- Email: [email protected]
The role of objectives in curriculum development
J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14 www.elsevier.com/locate/jaccedu
Main articles
The role of objectives in curriculum development Hartwell C. Herring III*, Jan R. Williams Department of Accounting and Business Law, College of Business Administration, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0560, USA
Abstract This paper presents the case that continuous improvement in curriculum eectiveness should be based on a curriculum structure derived from a set of explicitly stated objectives. Although previous research on expanded competencies and assessment describes new curricula at a few institutions, little guidance has been provided that describes how to develop curricula that focus on these expanded competencies. We believe that it is possible to make signi®cant strides in improving curricula in this way. An example for a curriculum structure that includes a business core, an accounting core, and a specialization area in a master of accountancy degree is provided in the paper. Our suggested approach involves specifying goals for the educational program, followed by stating assessable objectives for program subsets. One implication of such a curriculum structure is that assessment must take place primarily at the course level. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The purpose of this paper is to provide a framework that can be used to restructure curricula based upon the so-called expanded competencies that have been identi®ed in the assessment research related to accounting education. The paper shows how a set of learning objectives, formulated from a taxonomy of desired educational outcomes, can be organized to allow the educational process * Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-423-974-2551; fax: +1-423-974-4631. E-mail address: [email protected] (H.C. Herring III). 0748-5751/00/$ - see front matter 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 7 4 8 - 5 7 5 1 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 0 4 - X
2
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
to focus on these objectives. Also discussed in the paper are some ways a curriculum committee can facilitate the implementation and continuous management of the resulting curriculum. 2. Previous research The idea that curricula should be objectives driven comes from assessment research, and supports the position that accounting curricula should focus on a broader range of outcomes than would be emphasized in a strict disciplineoriented format. Assessment research became an important issue for accounting educators as external forces began to demand evidence of quality in return for funding support. These external forces manifested themselves in two ways. First, private sector groups, such as alumni and employers, communicated their concerns about the narrow focus of accounting education to everyone who would listen, but particularly to the leadership of the academic community. Two widely cited papers, the so-called Bedford Report and the Perspectives Paper captured the essence of the concerns of these groups (American Accounting Association, 1986; Perspectives on Educational Capabilities for Success in the Accounting Profession, 1989). Second, individuals and groups in both the public and private sectors began to demand evidence of quality in return for continuing and/or increased funding support. By 1990, the American Council on Education estimated that more than 80% of all colleges in the United States had some type of assessment program (Herring & Izard, 1992). The goal of assessment at the institution level was to attempt to measure value added in the educational process. At the program or department level, the focus of assessment narrows and is more concerned with whether educational objectives are being achieved. One response to the ``narrow focus'' criticism was research to identify the socalled expanded competencies Ð a broader set of educational outcomes, including outcomes related to professional development, interpersonal skills, and communication skills that accounting graduates should have. Deppe, Sonderegger, Stice, Clark and Streuling (1991), developed a taxonomy of ``Emerging Competencies for the Practice of Accountancy'' based on literature from a variety of ®elds and a survey of three groups of professional accountants. Their list of outcomes consists of 27 items (see Appendix A) within seven major categories. Of the 27 competencies speci®ed, only items 12 through 15 are directly concerned with acquisition of accounting knowledge. In surveys of accounting professionals, these authors found that only two (items 12 and 13) of the ®ve most important competencies learned primarily in undergraduate programs (items 1, 2, 12, 13, and 16) are accounting knowledge items. They also found that none of the ®ve most important competencies primarily learned in graduate programs (items 1, 2, 16, 19, and 22) are accounting knowledge items (Deppe et al., 1991, pp. 281±282). Identi®cation of these competencies was crucial to progress toward objectives based curriculum because subordinate learning objectives in an objectives based curriculum are based on these competencies. (Erwin, 1991).
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
3
3. Barriers to change The message of the outcomes and assessment research is that the accounting educational process must change. The textbook-driven, individual course, discipline oriented curriculum should be replaced with programs whose primary objective is student acquisition of the skills and competencies needed for entry into the profession Ð a curriculum driven by objectives. The kind of change suggested by the Bedford Report, the Perspectives Paper, and the Deppe et al. (1991) emerging competencies paper was not immediately embraced, however, by the academic community, as evidenced by the pace with which reaction has occurred. As background to our primary purpose of promoting the idea of an objectives-based curriculum, it is important to brie¯y discuss the following barriers to change: (1) assessment mandates; (2) faculty orientation; and (3) teaching materials. Colleges and universities initially reacted to the accountability trend in higher education by establishing assessment programs. Faced with the requirement to react quickly, the typical response was to gather evidence that could be obtained through the use of surveys or interviews (of students, alumni, recruiters), student portfolios, and exit examinations. Some research has been published on the results of these eorts (Herring & Izard, 1992; DeMong, Lindgren & Perry, 1994; Allen & Bycio, 1997; Hill, Perry & Stein, 1998). This research has shown that any particular assessment technique is only useful for a limited number and type of outcomes. Another problem with assessment mandates as they have been formulated is that they sometimes place too much emphasis on achievement within the major to the exclusion of other important educational outcomes. This type of narrow focus has been a particular characteristic of state-mandated assessment programs for public institutions. A better approach is for the assessment eort to encompass the full range of educational outcomes rather than being con®ned to those related to the major ®eld of study. Curriculum change is inhibited by the strong discipline orientation of many accounting faculty. The reward structure in academe gives primary recognition to research productivity, particularly in academic journals that publish scholarly research related to a particular discipline area (Street & Baril, 1994)1. The natural result of this reward structure is a strengthening of faculty interest in disciplineoriented research as compared to education research and teaching. Stevens and Stevens (1992) found that only one of 400 faculty members at the top 20 US schools had written a dissertation on an education subject. Their research further shows that 44 of 75 US universities oering accounting doctorates ``neither required nor oered any training or teaching in educational research''. Finally, the discipline orientation evident in the doctoral preparation and
1 The AACSB accreditation standards (American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business, (1994) for doctoral programs require that the teaching role be addressed. However, the seriousness with which this requirement is taken is open to question.
