences for products shown in relational advertisements
Personality and Individual Differences 109 (2017) 44–50
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Personality and Individual Differences journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid
The role of interpersonal attachment styles in shaping consumer preferences for products shown in relational advertisements Meredith E. David a,⁎, William O. Bearden b a b
Marketing Department, Hankamer School of Business, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States Marketing Department, Darla Moore School of Business, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 14 September 2016 Received in revised form 20 December 2016 Accepted 22 December 2016 Available online xxxx Keywords: Relationships Advertisements Stimuli Attachment anxiety Fit
a b s t r a c t The present research adopts an attachment theory perspective to advance new insights into the effectiveness of advertising strategies that depict interpersonal relationships. Although pictures, and specifically pictures of relationships (e.g., friends), make up an increasingly large portion of advertisements, scant research has examined how depictions of relationships impact consumer evaluations of advertised products. The present research demonstrates that the effectiveness of ads which depict interpersonal relationships, including romantic partnerships and friendships, is associated with consumers' interpersonal attachment styles. Specifically, individuals with highly anxious attachment styles are unlikely to purchase products shown in relational ads; whereas, individuals with less anxious and more secure attachment styles are more likely to purchase these products. Importantly, perceptions of fit (i.e., the extent to which an advertised product is perceived as a good fit with oneself) mediate the relationship between interpersonal attachment style and consumers' likelihood of purchasing products shown in advertisements that portray relationships. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1. Introduction As the business world becomes increasingly competitive, researchers and practitioners are challenged with a need to better understand how individual characteristics and social contexts jointly impact consumer responses to advertisements. Research has shown that consumers' evaluations of advertised products can be influenced by stimuli in ads, including, for example, visual imagery (Jiang, Adaval, Steinhart, & Wyer, 2014; Unnava & Burnkrant, 1991), normative cues, and product claims (David, 2016; Freling & Dacin, 2010). One related area that has received less attention is the impact that relational stimuli in ads (e.g., the portrayal of an interpersonal relationship) have on individuals' evaluations of advertised products. Despite the high frequency at which campaigns depict togetherness (e.g., show pictures of friends, family, etc. in ads; Cavanaugh, 2014), scant research has investigated the impact of visual depictions of relationships in ads. Advertisements can depict relational or non-relational contexts, and consumers may differentially evaluate products that are shown in ads which portray a relationship versus ads that do not (Cavanaugh, 2014; Vrtička, Sander, & Vuilleumier, 2012). The present research uses attachment theory (Ainsworth, Salter, Blehar, & Wall, 1978; Bowlby, 1980), and adult
⁎ Corresponding author at: Marketing Department, Hankamer School of Business, Baylor University, One Bear Place #98001, Waco, TX 76798, United States. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.E. David).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.12.042 0191-8869/Published by Elsevier Ltd.
attachment theory primarily, to explain why ads that portray relationships may be differentially effective among various types of consumers. Toward this end, the current research proposes that attachment styles are associated with consumers' likelihood of purchasing products shown in relational versus non-relational ads. Relational ads refer to those that portray an interpersonal relationship such as friends, family, or romantic couples, and non-relational ads are those that portray an individual by him/herself. Similar to the notion of “it fits like a glove,” (Allen, 2002), it is proposed that the framework underlying the differential effectiveness of relational ads among individuals with various attachment styles is related to feelings of fit, and can best be explained by experiential choices infused by social and historical forces. The research presented herein makes several important contributions. First, the current research highlights the importance of interpersonal attachment styles in the prediction of consumer behavior. Research using attachment theory in consumer contexts is emerging (Swaminathan, Stilley, & Ahluwalia, 2009). Research has shown, for example, that attachment styles assist in explaining consumer's likelihood of retaliation after terminating a relationship with a brand (Thomson, Whelan, & Johnson, 2012). The present research contributes to this emerging literature by demonstrating an additional area of consumer behavior in which attachment theory is particularly insightful, i.e., the domain of advertisements, particularly those which depict an interpersonal relationship. The current research also advances new insights into the effectiveness of certain visual stimuli in advertisements. Research has shown
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that visual imagery depicted in ads can influence consumers' liking and perceived attractiveness of advertised products (Jiang et al., 2014), but it heretofore remains unclear how the depiction of relationships, specifically, impact consumer evaluations of advertised products. The present research focuses on the common practice of depicting relationships, or “happy togetherness,” in marketing communications (Cavanaugh, 2014), and reveals how the effectiveness of such strategies is directly associated with individuals' attachment styles. In the next section, a review of attachment theory is provided, followed by the development of our conceptual model and two studies which empirically test the hypothesized predictions. A detailed discussion of the theoretical contributions, as well as important practical implications of the research is provided later in the paper. 2. Theoretical development 2.1. Attachment theory and interpersonal attachment styles Focusing upon the dispositions and propensities undertaken by individuals in their development of relationships, attachment theory proposes that individuals' unique interpersonal experiences with their caregivers during childhood shape their perceptions and expectations of relationships throughout life (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bowlby, 1980). Individuals with different attachment styles are likely to construe the same relational-relevant situations or interpersonal encounters in different ways, as they are predisposed to interpret such events in ways that are consistent with their existing expectations and beliefs (Collins, 1996). Early literature on attachment theory suggests three attachment styles that individuals can hold: anxious, secure, or avoidant (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Hazan & Shaver, 1987). First, anxious attachment styles are held by individuals who, based on being cared for in an inconsistent manner, have a strong need for closeness and are preoccupied with attachment, while also worrying about relationships (Mikulincer & Nachshon, 1991). Second, secure attachment styles are held by individuals who, based on being cared for in a responsive and reliable manner, expect that others will be available and supportive when needed (Ainsworth et al., 1978). Third, avoidant attachment styles are held by individuals who, based on having unresponsive caregivers, have developed a sense of independence, whereby they prefer emotional distance from others and are disinterested in interpersonalrelated situations (Bowlby, 1980). Although the three-category approach (i.e., secure, anxious, avoidance) of attachment styles served as the initial conceptualization of individual attachment styles (Bowlby, 1980; Hazan & Shaver, 1987), a two-dimensional conceptualization (consisting of anxiety and avoidance dimensions) has become more well-accepted in the literature (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Brennan & Shaver, 1995; Thomson et al., 2012), as individual differences in attachment representations are more consistent with a dimensional (vs. categorical) conceptualization (See Fraley, Hudson, Heffernan, & Segal, 2015 for a review). The present research follows this dimensional approach, and similar to extant research (e.g., Cho & White, 2013 and Swaminathan et al., 2009, studies 2 and 3), it focuses upon a single dimension of attachment style. Specifically, attachment anxiety, which concerns the extent to which individuals consider and are worried about how their behaviors may result in rejection by others (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007) is particularly relevant to the current research, as anxiously attached individuals view relationships as a central part of their lives (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Thus, the present research focuses specifically on the anxiety dimension of attachment style, as it is directly associated with interpersonal influence. Of note, it is especially important from a practical perspective to understand how attachment anxiety, in particular, is associated with individuals' behaviors as consumers. Specifically, although secure attachment styles (i.e., those low in anxiety and avoidance) have
