The role of prototypes in communication between stakeholders

The role of prototypes in communication between stakeholders Carlye A. Lauff, Daniel Knight, Daria Kotys-Schwartz and Mark E. Rentschler, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Engineering Center, Boulder, CO, 80309, United States Prototypes are complex and dynamic artifacts that shape social situations during product development. A ten-month applied ethnographic study of a footwear company recounts prototypes’ evolving role in communication between three stakeholder groups. In this case study, we use Mol’s “bodies multiple” theory to describe prototypes enactment as communication tools across contexts. This study finds that prototypes become encoded with information that is translated, decoded, and re-encoded by stakeholder groups. Prototypes remain the same across contexts, yet the spokesperson guiding the prototype may change. Raising awareness of prototypes role in communication, such as their ability to build confidence through socialization, can allow design teams to better plan for how information is encoded into the prototyped artifact and the messaging surrounding it. Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: case study, design practice, design management, prototypes, communication artifacts

“S

o, you have a prototype e and it is a pretty robust medium, right? And then if you don’t use that prototype for its intended purpose. Well, then you actually go backwards in the [product development] process.” In this interview excerpt, the Director of Product Development at the footwear company GlobalWear (pseudonym), who is participating in this study, reflects on the importance of prototypes during the design process. In hindsight, toward the end of the project, this executive realizes that prototypes are critical objects that must be used for their intended purposes to ensure forward progress. This retrospective reflection on prototypes can be used as an opportunity for learning that translates to changes in organizational design strategy.

Corresponding author: Carlye A. Lauff Carlye.Lauff@ colorado.edu

Prototypes are more than engineered objects for iterative testing; they are communication tools that can influence the direction of a project. The goal of this paper is to bring awareness to how prototypes can influence different social situations based on the stakeholder interactions, such as persuading external sales representatives, negotiating resource allocation with upper www.elsevier.com/locate/destud 0142-694X Design Studies xxx (xxxx) xxx https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2019.11.007 Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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management, or uncovering unknowns about the product based on customer feedback. Other companies have also reflected on their product development processes as a means to better run their organizations (Drezner & Huang, 2009; Ward, Liker, Cristiano, & Sobek, 1995). The goal of our research, and this paper, is to help company stakeholders become aware of how prototypes are intentionally, or unintentionally, impacting their product development processes through their role in communication. This case study retrospectively explores the use of multiple prototypes on one project with the goal of designing a new children’s waterproof winter boot at a footwear company, referred to by the pseudonym GlobalWear. What do we consider a prototype in this research? The term prototype can be interpreted differently, especially on diverse design teams with members from various backgrounds and experiences (Lauff, Kotys-Schwartz, & Rentschler, 2017). In this paper, a prototype is a “physical or digital embodiment of critical elements in the design” that can be used “at any point in the design process” (Lauff, Kotys-Schwartz, & Rentschler, 2018). When describing prototypes’ attributes, they often are defined in terms of fidelity, materials, and mediums. Prototypes exist along a spectrum of fidelity between the physical and digital space: ranging from low-fidelity paper prototypes or digital sketches to highfidelity pre-production models or renderings (Lim, Stolterman, & Tenenberg, 2008). In terms of actions, prototypes enable enhanced communication, learning, and decision-making (Lauff, 2018). In particular, we look at one of these actions e communication e and how it is enacted throughout the design process. Prototypes are “robust mediums,” as stated by the executive at GlobalWear, and we interpret this to mean that prototypes are objects that can embody multiple meanings and enable various actions, such as a single prototype both serving as an embodiment of knowledge and an active form of communication between stakeholders. The guiding research question for this work is how are prototypes enacted as communication tools throughout different social contexts during the design process? This research engaged in qualitative methods to collect and analyze data at GlobalWear (Czarniawska-Joerges, 2007; Maxwell, 2013; Yin, 2013). We used applied ethnographic methods to collect data over ten months. During analysis, we applied Mol’s “the body multiple” theory (Mol, 2002), using Lauff’s framing of prototypes as communication tools (Lauff, 2018) with Jensen et al.’s framing of stakeholder contexts (Jensen, Elverum, & Steinert, 2017), to uncover how prototypes are enacted as communication tools within different contexts. These insights can help designers and project managers become aware of how prototypes’ roles changes throughout common situations during product development. If we understand how prototypes are currently being used in communication, then it can help teams to be mindful of how they use prototypes moving forward. This reflection on prototypes throughout the product development process can then be used as a vehicle

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for organizational change (Coughlan, Suri, & Canales, 2007; Junginger, 2008; Schrage, 2000).