4
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
research orientation of accounting faculty is also evident in accounting textbooks. Textbooks in intermediate accounting provide an example. In the United States, intermediate accounting is often the ®rst course taken by students who intend to earn a bachelors degree in accounting. While intermediate accounting books vary somewhat in terms of rigor and depth, a review of the table of contents of some of the leading books reveals a strong discipline orientation. Their purpose is to provide the user with a well-organized exposition of technical subjects. A book of this type is indispensable to ecient delivery of a traditional, technically-oriented course Ð a practice that persists in spite of the evidence that a broad based outcomes approach to curricula is more appropriate for modern business education. If textbooks were written with an awareness of the importance of expanded competencies in the students' education, they would be more likely to contain material that reinforces and facilitates development of those competencies2. May, Windal and Sylvestre (1995), however, report that only about 45% of the accounting faculty surveyed support abandonment of the textbook-driven, ruledbased approach as the primary means of instruction for accounting classes. 4. Objectives-driven curriculum Included among the principles of good practice for assessment is the idea that `` . . . assessment works best when the programs it seeks to improve have clear, explicitly stated purposes.'' (Gainen & Locatelli, 1995, p. 15). These statements of desired learning outcomes should be expressed in a form that allows measurement. Statements in terms of acquiring knowledge, understanding or appreciation may provide general direction to faculty in developing instruction, but may leave students uncertain about how to approach course material. Objectives should specify the required performance expected of students. According to Gainen and Locatelli, well-de®ned objectives simplify the selection and design of methods for measuring learning outcomes, and they should answer the following questions. . Content Ð what do students need to know about the subject? . Action Ð how do we want students to use the knowledge? . Context Ð under what circumstances will students be expected to demonstrate their knowledge? . Performance Ð by what standards will students' performance be judged? (Gainen & Locatelli, 1995, p. 51) While some of these objectives will be technical, the curriculum we envision will place a greater emphasis on student development of expanded competencies such as communication skills, decision making skills and the other categories shown in 2
The real problem may not be textbooks, but the desire of the faculty to continue to teach in the manner to which they have become accustomed. Recent editions of many books include a broader range of assignment materials and other material designed to facilitate the use of higher order thinking and to facilitate discussion Ð but the changes are more evolutionary than revolutionary.
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
5
Table 1 A Master of Accountancy program with three components Program component Business core Ð courses outside the accounting discipline that are required of all students in the program Accounting core Ð courses in the accounting discipline that are required of all students in the program Accounting concentration Ð alternative courses of study of which the student selects one Ð auditing/consulting, information systems, tax Total semester hours
Semester hours 9 6 15 30
Appendix A. The concept of an objectives-driven curriculum allows ¯exibility in content and structure as objectives change, and we therefore do not prescribe a uniform framework that will be appropriate for every institution. However, we do believe that the end result of an objectives-driven curriculum will be a more diverse curriculum structure than is common at present. In particular, we envision the development of integrated courses particularly in the business core areas. Other courses with more narrow technical content may continue to have a more traditional structure. 4.1. Goals and objectives The starting point for changing from a curriculum structure which is textbook/ subject driven to one which is competency driven is for the faculty to collectively identify the outcomes on which they wish to focus (such as those in Appendix A). The next step is to structure the educational program in a way that allows speci®cation of program goals and curriculum/course objectives. Based on the research we have available, the curriculum and course objectives would be formulated with the goal of fostering students' development of a set of competencies such as those suggested in Appendix A. However, each faculty should formulate their plan in light of the needs of their students, the research mission of the institution, and available ®nancial and human resources3. The approach is one of moving from the general (a list of desired competencies) to the speci®c (course objectives). In this section, we illustrate this process by considering a Master of Accountancy program that has three components as shown in Table 14.
3 For a discussion of the process of setting objectives for curricula and their role in outcome assessment see Erwin, 1991, Chapter 3. 4 The program components described in this section are modeled in part after the Master of Accountancy program at The University of Tennessee, although the approach described in this paper has not been fully implemented in this program.
6
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
4.1.1. Program goals We use the term ``program goals'' for those statements that specify the general nature of the subject matter to be mastered along with the skills to be gained and the reasons these skills are necessary. Program goals serve as a basis for the more speci®c learning objectives at the component and course levels of the curriculum. Two program goals might be: . develop broad-based business knowledge that is integrated with advanced accounting work, delivered in a business advisory framework; . develop skills required for success in professional accounting: written and oral communications, interviewing, negotiation, analysis, teamwork, and information technology. The ®rst program goal indicates that students are expected to master a body of knowledge which involves the study of business within an advisory framework, and that this study of business is to be integrated with the study of accounting. The second program goal focuses on skill development, including those skills that research indicates are the most important for success in professional accounting. These skill areas have a particularly pronounced impact on the objectives, and therefore the activities, of speci®c courses that make up the curriculum. 4.1.2. Business core objectives The business core is an integrated study of marketing, ®nance, and management subjects designed to facilitate accomplishment of the business knowledge program goal. Specifying objectives for the set of courses comprising the business core involves consideration of whether the skills outcomes listed in the program goals are to be integrated into the courses or taught as separate elements. One alternative approach is a compromise between these two choices. For example, some leading MBA programs in the United States engage communications professors to teach courses in communications to MBA students. Subsequent courses in the curriculum then reinforce knowledge of communications fundamentals by incorporating activities that require the use of those skills in the study of business and accounting. Thus, business core objectives in our model curriculum would be met by activities of an integrated nature that seek to build core business skills. Following are examples of such objectives, based on the integrative case study approach to be used throughout the business core: . students will be able to explain the ways that new business ventures can be ®nanced; . students will be able to design a plan for an initial public oering for a simulated business case; . students will be able to describe the types of foreign exchange risk commonly encountered in connection with international business The above are only examples, although they do contain important elements that must be present in objectives statements. The primary factor is that objectives
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
7