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traditionally been the most prevalent style in society (Bowlby, 1980; Mickelson, Kessler, & Shaver, 1997), attachment theory scholars suggest that drastic societal changes, such as more mothers in the workplace and higher divorce rates are contributing to greater levels of attachment anxiety (Fraley, Roisman, Booth-LaForce, Owen, & Holland, 2013; Mickelson et al., 1997; Salo, Jokela, Lehtimäki, & Keltikangas-Järvinen, 2011). Importantly, these societal trends are associated with attachment anxiety but do not appear to impact the levels of attachment avoidance (Belsky, Houts, & Fearon, 2010; Fraley et al., 2013; Mickelson et al., 1997). Thus, it is particularly important to understand how varying levels of attachment anxiety impact individuals' behaviors as consumers. In the next section, predictions are developed regarding how attachment anxiety may impact individuals' evaluations of products shown in ads that portray an interpersonal relationship. Focusing specifically on attachment anxiety (and thus holding attachment avoidance constant), individuals who are lower in attachment anxiety are more securely attached. Thus, in the remainder of the paper, we refer to individuals who are greater (lower) in attachment anxiety as anxiously (securely) attached individuals. 2.2. Anxious and secure attachment styles and relational advertising stimuli Interpersonal attachment styles, or the way in which individuals perceive others and perceive themselves in reference to others (Bowlby, 1980), affect consumers' cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses to attachment-relevant events (Simpson & Rholes, 2010). Indeed, extant research has shown that individuals who have attachment styles that are high in anxiety and characterized by interpersonal insecurity may use a brand's personality (i.e., exciting) to fulfill a signaling role and project their ideal self-concept to others (Swaminathan et al., 2009). Similarly, interpersonal attachment styles may influence consumer responses to specific stimuli shown in advertisements. Specifically, and as discussed below, anxious and less anxious, more securely attached individuals likely differ in their responses to products shown in ads that portray an interpersonal relationship. Indeed, highly anxious attachment styles are manifested by hyperactive concerns with relationships, including strong desires for closeness, but intense fears of abandonment or rejection by others (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Less anxious, more secure attachment styles, however, are characterized by greater interdependence, that is, comfort with getting close to others and expectations that others will accepting of them (Hazan & Shaver, 1994; Mikulincer, Shaver, & Pereg, 2003). Attachment styles affect individuals' interpretations of and expectations regarding interpersonal situations they encounter (Collins, 1996; Mikulincer & Nachshon, 1991), and individuals often make experiential choices that are imbued by social and historical forces (Allen, 2002). Similarly, the social situation and interpersonal context shown in an advertisement may impact an individual's feelings of how the advertised product may fit with oneself. Indeed, extant literature on visual imagery has shown that ads are more effective when they exhibit stimuli which viewers can easily and positively relate to (Debevec & Romeo, 1992). Importantly, it is likely that, among anxious and securely attached individuals, ads which depict relationships (versus those that do not) have varying effects on consumer evaluations, including experiential-based feelings about fit of the advertised product with oneself. As documented in the consumer research literature, individuals sometimes make decisions based on feelings of fit or rightness. Specifically, the “fits-like-a-glove” framework theorizes individuals' decisions as being more experiential and less rational or constructive (Allen, 2002, 515). These so-called experiential choices are imbued by social and historical forces; that is, they are made based on feelings that arise when a person imagines a choice in light of previous experiences. Similarly, and as discussed above, attachment theory explains that individuals' expectations of relationships and perceptions of oneself in relationships are a function of their attachment styles, which are developed
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based on early interpersonal experiences during childhood (Bowlby, 1980). Specifically, anxious attachment styles are held by individuals who have experienced a past of inconsistent and unreliable support, in which they have been left craving attention but unsure how to get it (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Hansbrough, 2012). Less, anxious, more secure attachment styles, however, are held by individuals who have experienced a past of healthy relationships in which they have developed positive expectations regarding how they will be accepted by others. Thus, individuals' levels of attachment anxiety verses security should impact their decisions regarding the purchase of a product shown in an ad which depicts (vs. does not depict) an interpersonal relationship. Specifically, it is likely that anxiously attached individuals, who are highly concerned about relationships and have negative perceptions of social interactions (Mikulincer & Nachshon, 1991), feel that products shown in non-relational (vs. relational) ads fit better with oneself. Notably, this theorizing is consistent with research which found that lonely people prefer minority (vs. majority) endorsed products, because these products fit better with their feelings of loneliness (Wang, Zhu, & Shiv, 2012). Contrary to anxiously attached individuals, securely attached individuals have a past of healthy relationships and value interpersonal relationships (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Bowlby, 1980), and thus these individuals are more likely to experience a feeling of fit between oneself and products shown in relational ads. Based on this review, it is posited that, for anxiously attached individuals, exposure to an ad that depicts (vs. does not depict) a relationship should result in lesser feelings regarding fit of the advertised product with oneself and lower purchase likelihood. In addition, securely attached individuals are more likely than anxiously attached individuals to have positive feelings regarding purchasing products shown in an ad that shows several people using a product together. Specifically, securely attached individuals have positive expectations regarding interpersonal situations (Bowlby, 1980; Li, Bruyneel, & Warlop, 2012) and are more likely to respond to relational advertisements in a favorable manner than are anxiously attached individuals. In the next section, two studies are presented which test these predictions. Of note, the advertising stimuli used across studies allow for the generalization of relational ads to those that include romantic relationships (i.e., study 1) and non-romantic relationships (i.e., study 2). Consistent with past research, the advertising stimuli does not explicitly depict reference to personal attachment figures (e.g., parents or spouses), but rather explores the effects stemming from the activation of the attachment system when processing more general social information (e.g., interpersonal interactions, groups of unfamiliar people) (Cavanaugh, 2014; Vrtička et al., 2012). The purpose of study 1 is to test the prediction that attachment style moderates the relationship between type of advertisement (relational versus non-relational) and purchase likelihood of the advertised product. It is expected that individuals higher in attachment anxiety will respond more favorably (i.e., report greater purchase likelihood) to a product shown in a non-relational (vs. relational) ad. In addition, it is expected that securely (vs. anxiously) attached individuals are more likely to purchase a product shown in an ad which depicts an interpersonal relationship. 2.3. Participants, procedure, and stimuli One hundred and eighty (55% female) undergraduate students at a large US university participated in study 1 in exchange for partial course credit. Participants were randomly assigned to an experimental condition, in which they were shown one of two ads (non-relational vs. relational) for a period of 20 s. Based on criteria set forth by Martin, Wentzel, and Tomczak (2008) related to consumer knowledge, commercial success, and gender relevance, the Dasani brand was deemed appropriate as the stimuli in this study. As shown in the Appendix, the relational ad portrayed a relationship (i.e., romantic couple); whereas,