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Prototypes role in communication

It is well known in the field of design science that prototypes are communication tools and a form of design language. Two of the most prevalent engineering design textbooks (Eppinger & Ulrich, 2011; Otto & Wood, 2001) both include communication as an attribute of prototypes. Yang states that “prototypes may also be thought of as a type of design language in the sense that it represents and embodies design thought” (Yang, 2005). Michaelraj describes physical prototypes as having three primary communication intents: declarative, interrogative, and imperative (Michaelraj, 2009). From the field of humanecomputer interaction (HCI), prototypes are regarded as filters and manifestations of design ideas (Lim et al., 2008). The study of the use of engineering drawing and visual representations as part of design work has been well documented from empirical studies (Henderson, 1999). In the book Engineering and the Mind’s Eye, Ferguson argues that drawings are the primary mode of communication between designers and manufacturers of products, thus making them critical objects (Ferguson, 1994). Even though prototypes are well-researched in HCI, Lim et al. (2008) note that there “is still a lack of knowledge about the fundamental nature of prototypes due to their complex and dynamic nature”. Further, Houde & Hill (1997) argue that “with a clear purpose for each prototype, we can better use prototypes to think and communicate” (p. 380, emphasis added). It is evident that prototypes aid in communication, but it is not clear what “types” or “modes” of communication occur with prototypes during various social situations in a design project. It is also not clear if or how communication with prototypes changes based on the context of use, especially with the types of stakeholders involved. This research adds value to the field by being more explicit about the communication between various stakeholders and prototypes. We discuss stakeholders as existing in three categories: internal/internal e being inside the design team, internal/external e being inside the company but outside the design team, and external/external e being outside the company but having some connection to the product (Jensen et al., 2017). For ease and clarity in this article, we will use the following categories: design team, executives, and external stakeholders, respectively. In this study, we describe four main forms of prototype communication: explain feedback, negotiate, persuade (Lauff, 2018). Additionally, we discuss the interactions between stakeholders and the prototypes and how a blend of communication types (verbal, non-verbal, visual, written, and tactile/experiential) is used. As Deininger et al. stated, “while most studies focused on the influence that prototypes have on the designer, the design process, or the design outcome, few studies have investigated the influence of prototypes on stakeholders”

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(Deininger, Daly, Sienko, & Lee, 2017). In this study, we contribute to filling that gap by studying the various prototypeestakeholder interactions and their influence on communication.

2 Theoretical framing 2.1 Design as social and technical process Design is an equally social and technical process (Bucciarelli, 1988), where the social dynamics always underpin the technical elements to manifest a product or solution. Design involves the coordination of knowledge, resources, goals and requirements that come from multiple stakeholders, like management, clients, and users (Alexiou & Zamenopoulos, 2008). Bucciarelli’s book on Designing Engineers gives a critical perspective on the profession of engineering design (Bucciarelli, 1996). He provides an alternate view of engineering as a process of social construction reconciling goals, objectives, tests and interpretations in the development of a product by participants with perspectives from different object worlds. He argues that design is just as much about agreeing on set definitions and negotiating as it is about producing the final technical artifact. Our prior work was influenced by Suchman’s theory of heterogeneous engineering (Suchman, 2000) to frame our qualitative, inductive analysis and evaluate the various actors and actions during product development process. Suchman claims that the work of “sensemaking, persuasion and accountability” (p. 315) are as consequential for the realization of a product as the creation of the technical artifact itself. Using this theory led to uncovering three overarching roles of prototypes on design teams in companies e communication, learning, and decision making (Lauff et al., 2018). In this study, we have chosen to build on our prior work, using a specific theory from the social sciences that looks at the social interactions between people and artifacts and how they change through contexts. In Figure 1, we show how these concepts from the various theoretical frameworks fit together: design as a social and technical process underpins the whole system and product development process from idea to launch; artifacts, like prototypes, are critical design objects influencing situations; and lastly, the enactments of these prototypes in social situation across time and context of the project changes and evolves.