statements should make use of action verbs that are subject to a reasonable level of measurement. In the above example the keywords are explain, design, describe Ð all words that are suciently speci®c to allow assessment to occur. Speci®cation of an objective with words such as appreciate or be aware of is too vague to allow any real degree of measurement (Erwin, 1991, p. 45). If we specify that students are to explain something, we should be able to conduct assessments that help determine whether the objective is being achieved. 4.1.3. Accounting core objectives The accounting core focuses on building those competencies that all accounting students should possess without regard to their area of concentration. Similar to the objectives described in Section 4.1.2. for the business core, objectives of the accounting core are based on the assumption that the educational process will be an integrative process involving learning activities that reinforce skills development while learning business and accounting. One approach that can be taken is to divide topics to be studied into two or three levels. For example, a core ®nancial accounting course for students in our masters program might consist of a set of topics studied on three dierent levels. . Level A Ð foundation and review Ð relating the subject to other reporting issues, discussing basic principles, and compensating for dierences in background from previous courses. . Level B Ð advanced technical applications Ð technical applications of the subject are studied with the objective of preparing students to apply the accounting principles to reporting issues described in case problems. . Level C Ð integration Ð researching authoritative literature; study of cases where accounting principles, economic consequences, alternatives to GAAP, and business environment are considered in a recommended reporting solution. Thus one objective of the accounting core might be: . Students will be able to research authoritative literature and apply the required disclosures for reporting comprehensive income in simulated ®nancial reporting situations. The ideal scenario is for students to be involved in the study of advanced technical material, with knowledge being acquired in a manner that builds and reinforces a broader set of competencies. This approach suggests that ®nancial reporting cases would be the primary instructional tool. Courses in the accounting core may, by necessity, be topic-oriented in nature with the syllabus structured around the topic to be learned. However this constraint does not mean that certain skill type competencies cannot form an integral part of the learning experience, as long as the instructional materials require integration of business knowledge and the use of communication and other skills in the case solutions. 4.1.4. Concentration objectives As indicated above, our example curriculum is a Master of Accountancy
8
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
program with alternative concentrations. In addition to completing the business core and accounting core sequences, students take several courses in a concentration. In our model curriculum, these courses may be chosen from three alternative areas: Auditing and Consulting; Taxation; and Information Systems. Objectives for the concentration component of the curriculum should be derived from objectives for the other curriculum components and should contribute to meeting the program objectives. For example, the objectives of the Auditing and Consulting component of the curriculum could include: . students can design and write an audit plan for a business entity's ®nancial statements; . students can evaluate capital project alternatives using analytical procedures and write recommendations that rank alternatives and describe their relative merit. 4.1.5. Course objectives When compared with the core level, courses at the concentration level could retain more of the ¯avor of traditional subject-oriented, textbook-driven courses, but they may also involve activities which relate the subject matter to the social, political, economic, and cultural forces that aect business. For example, in the study of ®nancial instruments, a topic in the ®nancial accounting core, attention would be devoted to the economic principles that explain the dierences between spot rates and forward rates in forward exchange. Example objectives for the study of forward exchange contracts would be: . Students will be able to explain how foreign exchange risk is related to foreign investment decisions and to import and export transactions. . Students will be able to design appropriate risk management strategies for short and long-term investments denominated in foreign currency. . Students will be able to analyze, record, and prepare ®nancial statement disclosures for ®nancial instruments purchased to hedge the risk associated with foreign exchange assets and liabilities. To recapitulate this approach to specifying objectives for a program, Appendix B summarizes in hierarchical form the goals identi®ed for the program, the learning objectives of the program's major components, and the courses that make up the curriculum. The program goals are the statements that direct the faculty in specifying learning objectives. The objectives of the three primary segments of the program are more speci®c and are consistent with the program goals. Even more speci®c are the objectives for each course in the curriculum. 4.2. Syllabi development Curriculum and course objectives allow the development of syllabi from the objectives statements rather than simply basing syllabi on textbook content. In eect, the content of a course is determined by reference to the curriculum and
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
9
course objectives. The subjects to be studied and the depth of understanding are stated in the learning objectives. Every major learning objective should have at least one student activity designed to foster achievement of that objective. Ideally, all objectives would also be assessed. Although time constraints may limit the number of assessment activities that can be conducted, an assessment plan that varies the objectives actually assessed from one term to the next can also be used. Precisely stating each learning objective facilitates selection of student assignments and activities relevant to it. Consider the following objective from our previous discussion: . students will be able to design a plan for an initial public oering for a simulated business case. This objective clearly could be met through a case activity. Even if the word ``case'' were omitted from the objective, the nature of the objective is such that a case activity would be an appropriate means of learning how to design a ®nancing plan for an initial public oering. A group presentation could be used for further learning reinforcement and as a means of student assessment.
5. Managing the objectives-based curriculum For an objectives oriented curriculum to be successful, everyone involved in the process must be a willing participant. Included in the process of developing an objectives-based curriculum are students, external constituents, faculty, and administrators, with faculty exercising a leadership role in the process. In order to work toward achieving a set of common objectives, greater cooperation and interaction among faculty is required than in the traditional subjectoriented approach to teaching. Otherwise, some outcomes will receive much attention in courses and student activities while others will receive insucient attention. Extensive interaction among faculty regarding curriculum design was not required as long as the curriculum was organized strictly according to subject matter. Developing an objectives-based curriculum, however, requires a much higher level of interaction among faculty. One approach to accomplish this goal is through the creation of a curriculum and assessment committee whose charge is to: . Oversee the construction of a set of program goals and curriculum objectives, and assess their continued relevance. Setting these goals and objectives collectively helps assure that they are emphasized appropriately in the curriculum in terms of intensity, frequency, and balance.
10
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
An objectives-based curriculum should be designed in a cross-walk framework that allows the faculty to know where and how outcomes are being emphasized and assessed in the curriculum. Ideally, some balance would be achieved whereby all of the major categories of outcomes are getting an appropriate level of emphasis, and speci®c activities are such that students are engaged in a variety of projects whose objectives are to foster intellectual, behavioral, and aective development. A second function of the curriculum committee is to: . Gather evidence on outcome achievement on a periodic basis, and report this information to all colleagues. Such a report would be most eective if done in a written and oral presentation format. One appropriate approach might be for the committee to prepare a paper to be presented annually in a traditional seminar format. This report could serve as a catalyst for faculty discussion and decisions about the future direction of the curriculum. Outcomes assessment is not likely to be successful if it is viewed solely as an exit process using a combination of questionnaires and exit examinations. Successful assessment requires a more integrated approach. Although useful information can be gathered in an exit context, many of the most important educational outcomes can best be evaluated in connection with the smallest discrete element in a curriculum Ð the individual course. Hence it is incumbent upon faculty, both collectively and individually, to assure that all speci®ed objectives are covered. An important role of a curriculum and assessment committee, as suggested above, is to facilitate assessment of the objectives throughout the educational process5. From a practical standpoint, every relevant outcome cannot be assessed in every course, every year. Thus, one role of the curriculum and assessment committee would be to assure that a balance is achieved between information need and practicality. A ®nal, dicult issue in focusing the curriculum on goals and objectives is the requirement that students be graded. Extensive research leads to the inevitable conclusion that grades are poor predictors of almost anything else but other grades (Williams, Tiller, Herring & Scheiner, 1988, p. 104). It is paradoxical that we often act as if that were not the case. Certainly both students and recruiters behave as if they believe future opportunities and professional success are related to the grades students receive. At least part of the problem with grades may be that they do not serve to support the learning process, but are simply the result of whatever assessments students are required to undergo. Grades result from performance on a set of assessment activities, including quizzes and examinations, papers, reports, projects, and orals. Students are evaluated and given a grade based upon relative performance level Ð a norm-referenced approach. We
5 For an expanded discussion of the nature of outcomes assessment in the context of accounting curricula, see Herring and Izard. 1992, pp. 2±4.