the non-relational ad showed only one person. After viewing the ad, purchase likelihood was assessed by asking participants, on a 7-point scale, how likely they would be to purchase the product shown in the ad. Next, participants completed a short distracting task before starting an ostensibly unrelated study in which attachment style was assessed. Specifically, we used the Thomson et al. (2012) 5-item measure of attachment anxiety (α = 0.89), which has been validated for use in a consumption context, and in which higher scores correspond to more highly anxious attachments and lower scores indicate less anxious, more secure attachments.1 2.4. Results and discussion A moderated regression analysis was conducted to test the prediction that attachment style and ad type interact in the prediction of purchase likelihood (F(3, 176) = 4.55, p b 0.01, R2 = 0.07). As predicted, the interactive effect of attachment style and ad type was significant (b = −0.27, p b 0.05). The main effect of attachment style was significant (b = 0.35, p b 0.05), but the main effect of ad type was non-significant. Post-hoc tests at+/−1SD of the mean attachment score revealed two significant comparisons (see Fig. 1). Specifically, securely (vs. anxiously) attached individuals report greater likelihood of purchase for a product shown in an ad which depicts a relationship (MSecure = 5.36, MAnxious = 4.86, p b 0.05). Similarly, among anxiously attached consumers, relational stimuli in ads results in lower likelihood of purchasing the advertised product (MRelationship = 4.86, MNoRelationship = 5.54, p b 0.05). These results did not differ when participant's gender, age, and response to whether or not they were currently in a relationship were included as covariates. Overall, the findings from study 1 support the prediction that individuals' attachment styles are associated with their likelihood of purchasing products shown in ads that portray an interpersonal relationship. Specifically, anxiously (vs. securely) attached individuals are less likely to purchase products shown in relational ads. In addition, anxiously attached individuals are more likely to purchase products shown in non-relational (vs. relational) ads. Study 2 is designed to test the prediction that feelings of fit mediate the relationship between the interactive effect of ad type and attachment style on purchase likelihood. Study 2 also examines whether the effects found in study 1 can be generalized to non-romantic relationships. Specifically, study 2 uses a different form of relational stimuli (i.e., friends, rather than a romantic couple). It is expected that securely attached individuals are more likely than their anxiously attached counterparts to purchase products shown in ads that depict a relationship, and that this effect is mediated by feelings of fit regarding the product in comparison to oneself. Fig. 2 shows the model tested in study 2, along with the results detailed below. 2.5. Participants, procedure, and stimuli One hundred and twenty seven (42% female) US adults participated in study 2 as part of an Mturk study. Participants were randomly assigned to an experimental condition, in which they were shown one of two ads (non-relational vs. relational) for a period of 20 s. North Face ads were selected as the stimuli based on consumer knowledge, familiarity, and gender relevance (Martin et al., 2008). The ads (as shown 1 The Thomson et al. (2012) scale is a subset of the Collins and Read (1990) Adult Attachment Scale, which was developed as a two-dimensional extension of the Hazan and Shaver (1987) discrete categorical assessment (secure, anxious, avoidant) of attachment style in romantic relationships. The Thomson et al. (2012) scale is not only more parsimonious, but it has also been validated in a consumption context. Similar to studies by Swaminathan et al. (2009; studies 2 and 3) and Cho and White (2013), which focused upon a single dimension of attachment styles, the present research focuses on the anxiety dimension. However, we also assessed attachment avoidance (α = 0.84), using the 5-item measure by Thomson et al. (2012) and ran analyses where it was included as a control. The main effect of avoidance was non-significant, and it did not impact the results presented.
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Purchase Likelihood 7 6
p < .05
p < .05
5
Anxious
4
Secure
3 2 1
No Relationship in Ad
Relationship in Ad
Fig. 1. Study 1 results showing differences in purchase likelihood.
in the Appendix) were presented in color and with similar low-level properties (e.g., size, pixel resolution) (Vrtička et al., 2012). After viewing the ad, purchase likelihood was assessed using the same 7-point scale as in study 1. Next, participants completed a short distracting task. The proposed mediator, perceived fit, was then assessed using an established 3-item measure which asks participants to indicate, using three 7-point Likert scales, the extent to which they feel like the product shown in the ad is “not compatible with me—compatible with me”, “very much unlike me—very much like me”, and “not a good fit for me—a good fit for me” (α = 0.92) (Belch & Landon, 1977; Sirgy, 1982). Research has shown that this measure of perceived fit between a product and oneself is distinct from measures of purchase likelihood and behavioral intentions (Belch & Landon, 1977; Landon, 1974). Next, participants completed a filler task before starting an ostensibly unrelated study in which attachment style was assessed using the Thomson et al. (2012) 5-item measure of attachment anxiety (α = 0.87). Lastly, participants responded to demographic questions, as well as a manipulation check for the ad. The results showed support for the manipulation of ad type (relational vs non-relational), as more participants in the relational (vs. non-relational) condition indicated that the ad they viewed showed (vs. did not show) a relationship (χ2(1) = 77.46, p b 0.01).
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tests at ±1SD of the mean attachment score revealed two significant comparisons (see Fig. 3). Specifically, when exposed to an ad that depicts relational stimuli, securely attached individuals report greater likelihood of purchasing the product than anxiously attached individuals (MSecure = 5.03, MAnxious = 4.24, p b 0.05). Similarly, among anxiously attached consumers, relational stimuli in ads results in lower likelihood of purchasing the advertised product (MRelationship = 4.24, MNoRelationship = 5.04, p b 0.05). Next, the Preacher and Hayes (2008) PROCESS Model 8 was used to test the prediction that feelings of fit regarding an advertised product mediate the relationship between the interactive effect of attachment style and ad type on purchase likelihood. First, a regression (F(3, 2 123) = 3.43, p b 0.05, R = 0.08) with attachment style, ad type, and the interaction of these variables as the predictors and perceived fit as the dependent variable revealed a significant interactive effect of attachment style and ad type (b = − 0.37, p b 0.05); the main effects were non-significant. Post-hoc tests (+/−1SD of the mean attachment score) revealed two significant comparisons. Specifically, when exposed to an ad that depicts relational stimuli, securely attached individuals report greater fit with the advertised product than anxiously attached individuals (MSecure = 4.51, MAnxious = 3.63, p b 0.01). Similarly, among anxiously attached consumers, relational stimuli in ads results in less feelings of fit with the advertised product (MRelationship = 3.65, MNoRelationship = 4.35, p b 0.05). Importantly, a bootstrap analysis (Preacher & Hayes, 2008) revealed that the interactive effect of ad type and attachment style on purchase likelihood is mediated by perceptions of fit. Specifically, perceived fit has a significant, positive effect on purchase likelihood (b = 0.81, t = 10.92, p b 0.01), and the indirect effect of the attachment style × ad type interaction on purchase likelihood through perceived fit is significant (b = −0.30, SE = 0.156, 95% CI [− 6.16, − 0.022]). Of note, the above results did not differ when participant's gender, age, and response to whether or not they were currently in a relationship were included as covariates. Overall, the results of study 2 support the prediction that securely (vs. anxiously) attached individuals are more likely to purchase products shown in relational ads. In addition, anxiously attached individuals are more likely to purchase products shown in non-relational (vs. relational) ads. Importantly, the results support the prediction that the interactive effect of ad type and attachment style on purchase likelihood is mediated by perceptions of fit of the advertised product with oneself.