2.2

Artifacts as critical design objects

The importance of artifacts is well-studied in the social sciences, and the combination of these studies and theories influenced the researchers, and thus should be mentioned. Although we chose one theory e the body multiple e as an analytical tool for our analysis (Mol, 2002), we are

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Figure 1 Display of how concepts from various theoretical frameworks fit together. The entire box represents design as a social and technical process throughout the project. The dashed circles representing specific contexts and social situations that occur during the project. The shapes (rectangle, pentagon, square) represent prototypes and the people represent different types of stakeholders. Theories on artifacts are used to described individual contexts

informed by the other social scientists who have studied the importance of objects. Social scientists have long studied the use of objects during engineering and design projects (Bucciarelli, 2002; Henderson, 1995; Latour & Porter, 1996; Trompette & Vinck, 2009). Objects in social science theories can be abstract or concrete representations; for example, an idea is an abstract object whereas a book or map is a physical object. In this paper, we analyze the latter, concrete, physical representations in the form of prototypes. Objects, like prototypes, are considered static until they are given meaning through sociallyconstructed environments where they are being created, tested, explained or negotiated (Littlejohn & Foss, 2009). Objects’ realities are constantly being enacted through interactions with humans, thus their reality can change based on the immediate situation or context (Mol & Law, 2004). In this study, we consider one type of object e prototypes e and how they are used, interpreted, negotiated e or enacted e through different social contexts during a design project. Prototypes are critical objects that embody technical knowledge and mediate many social situations, including acting as “boundary objects” between diverse stakeholders (Star & Griesemer, 1989; Vinck, 2003), creating power dynamics between people (Henderson, 1995) and influencing decisionmaking (Henderson, 1999). Prototypes are often regarded as “intermediary objects” at the intersection of social and technical worlds (Vinck, 2011). As Vinck et al. stated, “Physical objects are also units of language and communication between humans. Things are language units. They are sometimes regarded as the only common language between people . we have to

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understand their capacity for coordinating humans and creating understanding between them” (Vinck, Jeantet, & Laureillard, 1996). We build on these concepts, moving beyond how the objects are communicated and interpreted in one situation, to the enactments across an entire project and a deeper understanding of the depth of information embedded into these artifacts, allowing them to become embodiments of information, or what we call “vessels of knowledge”.

2.3

Mol’s the body multiple theory

In this case study, we use Mol’s the body multiple theory (Mol, 2002) to analyze prototypes during product development. We chose to use this theory because of its potential as an analytical tool, and because it embodies other social science theories, like heterogeneous engineering, that is a cornerstone to our beliefs around design as a social and technical process (Suchman, 2000). Mol developed a new ontological perspective on abstract or concrete objects through uncovering their multiple enactments in practice. Enactment refers to the actions and process that these objects go through to create meaning in different situations by the people involved. Specifically, her work investigated a vascular disease, known as atherosclerosis, and how it is practiced, studied, researched, remedied and treated in a Dutch hospital. Each of these practices is a type of enactment of the disease; each enactment is different, such as the disease being studied by pathology researchers in a medical laboratory and then also being treated with exercises during patient rehabilitation. In Mol’s account, the ontology of an object is decentralized to a multitude of practices. She shows the different enactments of disease in the human body, coming to the notion that objects have “more than one [enactment] but less than many [or infinite].” Using this theory, we explore how prototypes are enacted in multiple ways as communication tools between various stakeholders on one industry design project throughout the entire product development process. We refer to the enactment of prototypes through their uses or actions they enable during social situations with different stakeholders groups: design teams, executives, and external stakeholders. Using Mol’s theory with the communication and stakeholder framing, we were able to uncover how prototypes are enacted as communication tools across different social contexts.