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
11
emphasize the word relative because, ultimately, college grades are an assessment of relative performance. We may view the grading process as one of comparison with an absolute standard, but that is almost never the case. Norm-referenced grading makes the grade the ultimate objective of the study process, with learning important only in so far as it aects the grade. Learning is done to receive a grade rather than having students receive a grade as the result of having learned. Upon ®rst glance, this metaphor may seem like circular reasoning, but it is not. In order for grades to serve the learning process, grading must become an activity that is tied to a decision about whether a student has achieved learning objectives. In order to measure achievement we must have speci®ed, in the form of learning objectives, what it is that the student should have learned. In this environment, grades become the result of having achieved a speci®c level of accomplishment. In the context of comparing student performance on assessment activities with the objectives we have set for them, we can make the grading process more of a comparison with an absolute standard. One result of this process would likely be fewer levels of dierentiation, a result consistent with substantial evidence suggesting that attempts to identify more than about three or four levels of dierentiation is impossible given the crudeness of the measurement methods (Milton, Pollio & Eison, 1986, pp. 201±218).
6. Conclusion This paper presents a case for increasing emphasis on expanded competencies in accounting education by designing a curriculum based on program goals and curriculum objectives. Such a process allows a faculty to view a student's education as a process of acquiring traditional discipline-oriented knowledge as well as developing expanded competencies, resulting in students who are better prepared for a professional career. An orientation toward a broader set of goals and objectives will impact the level of required faculty interaction regarding curriculum matters Ð principally in terms of requiring an increased level of awareness of activities in which colleagues are engaged. One element of infrastructure that may be needed is a curriculum and assessment committee whose task is to facilitate the communication process among the faculty. The work of this committee would include assuring that all relevant outcomes are appropriately emphasized within the curriculum and that assessment data are gathered and disseminated to the faculty. Implementing a curriculum such as the one we have described will be challenging and will require that the faculty view their role more as members of a team and less as individual scholars. The ultimate test of success of accounting education in the 21st century will not be individual accomplishment but collective accomplishment. Success will be measured by how well a program has contributed to the students' education. Other accomplishments will be important mainly based upon whether they support this primary objective.
12
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
Appendix A. Emerging competencies required for the practice of accountancy (Deppe et al., 1991) Communications skills 1. Present views in writing 2. Present views through oral presentation 3. Read, critique, and judge the value and contribution of written work 4. Listen eectively 5. Understand interpersonal and group dynamics Information development and distribution skills 6. Understand the role of information technology in solving business and accounting problems 7. Understand the system development life cycle to plan, design, implement, and evaluate an information system 8. Eectively apply fundamental programming skills to typical business problems Decision making skills 9. Solve diverse and unstructured problems in unfamiliar settings 10. Induce general conclusions from speci®c situations 11. Select and assign priorities within restricted resources Knowledge of accounting auditing and tax 12. Possess a knowledge of the purpose and elements of ®nancial statements 13. Understand the fundamentals of accounting, auditing, and tax 14. Know methods of gathering, summarizing, and analyzing ®nancial data 15. Apply decision rules embodied in the accounting model Knowledge of business and the environment 16. Understand the economic, social, and cultural forces in the world 17. Know how typical business organizations work and are managed 18. Possess a knowledge of ®nancial markets and funding institutions Professionalism 19. Identify ethical issues and apply my own values to them 20. Motivation to continue lifelong learning 21. Deal eectively with imposed pressures Leadership development 22. Work eectively with diverse groups of people 23. Organize and delegate tasks 24. Motivate other people 25. Resolve con¯ict 26. Understand methods of creating and managing change within an organization 27. Use data, exercise judgments, evaluate risks, and solve real-world problems
Appendix B. Curriculum objectives hierarchy
Business core objectives (examples)
Accounting Core Objectives (Example)
. Students will be able to explain the ways that new business ventures can be ®nanced. . Students will be able to design a plan for an initial public oering for a simulated business case. . Students will be able to describe the types of foreign exchange risk commonly encountered in connection with international business.
. Students will be able to research authoritative literature and apply the required disclosures for reporting comprehensive income in simulated ®nancial reporting situations.
Concentration objectives (examples) . Students can design and write an audit plan for a business entity. . Students can evaluate capital project alternatives using analytical procedures and write recommendations that rank alternatives and describe their relative merit. Individual course objectives (For each course, unique objectives are written that are consistent with the program goals, and the business core, accounting core, and concentration objectives)
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
Program goals (examples) . Develop broad-based business knowledge that is integrated with advanced accounting work, delivered in a business advisory framework. . Develop skills required for success in professional accounting: written and oral communications, interviewing, negotiation, analysis, teamwork, and computer work.
13
14
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
References Allen, J., & Bycio, P. (1997). An evaluation of the educational testing service major ®eld achievement test in business. Journal of Accounting Education, 15, 503±514. American Accounting Association (1986). Committee on the future structure, content, and scope of accounting education. Future accounting education: preparing for the expanding profession. Issues in Accounting Education, 1, 168±195. American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (1994). Achieving quality and continuous improvement through self-evaluation and review: standards for accreditation. AACSB. DeMong, R., Lindgren, J., & Perry, S. (1994). Designing an assessment program for accounting. Issues in Accounting Education, 9, 11±27. Deppe, L., Sonderegger, E., Stice, J., Clark, D., & Streuling, G. (1991). Emerging competencies for the practice of accountancy. Journal of Accounting Education, 9, 257±290. Erwin, T. (1991). Assessing student learning and development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Gainen, J., & Locatelli, P. (1995). Assessment for the new curriculum: a guide for professional accounting programs. Sarasota, FL: American Accounting Association. Herring, H., & Izard, C. (1992). Outcomes assessment of accounting majors. Issues in Accounting Education, 7, 1±17. Hill, N., Perry, S., & Stein, D. (1998). Using accounting student surveys in an outcomes assessment program. Issues in Accounting Education, 13, 65±78. May, G., Windal, F., & Sylvestre, J. (1995). The need for change in accounting education: an educator survey. Journal of Accounting Education, 13, 21±43. Milton, O., Pollio, H., & Eison, J. (1986). Making sense of college grades. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Perspectives on Educational Capabilities for Success in the Accounting Profession (1989). New York: Arthur Andersen & Co., Arthur Young, Coopers & Lybrand, Deloitte Haskins & Sells, Ernst & Whinney, Peat Marwick Main & Co., Price Waterhouse, and Touche Ross. Street, D., & Baril, C. (1994). Scholarly accomplishments in promotion and tenure decisions of accounting faculty. Journal of Accounting Education, 12, 121±139. Stevens, K., & Stevens, W. (1992). Evidence on the extent of training in teaching and education research. Journal of Accounting Education, 10, 271±283. Williams, J., Tiller, M., Herring, H., & Scheiner, J. (1988). A framework for the development of accounting education research. Sarasota, FL: American Accounting Association.