2.6. Results and discussion 3. General discussion A moderated regression analysis was conducted to test the prediction that attachment style and ad type interact in the prediction of purchase likelihood (F(3, 123) = 2.46, p = 0.06, R2 = 0.06). As predicted, the interactive effect of attachment style and ad type was significant (b = −0.41, p b 0.05); the main effects were non-significant. Post-hoc
The research presented herein reveals a key factor influencing consumer responses to a common advertising practice, namely portraying interpersonal relationships, or “happy togetherness” in ads (Cavanaugh, 2014). The results of two studies demonstrate that
Fig. 2. Study 2 conceptual model with empirical results.
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Purchase Likelihood 7 6
P< .05
p < .05
5
Anxious
4
Secure
3 2 1
No Relationship in Ad
Relationship in Ad
Fig. 3. Study 3 results showing differences in purchase likelihood.
individuals' attachment styles are associated with their evaluations of products shown in ads that portray an interpersonal relationship, albeit a romantic partnership or a friendship. In addition, one important process underlying the interactive effect of ad type (relational vs. non-relational) and attachment style on purchase likelihood relates to consumer perceptions of the extent to which the advertised product fits with oneself. Specifically, products shown in ads which portray a relationship are more likely to be viewed as being a better fit with oneself among securely (vs. anxiously) attached individuals, and these products are more likely to be purchased by securely (vs. anxiously) attached individuals. Similarly, exposure to ads that an depict interpersonal relationship is negatively associated with anxiously attached consumers' perceptions that the advertised product is a good fit for them, and lesser feelings of fit decrease their propensity to purchase the product (David, 2016; Kressmann et al., 2006; Sirgy, 1982). Importantly, these results were found across different product categories and for various forms of relational advertisements. The current research extends existing literature on the impact of relationship reminders on consumers (Cavanaugh, 2014). Specifically, the results reveal that attachment style is a key factor associated with consumers' likelihood of purchasing products shown in ads that portray relational stimuli. The present research also contributes to the literature on the value derived from “fit” between an external stimulus and a consumer's internal mind-set. For example, extant research has shown the benefits of fit between consumers' regulatory focus orientation and the message frame (e.g., promotion-framed messages fit better with promotion focused individuals, Higgins, 1998). The present research contributes to this literature by introducing a new type of fit associated with the effectiveness of advertisements, namely, “attachment-fit”, or fit between a consumer's attachment style and the stimuli shown in ads (i.e., relational vs. non-relational). Specifically, ads which depict a happy interpersonal relationship are more effective among securely attached consumers who value interpersonal relationships.
3.1. Practical implications The present research offers several actionable implications. Perhaps most generally, the findings suggest that practitioners should consider the predictive power of attachment styles. Although an individual's attachment style may not always be known, marketers, for example, can segment customers based on demographic correlates of attachment style and then tailor marketing efforts accordingly. Extant research has shown that attachment anxiety is generally negatively related to age, income and marital status (David, 2016). It is also important to consider certain overt signs that may be indicative of a particular attachment style (Thomson et al., 2012).
The current research also underscores the importance of understanding how the common practice of depicting relationships in ads can have negative consequences on important consumer outcomes (Cavanaugh, 2014). Although communications which feature relationships may be effective among securely attached individuals they may be harmful among anxiously attached individuals. Thus, managers could benefit from identifying their target markets' attachment styles and tailoring communications accordingly. For example, relational images should be most effective among securely attached individuals, who tend to be older and have higher income levels. Conversely, advertisements aimed at younger, lower income individuals, who are generally more anxiously attached, are likely more effective if they do not depict a relationship. Importantly, our research demonstrates these effects across both romantic and nonromantic relationships. The findings presented may also provide direction for public policy campaigns aimed at discouraging undesirable behaviors (e.g., underage drinking). Specifically, the findings suggest that when trying to deter teenagers or young adults, who again tend to be anxiously attached, from engaging in undesirable behaviors, public policy makers should use non-relational advertisements that promote the related healthy behaviors (e.g., waiting until the legal age to drink alcohol). Normative ads which portray groups of people together, however, are unlikely to have a positive impact on this segment of individuals. The present research may also shed light on an increasingly common strategy which involves designing campaigns and marketing materials around making consumers feel better about themselves. For example, the Dove soap brand created the Real Beauty Campaign to help women feel comfortable in their own skin. Campaigns such as this may be particularly effective among anxiously attached consumers. Specifically, advertisements which focus on individual well-being or enjoyment, as opposed to relational ads such as those that depict happy togetherness (Cavanaugh, 2014), may be particularly effective among anxiously attached individuals.
3.2. Limitations and future research Several limitations of the current research may serve as fruitful directions for future research. Although the relational advertising stimuli used in the current studies allowed for generalizability of the findings across romantic and non-romantic relationships, it should be noted that our findings may not generalize to other forms of relational ads, such as those which depict less traditional, more egalitarian relationships. Similarly, the current studies used relatively happy relationships as the relational stimuli. Although this is the most common type of relationship portrayed in marketing materials (Cavanaugh, 2014), there may be instances when unhealthy relationships are portrayed (e.g., a couple in need of therapy, a selfish friend, a preoccupied mother). Anxiously attached individuals may perceive greater fit with ads that portray unhappy, anxious relationships. Future research would need to examine this possibility. Relatedly, extant research on advertisements explains that emotions expressed through facial expressions can influence consumers' prosocial behavior (Landwehr, McGill, & Herrmann, 2011). Thus, future research could examine how facial expressions shown in ads could impact consumers' perceptions of the extent to which products fit with themselves, as well as the potential moderating role of attachment styles. It is likely that charitable advertisements which portray victims with lonely facial expressions may result in greater prosocial behavior among individuals with highly anxious attachment styles. Finally, the present research focused on the anxious dimension of attachment style. Future research would be needed to understand how attachment avoidance, including the fearful and dismissive attachment styles, are associated with consumer evaluations of products shown in relational ads.
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Appendix A
STUDY 1 AD STIMULI Ad without Relational Stimuli:
Ad with Relational Stimuli:
STUDY 2 AD STIMULI
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Martin, B. A. S., Wentzel, D., & Tomczak, T. (2008). Effects of susceptibility to normative influence and type of testimonial on attitudes toward print advertising. Journal of Advertising, 37(1), 29–43. Mickelson, K. D., Kessler, R. C., & Shaver, P. R. (1997). Adult attachment in a nationally representative sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(5), 1092. Mikulincer, M., & Nachshon, O. (1991). Attachment styles and patterns of self-disclosure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 321–331. Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., & Pereg, D. (2003). Attachment theory and affect regulation: The dynamics, development, and cognitive consequences of attachment-related strategies. Motivation and Emotion, 27(2), 77–102. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891. Salo, J., Jokela, M., Lehtimäki, T., & Keltikangas-Järvinen, L. (2011). Serotonin receptor 2A gene moderates the effect of childhood maternal nurturance on adulthood social attachment. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 10, 702–709.