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Methodology

The findings presented in this paper come from a ten-month ethnographic study of one footwear company, referred to as GlobalWear. Within this organization, the research team observed one product design team that developed a new children’s waterproof winter boot. The design and development process for this winter boot was followed longitudinally, from initial idea until the product launch. We gained access from the executive level, which gave us

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unrestricted visibility to all of their products, processes, software, tools and people. We were introduced to the design team employees before the observations began. We began the research by conducting individual interviews to become acquainted with each team member before observing their daily design practices. The initial research question guiding this study was: How do the roles of the prototypes on a company design project shift based on their context of use? After initial analysis, communication emerged as a prominent role of prototypes that varied throughout the project. Therefore, the research question evolved to: How do prototypes mediate communication between stakeholders? Or put in terms of Mol’s theory: How are prototypes enacted as communication tools throughout different social contexts during the design process? We use a blend of two frameworks during our analysis to code for how prototypes are used in each context. First, we use four modes of communication: explain feedback, negotiate, and persuade (Lauff, 2018). Second, we use three types of stakeholder contexts: design team, executives, and external stakeholders (Jensen et al., 2017).

3.1

Company project and design process

This case study occurs within a large global footwear company with headquarters in the United States. At GlobalWear, there are approximately 2000 employees involved in the design and development processes for footwear. Each year, GlobalWear launches two seasonal lines of footwear. Their product development process for a season of footwear begins approximately 18months before the product line launches to market, and it is broken into four major phases: design phase, early development phase, late development phase, and commercialization. Within each phase, there are several major milestones. These milestones include two internal design reviews with executives at GlobalWear, and then two product line reviews with external stakeholders, such as global wholesale buyers. We have reproduced a timeline of the project in Figure 2, indicating the GlobalWear process phases at the top and event milestones and some prototypes under the timeline. In the major events, we indicate some key stakeholder involvement. This timeline is not comprehensive, but rather meant to create an understanding of the project and major events that occurred. The end of the timeline is December, when the boots were sent to production at factories overseas. At this point, no additional design changes can be made to the product. The products, including this winter boot, then launch to market 6-to-8 months later, depending on the region of the world. Within GlobalWear, we observed the design and development of the fall seasonal line for the children’s footwear team. Within this line of products, we specifically focused on the creation of one new product: a children’s

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Figure 2 GlobalWear project timeline for design team development

waterproof winter boot. This new product had many challenging requirements: it needed to use advanced materials to ensure warmth and water protection and resistance; it had to be created with the least costly materials possible and assembled as efficiently as possible; it needed to pass safety tests for factors such as slippage; and it had to be desirable in terms of aesthetics, price point, and functionality for both consumers (adults/parents) to purchase and end-users (children) to wear.

3.2

Stakeholders

Stakeholders are an important aspect of every design project; they are the people with an interest or stake in the project. Stakeholders can be broadly categorized into three categories based on Jensen et al.‘s framing: 1. Design Team (Internal/Internal): the people within the development department or core design team; 2. Executives (Internal/External): the people outside the development department or design team but inside the company; and 3. External Stakeholders (External/External): the stakeholders that are outside the company, like sales representatives or users (Jensen et al., 2017). This children’s footwear team consists of eight design team members: one project manager, one assistant project manager, one lead product designer, two junior product designers, one lead product developer, and two junior product developers. This design team worked on the children’s footwear line on a daily basis, and they met as a group once a week to review progress and challenges for the seasonal footwear line. In addition to the design team, there are two other stakeholder groups involved periodically throughout the product development process. The senior management and executives at GlobalWear are heavily involved during two internal design reviews. Then, there are external stakeholders, such as the international buyers, sales representatives, consumers and end-users. These individuals

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Table 1 GlobalWear stakeholders and responsibilities

GlobalWear Stakeholders

Type of Stakeholder

Project Manager and Assistant Project Manager

Design Team (Internal/Internal)

Product Developers

Design Team (Internal/Internal)

Product Designers

Design Team (Internal/Internal)

Senior management, Vice Presidents, and Directors

Executives (Internal/ External)

Global Buyers and Sales Representatives

External Stakeholders (External/External)

Consumers and endusers

External Stakeholders (External/External)