Main articles
The role of objectives in curriculum development Hartwell C. Herring III*, Jan R. Williams Department of Accounting and Business Law, College of Business Administration, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0560, USA
Abstract This paper presents the case that continuous improvement in curriculum eectiveness should be based on a curriculum structure derived from a set of explicitly stated objectives. Although previous research on expanded competencies and assessment describes new curricula at a few institutions, little guidance has been provided that describes how to develop curricula that focus on these expanded competencies. We believe that it is possible to make signi®cant strides in improving curricula in this way. An example for a curriculum structure that includes a business core, an accounting core, and a specialization area in a master of accountancy degree is provided in the paper. Our suggested approach involves specifying goals for the educational program, followed by stating assessable objectives for program subsets. One implication of such a curriculum structure is that assessment must take place primarily at the course level. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The purpose of this paper is to provide a framework that can be used to restructure curricula based upon the so-called expanded competencies that have been identi®ed in the assessment research related to accounting education. The paper shows how a set of learning objectives, formulated from a taxonomy of desired educational outcomes, can be organized to allow the educational process * Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-423-974-2551; fax: +1-423-974-4631. E-mail address: [email protected] (H.C. Herring III). 0748-5751/00/$ - see front matter 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 7 4 8 - 5 7 5 1 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 0 4 - X
2
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
to focus on these objectives. Also discussed in the paper are some ways a curriculum committee can facilitate the implementation and continuous management of the resulting curriculum. 2. Previous research The idea that curricula should be objectives driven comes from assessment research, and supports the position that accounting curricula should focus on a broader range of outcomes than would be emphasized in a strict disciplineoriented format. Assessment research became an important issue for accounting educators as external forces began to demand evidence of quality in return for funding support. These external forces manifested themselves in two ways. First, private sector groups, such as alumni and employers, communicated their concerns about the narrow focus of accounting education to everyone who would listen, but particularly to the leadership of the academic community. Two widely cited papers, the so-called Bedford Report and the Perspectives Paper captured the essence of the concerns of these groups (American Accounting Association, 1986; Perspectives on Educational Capabilities for Success in the Accounting Profession, 1989). Second, individuals and groups in both the public and private sectors began to demand evidence of quality in return for continuing and/or increased funding support. By 1990, the American Council on Education estimated that more than 80% of all colleges in the United States had some type of assessment program (Herring & Izard, 1992). The goal of assessment at the institution level was to attempt to measure value added in the educational process. At the program or department level, the focus of assessment narrows and is more concerned with whether educational objectives are being achieved. One response to the ``narrow focus'' criticism was research to identify the socalled expanded competencies Ð a broader set of educational outcomes, including outcomes related to professional development, interpersonal skills, and communication skills that accounting graduates should have. Deppe, Sonderegger, Stice, Clark and Streuling (1991), developed a taxonomy of ``Emerging Competencies for the Practice of Accountancy'' based on literature from a variety of ®elds and a survey of three groups of professional accountants. Their list of outcomes consists of 27 items (see Appendix A) within seven major categories. Of the 27 competencies speci®ed, only items 12 through 15 are directly concerned with acquisition of accounting knowledge. In surveys of accounting professionals, these authors found that only two (items 12 and 13) of the ®ve most important competencies learned primarily in undergraduate programs (items 1, 2, 12, 13, and 16) are accounting knowledge items. They also found that none of the ®ve most important competencies primarily learned in graduate programs (items 1, 2, 16, 19, and 22) are accounting knowledge items (Deppe et al., 1991, pp. 281±282). Identi®cation of these competencies was crucial to progress toward objectives based curriculum because subordinate learning objectives in an objectives based curriculum are based on these competencies. (Erwin, 1991).
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
3
3. Barriers to change The message of the outcomes and assessment research is that the accounting educational process must change. The textbook-driven, individual course, discipline oriented curriculum should be replaced with programs whose primary objective is student acquisition of the skills and competencies needed for entry into the profession Ð a curriculum driven by objectives. The kind of change suggested by the Bedford Report, the Perspectives Paper, and the Deppe et al. (1991) emerging competencies paper was not immediately embraced, however, by the academic community, as evidenced by the pace with which reaction has occurred. As background to our primary purpose of promoting the idea of an objectives-based curriculum, it is important to brie¯y discuss the following barriers to change: (1) assessment mandates; (2) faculty orientation; and (3) teaching materials. Colleges and universities initially reacted to the accountability trend in higher education by establishing assessment programs. Faced with the requirement to react quickly, the typical response was to gather evidence that could be obtained through the use of surveys or interviews (of students, alumni, recruiters), student portfolios, and exit examinations. Some research has been published on the results of these eorts (Herring & Izard, 1992; DeMong, Lindgren & Perry, 1994; Allen & Bycio, 1997; Hill, Perry & Stein, 1998). This research has shown that any particular assessment technique is only useful for a limited number and type of outcomes. Another problem with assessment mandates as they have been formulated is that they sometimes place too much emphasis on achievement within the major to the exclusion of other important educational outcomes. This type of narrow focus has been a particular characteristic of state-mandated assessment programs for public institutions. A better approach is for the assessment eort to encompass the full range of educational outcomes rather than being con®ned to those related to the major ®eld of study. Curriculum change is inhibited by the strong discipline orientation of many accounting faculty. The reward structure in academe gives primary recognition to research productivity, particularly in academic journals that publish scholarly research related to a particular discipline area (Street & Baril, 1994)1. The natural result of this reward structure is a strengthening of faculty interest in disciplineoriented research as compared to education research and teaching. Stevens and Stevens (1992) found that only one of 400 faculty members at the top 20 US schools had written a dissertation on an education subject. Their research further shows that 44 of 75 US universities oering accounting doctorates ``neither required nor oered any training or teaching in educational research''. Finally, the discipline orientation evident in the doctoral preparation and
1 The AACSB accreditation standards (American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business, (1994) for doctoral programs require that the teaching role be addressed. However, the seriousness with which this requirement is taken is open to question.