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The role of interpersonal attachment styles in shaping consumer preferences for products shown in relational advertisements Meredith E. David a,⁎, William O. Bearden b a b
Marketing Department, Hankamer School of Business, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States Marketing Department, Darla Moore School of Business, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 14 September 2016 Received in revised form 20 December 2016 Accepted 22 December 2016 Available online xxxx Keywords: Relationships Advertisements Stimuli Attachment anxiety Fit
a b s t r a c t The present research adopts an attachment theory perspective to advance new insights into the effectiveness of advertising strategies that depict interpersonal relationships. Although pictures, and specifically pictures of relationships (e.g., friends), make up an increasingly large portion of advertisements, scant research has examined how depictions of relationships impact consumer evaluations of advertised products. The present research demonstrates that the effectiveness of ads which depict interpersonal relationships, including romantic partnerships and friendships, is associated with consumers' interpersonal attachment styles. Specifically, individuals with highly anxious attachment styles are unlikely to purchase products shown in relational ads; whereas, individuals with less anxious and more secure attachment styles are more likely to purchase these products. Importantly, perceptions of fit (i.e., the extent to which an advertised product is perceived as a good fit with oneself) mediate the relationship between interpersonal attachment style and consumers' likelihood of purchasing products shown in advertisements that portray relationships. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
1. Introduction As the business world becomes increasingly competitive, researchers and practitioners are challenged with a need to better understand how individual characteristics and social contexts jointly impact consumer responses to advertisements. Research has shown that consumers' evaluations of advertised products can be influenced by stimuli in ads, including, for example, visual imagery (Jiang, Adaval, Steinhart, & Wyer, 2014; Unnava & Burnkrant, 1991), normative cues, and product claims (David, 2016; Freling & Dacin, 2010). One related area that has received less attention is the impact that relational stimuli in ads (e.g., the portrayal of an interpersonal relationship) have on individuals' evaluations of advertised products. Despite the high frequency at which campaigns depict togetherness (e.g., show pictures of friends, family, etc. in ads; Cavanaugh, 2014), scant research has investigated the impact of visual depictions of relationships in ads. Advertisements can depict relational or non-relational contexts, and consumers may differentially evaluate products that are shown in ads which portray a relationship versus ads that do not (Cavanaugh, 2014; Vrtička, Sander, & Vuilleumier, 2012). The present research uses attachment theory (Ainsworth, Salter, Blehar, & Wall, 1978; Bowlby, 1980), and adult
⁎ Corresponding author at: Marketing Department, Hankamer School of Business, Baylor University, One Bear Place #98001, Waco, TX 76798, United States. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.E. David).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.12.042 0191-8869/Published by Elsevier Ltd.
attachment theory primarily, to explain why ads that portray relationships may be differentially effective among various types of consumers. Toward this end, the current research proposes that attachment styles are associated with consumers' likelihood of purchasing products shown in relational versus non-relational ads. Relational ads refer to those that portray an interpersonal relationship such as friends, family, or romantic couples, and non-relational ads are those that portray an individual by him/herself. Similar to the notion of “it fits like a glove,” (Allen, 2002), it is proposed that the framework underlying the differential effectiveness of relational ads among individuals with various attachment styles is related to feelings of fit, and can best be explained by experiential choices infused by social and historical forces. The research presented herein makes several important contributions. First, the current research highlights the importance of interpersonal attachment styles in the prediction of consumer behavior. Research using attachment theory in consumer contexts is emerging (Swaminathan, Stilley, & Ahluwalia, 2009). Research has shown, for example, that attachment styles assist in explaining consumer's likelihood of retaliation after terminating a relationship with a brand (Thomson, Whelan, & Johnson, 2012). The present research contributes to this emerging literature by demonstrating an additional area of consumer behavior in which attachment theory is particularly insightful, i.e., the domain of advertisements, particularly those which depict an interpersonal relationship. The current research also advances new insights into the effectiveness of certain visual stimuli in advertisements. Research has shown
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that visual imagery depicted in ads can influence consumers' liking and perceived attractiveness of advertised products (Jiang et al., 2014), but it heretofore remains unclear how the depiction of relationships, specifically, impact consumer evaluations of advertised products. The present research focuses on the common practice of depicting relationships, or “happy togetherness,” in marketing communications (Cavanaugh, 2014), and reveals how the effectiveness of such strategies is directly associated with individuals' attachment styles. In the next section, a review of attachment theory is provided, followed by the development of our conceptual model and two studies which empirically test the hypothesized predictions. A detailed discussion of the theoretical contributions, as well as important practical implications of the research is provided later in the paper. 2. Theoretical development 2.1. Attachment theory and interpersonal attachment styles Focusing upon the dispositions and propensities undertaken by individuals in their development of relationships, attachment theory proposes that individuals' unique interpersonal experiences with their caregivers during childhood shape their perceptions and expectations of relationships throughout life (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bowlby, 1980). Individuals with different attachment styles are likely to construe the same relational-relevant situations or interpersonal encounters in different ways, as they are predisposed to interpret such events in ways that are consistent with their existing expectations and beliefs (Collins, 1996). Early literature on attachment theory suggests three attachment styles that individuals can hold: anxious, secure, or avoidant (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Hazan & Shaver, 1987). First, anxious attachment styles are held by individuals who, based on being cared for in an inconsistent manner, have a strong need for closeness and are preoccupied with attachment, while also worrying about relationships (Mikulincer & Nachshon, 1991). Second, secure attachment styles are held by individuals who, based on being cared for in a responsive and reliable manner, expect that others will be available and supportive when needed (Ainsworth et al., 1978). Third, avoidant attachment styles are held by individuals who, based on having unresponsive caregivers, have developed a sense of independence, whereby they prefer emotional distance from others and are disinterested in interpersonalrelated situations (Bowlby, 1980). Although the three-category approach (i.e., secure, anxious, avoidance) of attachment styles served as the initial conceptualization of individual attachment styles (Bowlby, 1980; Hazan & Shaver, 1987), a two-dimensional conceptualization (consisting of anxiety and avoidance dimensions) has become more well-accepted in the literature (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Brennan & Shaver, 1995; Thomson et al., 2012), as individual differences in attachment representations are more consistent with a dimensional (vs. categorical) conceptualization (See Fraley, Hudson, Heffernan, & Segal, 2015 for a review). The present research follows this dimensional approach, and similar to extant research (e.g., Cho & White, 2013 and Swaminathan et al., 2009, studies 2 and 3), it focuses upon a single dimension of attachment style. Specifically, attachment anxiety, which concerns the extent to which individuals consider and are worried about how their behaviors may result in rejection by others (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007) is particularly relevant to the current research, as anxiously attached individuals view relationships as a central part of their lives (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Thus, the present research focuses specifically on the anxiety dimension of attachment style, as it is directly associated with interpersonal influence. Of note, it is especially important from a practical perspective to understand how attachment anxiety, in particular, is associated with individuals' behaviors as consumers. Specifically, although secure attachment styles (i.e., those low in anxiety and avoidance) have