Stakeholders’ Primary Roles/Responsibilities
Manage the entire kids’ footwear line of products
Meeting deadlines in the timeline, preparing for major meetings/milestones, and staying within the allocated budget
Move 2D designs (line art) into 3D models/physical shoes
Create physical samples in different materials, develop the optimal construction of the shoe, and finalize design packs
Approve tooling and finalizing 2D/3D models of shoes before mass production begins at the factories
Concept generation for all products in the seasonal line
Sketch and digitally mock-up different colors, graphics, embellishments on early 2D footwear ideas (line art)
Establish uniform colors (pantones/colorways) for the company, and develop aspects of the technical design packs
Involved with the high-level budget allocation for the children’s footwear group and planning the entire footwear line across women/men/children
Attend internal design reviews, guide marketing approach and campaigns, distribution, among other management responsibilities
Attend two external shoe line reviews for each season (ILR/FLR) to review the product line
Purchasing total quantities of seasonal shoes for their regions/stores and/or selling the shoes to other stores
Consumers: typically, parents or adults who purchase the shoes and aid in dictating the success of the product in market
End-users: children who then wear the purchased shoes e based on fit and ydesire for the product this can influence purchasing behavior

do not work for GlobalWear, but ultimately have some impact on the success of the footwear. These various stakeholders and their primary responsibilities are described in Table 1.

3.3

Data collection

The data collection techniques were informed by contemporary approaches to ethnographic research (Czarniawska-Joerges, 2007). We collected qualitative data in the form of audio and video recordings, field notes, interviews, focus groups, E-mails, software and project management programs, and digital and physical artifacts for ten months during our participant-observer role in the company. We observed critical aspects throughout the entire product development process for the new winter boot, including every weekly team meeting (40 days for 60 h total), two

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internal design reviews lasting one full day each (2 days for 16 h total), two external design reviews lasting one week each (10 days for 80 h total), and three major debriefs after these reviews for one day each (3 days for 24 h total). The primary researcher acted as a participant-observer during their time at GlobalWear (Maxwell, 2013). On the design team and with the executives, the researcher was treated as a consultant. As the project progressed, the researcher became more integrated into the footwear design team. Although they were viewed as a consultant, they were treated like an employee or team-member. With the external stakeholders, the researcher was treated as a GlobalWear employee. The researcher received a personal security badge, which enabled entry to the company for all of these observations. The researcher took field notes during the observations, paying specific attention to any interactions and discussions around prototypes. The researcher would time-stamp notes in approximately 10-min intervals and transcribe partial quotes in real-time to revisit afterward. After each observation, the researcher would spend up to 3 hours filling in their field notes to ensure that they captured the design practices subjectively and holistically. Audio-recorded interviews or focus groups with design team members occurred three times throughout the project, once at the beginning, then mid-way throughout the project, and finally at the end. Interviews were also conducted with company stakeholders, including senior management and executives. This totaled 27 interviews and focus groups over the course of the project totaling approximately 30 hours.

3.4

Data analysis

Data analysis began concurrently with data collection and continued for more than one year after data collection was complete. Prior work on this research project used principles from grounded theory development to uncover three primary roles of a prototype across three industries who develop physical products (Charmaz & Mitchell, 2001; Corbin & Strauss, 1994). These findings indicate that prototypes are tools for communication, learning, and decisionmaking (Lauff et al., 2018). We use prototypes’ role in communication as a guiding construct when answering our research question: how are prototypes enacted as communication tools throughout different social contexts during the design process? To uncover how a prototype’s role in communication changes, we applied Mol’s theory of objects having “more than one [enactment] but less than many [or infinite]” to our data analysis (Mol, 2002). We did this by first organizing the data based on the different contexts where prototypes are used. We used the three broad categories (design team, executives, external stakeholders) to create a 3-by-3 stakeholder matrix, totaling 6 different contexts

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Prototypes in communication between stakeholders

Design Team Design Team

Executives

External Stakeholders

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Table 2 Data sorted by context during analysis

Context 1: Design team member interacting with design team member Observations and Interviews 72 h over 43 days 16 interviews Context 2: Design team member interacting with executives Observations and Interviews 10 h over 2 days 24 interviews Context 3: Design team member interacting with external stakeholders Observations and Interviews 24 h over 6 days 27 interviews

Executives

External Stakeholders

Context 4: Executives interacting with executives Observations and Interviews 4 h over 2 days 8 interviews Context 5: Executives interacting with external stakeholders Observations and Interviews 10 h over 4 days 11 interviews