4
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
research orientation of accounting faculty is also evident in accounting textbooks. Textbooks in intermediate accounting provide an example. In the United States, intermediate accounting is often the ®rst course taken by students who intend to earn a bachelors degree in accounting. While intermediate accounting books vary somewhat in terms of rigor and depth, a review of the table of contents of some of the leading books reveals a strong discipline orientation. Their purpose is to provide the user with a well-organized exposition of technical subjects. A book of this type is indispensable to ecient delivery of a traditional, technically-oriented course Ð a practice that persists in spite of the evidence that a broad based outcomes approach to curricula is more appropriate for modern business education. If textbooks were written with an awareness of the importance of expanded competencies in the students' education, they would be more likely to contain material that reinforces and facilitates development of those competencies2. May, Windal and Sylvestre (1995), however, report that only about 45% of the accounting faculty surveyed support abandonment of the textbook-driven, ruledbased approach as the primary means of instruction for accounting classes. 4. Objectives-driven curriculum Included among the principles of good practice for assessment is the idea that `` . . . assessment works best when the programs it seeks to improve have clear, explicitly stated purposes.'' (Gainen & Locatelli, 1995, p. 15). These statements of desired learning outcomes should be expressed in a form that allows measurement. Statements in terms of acquiring knowledge, understanding or appreciation may provide general direction to faculty in developing instruction, but may leave students uncertain about how to approach course material. Objectives should specify the required performance expected of students. According to Gainen and Locatelli, well-de®ned objectives simplify the selection and design of methods for measuring learning outcomes, and they should answer the following questions. . Content Ð what do students need to know about the subject? . Action Ð how do we want students to use the knowledge? . Context Ð under what circumstances will students be expected to demonstrate their knowledge? . Performance Ð by what standards will students' performance be judged? (Gainen & Locatelli, 1995, p. 51) While some of these objectives will be technical, the curriculum we envision will place a greater emphasis on student development of expanded competencies such as communication skills, decision making skills and the other categories shown in 2
The real problem may not be textbooks, but the desire of the faculty to continue to teach in the manner to which they have become accustomed. Recent editions of many books include a broader range of assignment materials and other material designed to facilitate the use of higher order thinking and to facilitate discussion Ð but the changes are more evolutionary than revolutionary.
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
5
Table 1 A Master of Accountancy program with three components Program component Business core Ð courses outside the accounting discipline that are required of all students in the program Accounting core Ð courses in the accounting discipline that are required of all students in the program Accounting concentration Ð alternative courses of study of which the student selects one Ð auditing/consulting, information systems, tax Total semester hours
Semester hours 9 6 15 30
Appendix A. The concept of an objectives-driven curriculum allows ¯exibility in content and structure as objectives change, and we therefore do not prescribe a uniform framework that will be appropriate for every institution. However, we do believe that the end result of an objectives-driven curriculum will be a more diverse curriculum structure than is common at present. In particular, we envision the development of integrated courses particularly in the business core areas. Other courses with more narrow technical content may continue to have a more traditional structure. 4.1. Goals and objectives The starting point for changing from a curriculum structure which is textbook/ subject driven to one which is competency driven is for the faculty to collectively identify the outcomes on which they wish to focus (such as those in Appendix A). The next step is to structure the educational program in a way that allows speci®cation of program goals and curriculum/course objectives. Based on the research we have available, the curriculum and course objectives would be formulated with the goal of fostering students' development of a set of competencies such as those suggested in Appendix A. However, each faculty should formulate their plan in light of the needs of their students, the research mission of the institution, and available ®nancial and human resources3. The approach is one of moving from the general (a list of desired competencies) to the speci®c (course objectives). In this section, we illustrate this process by considering a Master of Accountancy program that has three components as shown in Table 14.
3 For a discussion of the process of setting objectives for curricula and their role in outcome assessment see Erwin, 1991, Chapter 3. 4 The program components described in this section are modeled in part after the Master of Accountancy program at The University of Tennessee, although the approach described in this paper has not been fully implemented in this program.
6
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
4.1.1. Program goals We use the term ``program goals'' for those statements that specify the general nature of the subject matter to be mastered along with the skills to be gained and the reasons these skills are necessary. Program goals serve as a basis for the more speci®c learning objectives at the component and course levels of the curriculum. Two program goals might be: . develop broad-based business knowledge that is integrated with advanced accounting work, delivered in a business advisory framework; . develop skills required for success in professional accounting: written and oral communications, interviewing, negotiation, analysis, teamwork, and information technology. The ®rst program goal indicates that students are expected to master a body of knowledge which involves the study of business within an advisory framework, and that this study of business is to be integrated with the study of accounting. The second program goal focuses on skill development, including those skills that research indicates are the most important for success in professional accounting. These skill areas have a particularly pronounced impact on the objectives, and therefore the activities, of speci®c courses that make up the curriculum. 4.1.2. Business core objectives The business core is an integrated study of marketing, ®nance, and management subjects designed to facilitate accomplishment of the business knowledge program goal. Specifying objectives for the set of courses comprising the business core involves consideration of whether the skills outcomes listed in the program goals are to be integrated into the courses or taught as separate elements. One alternative approach is a compromise between these two choices. For example, some leading MBA programs in the United States engage communications professors to teach courses in communications to MBA students. Subsequent courses in the curriculum then reinforce knowledge of communications fundamentals by incorporating activities that require the use of those skills in the study of business and accounting. Thus, business core objectives in our model curriculum would be met by activities of an integrated nature that seek to build core business skills. Following are examples of such objectives, based on the integrative case study approach to be used throughout the business core: . students will be able to explain the ways that new business ventures can be ®nanced; . students will be able to design a plan for an initial public oering for a simulated business case; . students will be able to describe the types of foreign exchange risk commonly encountered in connection with international business The above are only examples, although they do contain important elements that must be present in objectives statements. The primary factor is that objectives
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
7