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traditionally been the most prevalent style in society (Bowlby, 1980; Mickelson, Kessler, & Shaver, 1997), attachment theory scholars suggest that drastic societal changes, such as more mothers in the workplace and higher divorce rates are contributing to greater levels of attachment anxiety (Fraley, Roisman, Booth-LaForce, Owen, & Holland, 2013; Mickelson et al., 1997; Salo, Jokela, Lehtimäki, & Keltikangas-Järvinen, 2011). Importantly, these societal trends are associated with attachment anxiety but do not appear to impact the levels of attachment avoidance (Belsky, Houts, & Fearon, 2010; Fraley et al., 2013; Mickelson et al., 1997). Thus, it is particularly important to understand how varying levels of attachment anxiety impact individuals' behaviors as consumers. In the next section, predictions are developed regarding how attachment anxiety may impact individuals' evaluations of products shown in ads that portray an interpersonal relationship. Focusing specifically on attachment anxiety (and thus holding attachment avoidance constant), individuals who are lower in attachment anxiety are more securely attached. Thus, in the remainder of the paper, we refer to individuals who are greater (lower) in attachment anxiety as anxiously (securely) attached individuals. 2.2. Anxious and secure attachment styles and relational advertising stimuli Interpersonal attachment styles, or the way in which individuals perceive others and perceive themselves in reference to others (Bowlby, 1980), affect consumers' cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses to attachment-relevant events (Simpson & Rholes, 2010). Indeed, extant research has shown that individuals who have attachment styles that are high in anxiety and characterized by interpersonal insecurity may use a brand's personality (i.e., exciting) to fulfill a signaling role and project their ideal self-concept to others (Swaminathan et al., 2009). Similarly, interpersonal attachment styles may influence consumer responses to specific stimuli shown in advertisements. Specifically, and as discussed below, anxious and less anxious, more securely attached individuals likely differ in their responses to products shown in ads that portray an interpersonal relationship. Indeed, highly anxious attachment styles are manifested by hyperactive concerns with relationships, including strong desires for closeness, but intense fears of abandonment or rejection by others (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Less anxious, more secure attachment styles, however, are characterized by greater interdependence, that is, comfort with getting close to others and expectations that others will accepting of them (Hazan & Shaver, 1994; Mikulincer, Shaver, & Pereg, 2003). Attachment styles affect individuals' interpretations of and expectations regarding interpersonal situations they encounter (Collins, 1996; Mikulincer & Nachshon, 1991), and individuals often make experiential choices that are imbued by social and historical forces (Allen, 2002). Similarly, the social situation and interpersonal context shown in an advertisement may impact an individual's feelings of how the advertised product may fit with oneself. Indeed, extant literature on visual imagery has shown that ads are more effective when they exhibit stimuli which viewers can easily and positively relate to (Debevec & Romeo, 1992). Importantly, it is likely that, among anxious and securely attached individuals, ads which depict relationships (versus those that do not) have varying effects on consumer evaluations, including experiential-based feelings about fit of the advertised product with oneself. As documented in the consumer research literature, individuals sometimes make decisions based on feelings of fit or rightness. Specifically, the “fits-like-a-glove” framework theorizes individuals' decisions as being more experiential and less rational or constructive (Allen, 2002, 515). These so-called experiential choices are imbued by social and historical forces; that is, they are made based on feelings that arise when a person imagines a choice in light of previous experiences. Similarly, and as discussed above, attachment theory explains that individuals' expectations of relationships and perceptions of oneself in relationships are a function of their attachment styles, which are developed
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based on early interpersonal experiences during childhood (Bowlby, 1980). Specifically, anxious attachment styles are held by individuals who have experienced a past of inconsistent and unreliable support, in which they have been left craving attention but unsure how to get it (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Hansbrough, 2012). Less, anxious, more secure attachment styles, however, are held by individuals who have experienced a past of healthy relationships in which they have developed positive expectations regarding how they will be accepted by others. Thus, individuals' levels of attachment anxiety verses security should impact their decisions regarding the purchase of a product shown in an ad which depicts (vs. does not depict) an interpersonal relationship. Specifically, it is likely that anxiously attached individuals, who are highly concerned about relationships and have negative perceptions of social interactions (Mikulincer & Nachshon, 1991), feel that products shown in non-relational (vs. relational) ads fit better with oneself. Notably, this theorizing is consistent with research which found that lonely people prefer minority (vs. majority) endorsed products, because these products fit better with their feelings of loneliness (Wang, Zhu, & Shiv, 2012). Contrary to anxiously attached individuals, securely attached individuals have a past of healthy relationships and value interpersonal relationships (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Bowlby, 1980), and thus these individuals are more likely to experience a feeling of fit between oneself and products shown in relational ads. Based on this review, it is posited that, for anxiously attached individuals, exposure to an ad that depicts (vs. does not depict) a relationship should result in lesser feelings regarding fit of the advertised product with oneself and lower purchase likelihood. In addition, securely attached individuals are more likely than anxiously attached individuals to have positive feelings regarding purchasing products shown in an ad that shows several people using a product together. Specifically, securely attached individuals have positive expectations regarding interpersonal situations (Bowlby, 1980; Li, Bruyneel, & Warlop, 2012) and are more likely to respond to relational advertisements in a favorable manner than are anxiously attached individuals. In the next section, two studies are presented which test these predictions. Of note, the advertising stimuli used across studies allow for the generalization of relational ads to those that include romantic relationships (i.e., study 1) and non-romantic relationships (i.e., study 2). Consistent with past research, the advertising stimuli does not explicitly depict reference to personal attachment figures (e.g., parents or spouses), but rather explores the effects stemming from the activation of the attachment system when processing more general social information (e.g., interpersonal interactions, groups of unfamiliar people) (Cavanaugh, 2014; Vrtička et al., 2012). The purpose of study 1 is to test the prediction that attachment style moderates the relationship between type of advertisement (relational versus non-relational) and purchase likelihood of the advertised product. It is expected that individuals higher in attachment anxiety will respond more favorably (i.e., report greater purchase likelihood) to a product shown in a non-relational (vs. relational) ad. In addition, it is expected that securely (vs. anxiously) attached individuals are more likely to purchase a product shown in an ad which depicts an interpersonal relationship. 2.3. Participants, procedure, and stimuli One hundred and eighty (55% female) undergraduate students at a large US university participated in study 1 in exchange for partial course credit. Participants were randomly assigned to an experimental condition, in which they were shown one of two ads (non-relational vs. relational) for a period of 20 s. Based on criteria set forth by Martin, Wentzel, and Tomczak (2008) related to consumer knowledge, commercial success, and gender relevance, the Dasani brand was deemed appropriate as the stimuli in this study. As shown in the Appendix, the relational ad portrayed a relationship (i.e., romantic couple); whereas,
the non-relational ad showed only one person. After viewing the ad, purchase likelihood was assessed by asking participants, on a 7-point scale, how likely they would be to purchase the product shown in the ad. Next, participants completed a short distracting task before starting an ostensibly unrelated study in which attachment style was assessed. Specifically, we used the Thomson et al. (2012) 5-item measure of attachment anxiety (α = 0.89), which has been validated for use in a consumption context, and in which higher scores correspond to more highly anxious attachments and lower scores indicate less anxious, more secure attachments.1 2.4. Results and discussion A moderated regression analysis was conducted to test the prediction that attachment style and ad type interact in the prediction of purchase likelihood (F(3, 176) = 4.55, p b 0.01, R2 = 0.07). As predicted, the interactive effect of attachment style and ad type was significant (b = −0.27, p b 0.05). The main effect of attachment style was significant (b = 0.35, p b 0.05), but the main effect of ad type was non-significant. Post-hoc tests at+/−1SD of the mean attachment score revealed two significant comparisons (see Fig. 1). Specifically, securely (vs. anxiously) attached individuals report greater likelihood of purchase for a product shown in an ad which depicts a relationship (MSecure = 5.36, MAnxious = 4.86, p b 0.05). Similarly, among anxiously attached consumers, relational stimuli in ads results in lower likelihood of purchasing the advertised product (MRelationship = 4.86, MNoRelationship = 5.54, p b 0.05). These results did not differ when participant's gender, age, and response to whether or not they were currently in a relationship were included as covariates. Overall, the findings from study 1 support the prediction that individuals' attachment styles are associated with their likelihood of purchasing products shown in ads that portray an interpersonal relationship. Specifically, anxiously (vs. securely) attached individuals are less likely to purchase products shown in relational ads. In addition, anxiously attached individuals are more likely to purchase products shown in non-relational (vs. relational) ads. Study 2 is designed to test the prediction that feelings of fit mediate the relationship between the interactive effect of ad type and attachment style on purchase likelihood. Study 2 also examines whether the effects found in study 1 can be generalized to non-romantic relationships. Specifically, study 2 uses a different form of relational stimuli (i.e., friends, rather than a romantic couple). It is expected that securely attached individuals are more likely than their anxiously attached counterparts to purchase products shown in ads that depict a relationship, and that this effect is mediated by feelings of fit regarding the product in comparison to oneself. Fig. 2 shows the model tested in study 2, along with the results detailed below. 2.5. Participants, procedure, and stimuli One hundred and twenty seven (42% female) US adults participated in study 2 as part of an Mturk study. Participants were randomly assigned to an experimental condition, in which they were shown one of two ads (non-relational vs. relational) for a period of 20 s. North Face ads were selected as the stimuli based on consumer knowledge, familiarity, and gender relevance (Martin et al., 2008). The ads (as shown 1 The Thomson et al. (2012) scale is a subset of the Collins and Read (1990) Adult Attachment Scale, which was developed as a two-dimensional extension of the Hazan and Shaver (1987) discrete categorical assessment (secure, anxious, avoidant) of attachment style in romantic relationships. The Thomson et al. (2012) scale is not only more parsimonious, but it has also been validated in a consumption context. Similar to studies by Swaminathan et al. (2009; studies 2 and 3) and Cho and White (2013), which focused upon a single dimension of attachment styles, the present research focuses on the anxiety dimension. However, we also assessed attachment avoidance (α = 0.84), using the 5-item measure by Thomson et al. (2012) and ran analyses where it was included as a control. The main effect of avoidance was non-significant, and it did not impact the results presented.
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Purchase Likelihood 7 6
p < .05
p < .05
5
Anxious
4
Secure
3 2 1
No Relationship in Ad
Relationship in Ad
Fig. 1. Study 1 results showing differences in purchase likelihood.
in the Appendix) were presented in color and with similar low-level properties (e.g., size, pixel resolution) (Vrtička et al., 2012). After viewing the ad, purchase likelihood was assessed using the same 7-point scale as in study 1. Next, participants completed a short distracting task. The proposed mediator, perceived fit, was then assessed using an established 3-item measure which asks participants to indicate, using three 7-point Likert scales, the extent to which they feel like the product shown in the ad is “not compatible with me—compatible with me”, “very much unlike me—very much like me”, and “not a good fit for me—a good fit for me” (α = 0.92) (Belch & Landon, 1977; Sirgy, 1982). Research has shown that this measure of perceived fit between a product and oneself is distinct from measures of purchase likelihood and behavioral intentions (Belch & Landon, 1977; Landon, 1974). Next, participants completed a filler task before starting an ostensibly unrelated study in which attachment style was assessed using the Thomson et al. (2012) 5-item measure of attachment anxiety (α = 0.87). Lastly, participants responded to demographic questions, as well as a manipulation check for the ad. The results showed support for the manipulation of ad type (relational vs non-relational), as more participants in the relational (vs. non-relational) condition indicated that the ad they viewed showed (vs. did not show) a relationship (χ2(1) = 77.46, p b 0.01).
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tests at ±1SD of the mean attachment score revealed two significant comparisons (see Fig. 3). Specifically, when exposed to an ad that depicts relational stimuli, securely attached individuals report greater likelihood of purchasing the product than anxiously attached individuals (MSecure = 5.03, MAnxious = 4.24, p b 0.05). Similarly, among anxiously attached consumers, relational stimuli in ads results in lower likelihood of purchasing the advertised product (MRelationship = 4.24, MNoRelationship = 5.04, p b 0.05). Next, the Preacher and Hayes (2008) PROCESS Model 8 was used to test the prediction that feelings of fit regarding an advertised product mediate the relationship between the interactive effect of attachment style and ad type on purchase likelihood. First, a regression (F(3, 2 123) = 3.43, p b 0.05, R = 0.08) with attachment style, ad type, and the interaction of these variables as the predictors and perceived fit as the dependent variable revealed a significant interactive effect of attachment style and ad type (b = − 0.37, p b 0.05); the main effects were non-significant. Post-hoc tests (+/−1SD of the mean attachment score) revealed two significant comparisons. Specifically, when exposed to an ad that depicts relational stimuli, securely attached individuals report greater fit with the advertised product than anxiously attached individuals (MSecure = 4.51, MAnxious = 3.63, p b 0.01). Similarly, among anxiously attached consumers, relational stimuli in ads results in less feelings of fit with the advertised product (MRelationship = 3.65, MNoRelationship = 4.35, p b 0.05). Importantly, a bootstrap analysis (Preacher & Hayes, 2008) revealed that the interactive effect of ad type and attachment style on purchase likelihood is mediated by perceptions of fit. Specifically, perceived fit has a significant, positive effect on purchase likelihood (b = 0.81, t = 10.92, p b 0.01), and the indirect effect of the attachment style × ad type interaction on purchase likelihood through perceived fit is significant (b = −0.30, SE = 0.156, 95% CI [− 6.16, − 0.022]). Of note, the above results did not differ when participant's gender, age, and response to whether or not they were currently in a relationship were included as covariates. Overall, the results of study 2 support the prediction that securely (vs. anxiously) attached individuals are more likely to purchase products shown in relational ads. In addition, anxiously attached individuals are more likely to purchase products shown in non-relational (vs. relational) ads. Importantly, the results support the prediction that the interactive effect of ad type and attachment style on purchase likelihood is mediated by perceptions of fit of the advertised product with oneself.