statements should make use of action verbs that are subject to a reasonable level of measurement. In the above example the keywords are explain, design, describe Ð all words that are suciently speci®c to allow assessment to occur. Speci®cation of an objective with words such as appreciate or be aware of is too vague to allow any real degree of measurement (Erwin, 1991, p. 45). If we specify that students are to explain something, we should be able to conduct assessments that help determine whether the objective is being achieved. 4.1.3. Accounting core objectives The accounting core focuses on building those competencies that all accounting students should possess without regard to their area of concentration. Similar to the objectives described in Section 4.1.2. for the business core, objectives of the accounting core are based on the assumption that the educational process will be an integrative process involving learning activities that reinforce skills development while learning business and accounting. One approach that can be taken is to divide topics to be studied into two or three levels. For example, a core ®nancial accounting course for students in our masters program might consist of a set of topics studied on three dierent levels. . Level A Ð foundation and review Ð relating the subject to other reporting issues, discussing basic principles, and compensating for dierences in background from previous courses. . Level B Ð advanced technical applications Ð technical applications of the subject are studied with the objective of preparing students to apply the accounting principles to reporting issues described in case problems. . Level C Ð integration Ð researching authoritative literature; study of cases where accounting principles, economic consequences, alternatives to GAAP, and business environment are considered in a recommended reporting solution. Thus one objective of the accounting core might be: . Students will be able to research authoritative literature and apply the required disclosures for reporting comprehensive income in simulated ®nancial reporting situations. The ideal scenario is for students to be involved in the study of advanced technical material, with knowledge being acquired in a manner that builds and reinforces a broader set of competencies. This approach suggests that ®nancial reporting cases would be the primary instructional tool. Courses in the accounting core may, by necessity, be topic-oriented in nature with the syllabus structured around the topic to be learned. However this constraint does not mean that certain skill type competencies cannot form an integral part of the learning experience, as long as the instructional materials require integration of business knowledge and the use of communication and other skills in the case solutions. 4.1.4. Concentration objectives As indicated above, our example curriculum is a Master of Accountancy
8
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
program with alternative concentrations. In addition to completing the business core and accounting core sequences, students take several courses in a concentration. In our model curriculum, these courses may be chosen from three alternative areas: Auditing and Consulting; Taxation; and Information Systems. Objectives for the concentration component of the curriculum should be derived from objectives for the other curriculum components and should contribute to meeting the program objectives. For example, the objectives of the Auditing and Consulting component of the curriculum could include: . students can design and write an audit plan for a business entity's ®nancial statements; . students can evaluate capital project alternatives using analytical procedures and write recommendations that rank alternatives and describe their relative merit. 4.1.5. Course objectives When compared with the core level, courses at the concentration level could retain more of the ¯avor of traditional subject-oriented, textbook-driven courses, but they may also involve activities which relate the subject matter to the social, political, economic, and cultural forces that aect business. For example, in the study of ®nancial instruments, a topic in the ®nancial accounting core, attention would be devoted to the economic principles that explain the dierences between spot rates and forward rates in forward exchange. Example objectives for the study of forward exchange contracts would be: . Students will be able to explain how foreign exchange risk is related to foreign investment decisions and to import and export transactions. . Students will be able to design appropriate risk management strategies for short and long-term investments denominated in foreign currency. . Students will be able to analyze, record, and prepare ®nancial statement disclosures for ®nancial instruments purchased to hedge the risk associated with foreign exchange assets and liabilities. To recapitulate this approach to specifying objectives for a program, Appendix B summarizes in hierarchical form the goals identi®ed for the program, the learning objectives of the program's major components, and the courses that make up the curriculum. The program goals are the statements that direct the faculty in specifying learning objectives. The objectives of the three primary segments of the program are more speci®c and are consistent with the program goals. Even more speci®c are the objectives for each course in the curriculum. 4.2. Syllabi development Curriculum and course objectives allow the development of syllabi from the objectives statements rather than simply basing syllabi on textbook content. In eect, the content of a course is determined by reference to the curriculum and
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
9
course objectives. The subjects to be studied and the depth of understanding are stated in the learning objectives. Every major learning objective should have at least one student activity designed to foster achievement of that objective. Ideally, all objectives would also be assessed. Although time constraints may limit the number of assessment activities that can be conducted, an assessment plan that varies the objectives actually assessed from one term to the next can also be used. Precisely stating each learning objective facilitates selection of student assignments and activities relevant to it. Consider the following objective from our previous discussion: . students will be able to design a plan for an initial public oering for a simulated business case. This objective clearly could be met through a case activity. Even if the word ``case'' were omitted from the objective, the nature of the objective is such that a case activity would be an appropriate means of learning how to design a ®nancing plan for an initial public oering. A group presentation could be used for further learning reinforcement and as a means of student assessment.
5. Managing the objectives-based curriculum For an objectives oriented curriculum to be successful, everyone involved in the process must be a willing participant. Included in the process of developing an objectives-based curriculum are students, external constituents, faculty, and administrators, with faculty exercising a leadership role in the process. In order to work toward achieving a set of common objectives, greater cooperation and interaction among faculty is required than in the traditional subjectoriented approach to teaching. Otherwise, some outcomes will receive much attention in courses and student activities while others will receive insucient attention. Extensive interaction among faculty regarding curriculum design was not required as long as the curriculum was organized strictly according to subject matter. Developing an objectives-based curriculum, however, requires a much higher level of interaction among faculty. One approach to accomplish this goal is through the creation of a curriculum and assessment committee whose charge is to: . Oversee the construction of a set of program goals and curriculum objectives, and assess their continued relevance. Setting these goals and objectives collectively helps assure that they are emphasized appropriately in the curriculum in terms of intensity, frequency, and balance.
10
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
An objectives-based curriculum should be designed in a cross-walk framework that allows the faculty to know where and how outcomes are being emphasized and assessed in the curriculum. Ideally, some balance would be achieved whereby all of the major categories of outcomes are getting an appropriate level of emphasis, and speci®c activities are such that students are engaged in a variety of projects whose objectives are to foster intellectual, behavioral, and aective development. A second function of the curriculum committee is to: . Gather evidence on outcome achievement on a periodic basis, and report this information to all colleagues. Such a report would be most eective if done in a written and oral presentation format. One appropriate approach might be for the committee to prepare a paper to be presented annually in a traditional seminar format. This report could serve as a catalyst for faculty discussion and decisions about the future direction of the curriculum. Outcomes assessment is not likely to be successful if it is viewed solely as an exit process using a combination of questionnaires and exit examinations. Successful assessment requires a more integrated approach. Although useful information can be gathered in an exit context, many of the most important educational outcomes can best be evaluated in connection with the smallest discrete element in a curriculum Ð the individual course. Hence it is incumbent upon faculty, both collectively and individually, to assure that all speci®ed objectives are covered. An important role of a curriculum and assessment committee, as suggested above, is to facilitate assessment of the objectives throughout the educational process5. From a practical standpoint, every relevant outcome cannot be assessed in every course, every year. Thus, one role of the curriculum and assessment committee would be to assure that a balance is achieved between information need and practicality. A ®nal, dicult issue in focusing the curriculum on goals and objectives is the requirement that students be graded. Extensive research leads to the inevitable conclusion that grades are poor predictors of almost anything else but other grades (Williams, Tiller, Herring & Scheiner, 1988, p. 104). It is paradoxical that we often act as if that were not the case. Certainly both students and recruiters behave as if they believe future opportunities and professional success are related to the grades students receive. At least part of the problem with grades may be that they do not serve to support the learning process, but are simply the result of whatever assessments students are required to undergo. Grades result from performance on a set of assessment activities, including quizzes and examinations, papers, reports, projects, and orals. Students are evaluated and given a grade based upon relative performance level Ð a norm-referenced approach. We
5 For an expanded discussion of the nature of outcomes assessment in the context of accounting curricula, see Herring and Izard. 1992, pp. 2±4.
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
11
emphasize the word relative because, ultimately, college grades are an assessment of relative performance. We may view the grading process as one of comparison with an absolute standard, but that is almost never the case. Norm-referenced grading makes the grade the ultimate objective of the study process, with learning important only in so far as it aects the grade. Learning is done to receive a grade rather than having students receive a grade as the result of having learned. Upon ®rst glance, this metaphor may seem like circular reasoning, but it is not. In order for grades to serve the learning process, grading must become an activity that is tied to a decision about whether a student has achieved learning objectives. In order to measure achievement we must have speci®ed, in the form of learning objectives, what it is that the student should have learned. In this environment, grades become the result of having achieved a speci®c level of accomplishment. In the context of comparing student performance on assessment activities with the objectives we have set for them, we can make the grading process more of a comparison with an absolute standard. One result of this process would likely be fewer levels of dierentiation, a result consistent with substantial evidence suggesting that attempts to identify more than about three or four levels of dierentiation is impossible given the crudeness of the measurement methods (Milton, Pollio & Eison, 1986, pp. 201±218).
6. Conclusion This paper presents a case for increasing emphasis on expanded competencies in accounting education by designing a curriculum based on program goals and curriculum objectives. Such a process allows a faculty to view a student's education as a process of acquiring traditional discipline-oriented knowledge as well as developing expanded competencies, resulting in students who are better prepared for a professional career. An orientation toward a broader set of goals and objectives will impact the level of required faculty interaction regarding curriculum matters Ð principally in terms of requiring an increased level of awareness of activities in which colleagues are engaged. One element of infrastructure that may be needed is a curriculum and assessment committee whose task is to facilitate the communication process among the faculty. The work of this committee would include assuring that all relevant outcomes are appropriately emphasized within the curriculum and that assessment data are gathered and disseminated to the faculty. Implementing a curriculum such as the one we have described will be challenging and will require that the faculty view their role more as members of a team and less as individual scholars. The ultimate test of success of accounting education in the 21st century will not be individual accomplishment but collective accomplishment. Success will be measured by how well a program has contributed to the students' education. Other accomplishments will be important mainly based upon whether they support this primary objective.
12
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
Appendix A. Emerging competencies required for the practice of accountancy (Deppe et al., 1991) Communications skills 1. Present views in writing 2. Present views through oral presentation 3. Read, critique, and judge the value and contribution of written work 4. Listen eectively 5. Understand interpersonal and group dynamics Information development and distribution skills 6. Understand the role of information technology in solving business and accounting problems 7. Understand the system development life cycle to plan, design, implement, and evaluate an information system 8. Eectively apply fundamental programming skills to typical business problems Decision making skills 9. Solve diverse and unstructured problems in unfamiliar settings 10. Induce general conclusions from speci®c situations 11. Select and assign priorities within restricted resources Knowledge of accounting auditing and tax 12. Possess a knowledge of the purpose and elements of ®nancial statements 13. Understand the fundamentals of accounting, auditing, and tax 14. Know methods of gathering, summarizing, and analyzing ®nancial data 15. Apply decision rules embodied in the accounting model Knowledge of business and the environment 16. Understand the economic, social, and cultural forces in the world 17. Know how typical business organizations work and are managed 18. Possess a knowledge of ®nancial markets and funding institutions Professionalism 19. Identify ethical issues and apply my own values to them 20. Motivation to continue lifelong learning 21. Deal eectively with imposed pressures Leadership development 22. Work eectively with diverse groups of people 23. Organize and delegate tasks 24. Motivate other people 25. Resolve con¯ict 26. Understand methods of creating and managing change within an organization 27. Use data, exercise judgments, evaluate risks, and solve real-world problems
Appendix B. Curriculum objectives hierarchy
Business core objectives (examples)
Accounting Core Objectives (Example)
. Students will be able to explain the ways that new business ventures can be ®nanced. . Students will be able to design a plan for an initial public oering for a simulated business case. . Students will be able to describe the types of foreign exchange risk commonly encountered in connection with international business.
. Students will be able to research authoritative literature and apply the required disclosures for reporting comprehensive income in simulated ®nancial reporting situations.
Concentration objectives (examples) . Students can design and write an audit plan for a business entity. . Students can evaluate capital project alternatives using analytical procedures and write recommendations that rank alternatives and describe their relative merit. Individual course objectives (For each course, unique objectives are written that are consistent with the program goals, and the business core, accounting core, and concentration objectives)
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
Program goals (examples) . Develop broad-based business knowledge that is integrated with advanced accounting work, delivered in a business advisory framework. . Develop skills required for success in professional accounting: written and oral communications, interviewing, negotiation, analysis, teamwork, and computer work.
13
14
H.C. Herring III, J.R. Williams / J. of Acc. Ed. 18 (2000) 1±14
References Allen, J., & Bycio, P. (1997). An evaluation of the educational testing service major ®eld achievement test in business. Journal of Accounting Education, 15, 503±514. American Accounting Association (1986). Committee on the future structure, content, and scope of accounting education. Future accounting education: preparing for the expanding profession. Issues in Accounting Education, 1, 168±195. American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (1994). Achieving quality and continuous improvement through self-evaluation and review: standards for accreditation. AACSB. DeMong, R., Lindgren, J., & Perry, S. (1994). Designing an assessment program for accounting. Issues in Accounting Education, 9, 11±27. Deppe, L., Sonderegger, E., Stice, J., Clark, D., & Streuling, G. (1991). Emerging competencies for the practice of accountancy. Journal of Accounting Education, 9, 257±290. Erwin, T. (1991). Assessing student learning and development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Gainen, J., & Locatelli, P. (1995). Assessment for the new curriculum: a guide for professional accounting programs. Sarasota, FL: American Accounting Association. Herring, H., & Izard, C. (1992). Outcomes assessment of accounting majors. Issues in Accounting Education, 7, 1±17. Hill, N., Perry, S., & Stein, D. (1998). Using accounting student surveys in an outcomes assessment program. Issues in Accounting Education, 13, 65±78. May, G., Windal, F., & Sylvestre, J. (1995). The need for change in accounting education: an educator survey. Journal of Accounting Education, 13, 21±43. Milton, O., Pollio, H., & Eison, J. (1986). Making sense of college grades. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Perspectives on Educational Capabilities for Success in the Accounting Profession (1989). New York: Arthur Andersen & Co., Arthur Young, Coopers & Lybrand, Deloitte Haskins & Sells, Ernst & Whinney, Peat Marwick Main & Co., Price Waterhouse, and Touche Ross. Street, D., & Baril, C. (1994). Scholarly accomplishments in promotion and tenure decisions of accounting faculty. Journal of Accounting Education, 12, 121±139. Stevens, K., & Stevens, W. (1992). Evidence on the extent of training in teaching and education research. Journal of Accounting Education, 10, 271±283. Williams, J., Tiller, M., Herring, H., & Scheiner, J. (1988). A framework for the development of accounting education research. Sarasota, FL: American Accounting Association.