2.6. Results and discussion 3. General discussion A moderated regression analysis was conducted to test the prediction that attachment style and ad type interact in the prediction of purchase likelihood (F(3, 123) = 2.46, p = 0.06, R2 = 0.06). As predicted, the interactive effect of attachment style and ad type was significant (b = −0.41, p b 0.05); the main effects were non-significant. Post-hoc
The research presented herein reveals a key factor influencing consumer responses to a common advertising practice, namely portraying interpersonal relationships, or “happy togetherness” in ads (Cavanaugh, 2014). The results of two studies demonstrate that
Fig. 2. Study 2 conceptual model with empirical results.
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Purchase Likelihood 7 6
P< .05
p < .05
5
Anxious
4
Secure
3 2 1
No Relationship in Ad
Relationship in Ad
Fig. 3. Study 3 results showing differences in purchase likelihood.
individuals' attachment styles are associated with their evaluations of products shown in ads that portray an interpersonal relationship, albeit a romantic partnership or a friendship. In addition, one important process underlying the interactive effect of ad type (relational vs. non-relational) and attachment style on purchase likelihood relates to consumer perceptions of the extent to which the advertised product fits with oneself. Specifically, products shown in ads which portray a relationship are more likely to be viewed as being a better fit with oneself among securely (vs. anxiously) attached individuals, and these products are more likely to be purchased by securely (vs. anxiously) attached individuals. Similarly, exposure to ads that an depict interpersonal relationship is negatively associated with anxiously attached consumers' perceptions that the advertised product is a good fit for them, and lesser feelings of fit decrease their propensity to purchase the product (David, 2016; Kressmann et al., 2006; Sirgy, 1982). Importantly, these results were found across different product categories and for various forms of relational advertisements. The current research extends existing literature on the impact of relationship reminders on consumers (Cavanaugh, 2014). Specifically, the results reveal that attachment style is a key factor associated with consumers' likelihood of purchasing products shown in ads that portray relational stimuli. The present research also contributes to the literature on the value derived from “fit” between an external stimulus and a consumer's internal mind-set. For example, extant research has shown the benefits of fit between consumers' regulatory focus orientation and the message frame (e.g., promotion-framed messages fit better with promotion focused individuals, Higgins, 1998). The present research contributes to this literature by introducing a new type of fit associated with the effectiveness of advertisements, namely, “attachment-fit”, or fit between a consumer's attachment style and the stimuli shown in ads (i.e., relational vs. non-relational). Specifically, ads which depict a happy interpersonal relationship are more effective among securely attached consumers who value interpersonal relationships.
3.1. Practical implications The present research offers several actionable implications. Perhaps most generally, the findings suggest that practitioners should consider the predictive power of attachment styles. Although an individual's attachment style may not always be known, marketers, for example, can segment customers based on demographic correlates of attachment style and then tailor marketing efforts accordingly. Extant research has shown that attachment anxiety is generally negatively related to age, income and marital status (David, 2016). It is also important to consider certain overt signs that may be indicative of a particular attachment style (Thomson et al., 2012).
The current research also underscores the importance of understanding how the common practice of depicting relationships in ads can have negative consequences on important consumer outcomes (Cavanaugh, 2014). Although communications which feature relationships may be effective among securely attached individuals they may be harmful among anxiously attached individuals. Thus, managers could benefit from identifying their target markets' attachment styles and tailoring communications accordingly. For example, relational images should be most effective among securely attached individuals, who tend to be older and have higher income levels. Conversely, advertisements aimed at younger, lower income individuals, who are generally more anxiously attached, are likely more effective if they do not depict a relationship. Importantly, our research demonstrates these effects across both romantic and nonromantic relationships. The findings presented may also provide direction for public policy campaigns aimed at discouraging undesirable behaviors (e.g., underage drinking). Specifically, the findings suggest that when trying to deter teenagers or young adults, who again tend to be anxiously attached, from engaging in undesirable behaviors, public policy makers should use non-relational advertisements that promote the related healthy behaviors (e.g., waiting until the legal age to drink alcohol). Normative ads which portray groups of people together, however, are unlikely to have a positive impact on this segment of individuals. The present research may also shed light on an increasingly common strategy which involves designing campaigns and marketing materials around making consumers feel better about themselves. For example, the Dove soap brand created the Real Beauty Campaign to help women feel comfortable in their own skin. Campaigns such as this may be particularly effective among anxiously attached consumers. Specifically, advertisements which focus on individual well-being or enjoyment, as opposed to relational ads such as those that depict happy togetherness (Cavanaugh, 2014), may be particularly effective among anxiously attached individuals.
3.2. Limitations and future research Several limitations of the current research may serve as fruitful directions for future research. Although the relational advertising stimuli used in the current studies allowed for generalizability of the findings across romantic and non-romantic relationships, it should be noted that our findings may not generalize to other forms of relational ads, such as those which depict less traditional, more egalitarian relationships. Similarly, the current studies used relatively happy relationships as the relational stimuli. Although this is the most common type of relationship portrayed in marketing materials (Cavanaugh, 2014), there may be instances when unhealthy relationships are portrayed (e.g., a couple in need of therapy, a selfish friend, a preoccupied mother). Anxiously attached individuals may perceive greater fit with ads that portray unhappy, anxious relationships. Future research would need to examine this possibility. Relatedly, extant research on advertisements explains that emotions expressed through facial expressions can influence consumers' prosocial behavior (Landwehr, McGill, & Herrmann, 2011). Thus, future research could examine how facial expressions shown in ads could impact consumers' perceptions of the extent to which products fit with themselves, as well as the potential moderating role of attachment styles. It is likely that charitable advertisements which portray victims with lonely facial expressions may result in greater prosocial behavior among individuals with highly anxious attachment styles. Finally, the present research focused on the anxious dimension of attachment style. Future research would be needed to understand how attachment avoidance, including the fearful and dismissive attachment styles, are associated with consumer evaluations of products shown in relational ads.
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Appendix A
STUDY 1 AD STIMULI Ad without Relational Stimuli:
Ad with Relational Stimuli:
STUDY 2 AD STIMULI
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