Context 6: External stakeholders interacting with external stakeholders Observations and Interviews 6 h over 6 days 3 interviews

of stakeholder interactions as displayed in Table 2 alongside the total amount of data per context. Some data overlaps between contexts; therefore, some data is counted multiple times as it was used in analysis in more than one instance. For example, 16 interviews were conducted with design team members, and these interviews gave insights into Contexts 1, 2, and 3. Likewise, during an external line review, observations aided in Contexts 3, 5, and 6. Once the data was sorted by these six contexts, we then applied the framework that prototypes are tools for communication (Lauff, 2018). This entailed looking at the interactions between different stakeholders and the prototypes in each context, analyzing the modes of communication between the people with the aid of the prototypes. Communication is described as the process of someone encoding information, transmitting that information, and then another person decoding the transmitted information (Hall, 2001). We use this breakdown of one person being the encoder, who then transmits information to the decoder when analyzing the situations in each context. We display an example of this analysis process in Figure 3. In the dashed box in Figure 3, an example of Context 2 is shown where a design team member (as the encoder) uses a physical winter boot prototype as part of their transmitting of information to an executive (as the decoder). During analysis, the researchers would evaluate the types of communication that occurred during this transmitting between the encoder and decoder: verbal, nonverbal, visual, written, tactile/experiential, or a combination of these types; the usage of the prototype as an active object or a standalone tool; and the outcomes of the communication between the stakeholders: to explain something, to gather feedback, to negotiate

Figure 3 Process for analyzing communication interactions between prototypes and stakeholders in each context, sorting the data by types of communication, usage of prototype, and the outcome of the communication. An example of Context 2 (design team member interacting with executives) is displayed

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aspects, to persuade, or a combination of these. It should be noted that nonverbal communication was noted in video and some field notes, but due to the lack of data on nonverbal interactions it was primarily ignored during analysis. Also, it is common to have multiple types, usage, and outcomes of communication occur in one social situation. For example, as will be discussed in Context 1, the prototypes can be used to first explain and update the design team, followed by bring an active tool to gather feedback on the design and negotiate to a decision. All of the segments of data across the six contexts were analyzed using this coding scheme. It was coded initially by the primary researcher, and then the data were analyzed amongst the research team at weekly meetings over a seven-month period. Throughout the data analysis process, there were five analytic memos written to synthesize the emergent findings (Maxwell, 2013). Analytic memos are documents written as a form of a mini-analysis to evolve the research teams’ learning during data collection and analysis. They are typically written both during and after data collection. The evolution of those memos became the basis for this case study.

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Findings

In this section, we present our data and findings as a case study at GlobalWear. Section 4.1 begins by summarizing the interactions between stakeholders and various prototypes. Section 4.2 dives deeper into the communication interactions between stakeholders when led by the design team (Contexts 1, 2, and 3). Section 4.3 described the interactions between stakeholders and prototypes in Contexts 4, 5 and 6. In these latter contexts, the prototypes become “vessels of knowledge” that must be handed off from the design team and shepherded by executives and external stakeholders in future social interactions. The same prototype is translated between different stakeholder groups and requires a new spokesperson in these situations; thus, information is “decoded” and the “re-encoded”. The re-encoding of information is similar to Stompff et al.’s work on design teams’ reframing process, which describes how teams reconstruct meaning from previous situations (frames) to then design future activities (Stompff, Smulders, & Henze, 2016). Overall, these findings highlight the importance of recognizing prototypes ability to be both actively used in conversations and also a static object in which meaning is derived or decoded independent of any spokesperson. These findings have answered our guiding research question as to how prototypes are enacted as communication tools throughout different social contexts during the design process at GlobalWear.

4.1

Prototypes interactions with stakeholders

There was an evolution of prototypes during the design project, as chronologically summarized in Figure 2. Prototypes began as two-dimensional (2D) sketches and line art, evolved into three-dimensional (3D) “hacked”

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Figure 4 Diagram of prototype types during GlobalWear project, ranging from 2D to 3D (x-axis) and focused to comprehensive (y-axis), and the respective involvement from stakeholder groups (design team indicated by black dots on all prototypes, executives during 1st review indictaed by ovals, and executives during 2nd review and external stakehodlers indicated by rectangles)

prototypes, and then into handmade models, to computer-aided design a (CAD) model, and eventually to pre-production samples of the boot. Each of these prototypes were used in communication between stakeholder groups. We have broadly summarized the involvement of different stakeholder groups with various prototypes in Figure 4. Figure 4 displays a range of prototypes from 2D to 3D and from focused to comprehensive, adapted and inspired from the dimensions of prototypes diagram by Ulrich and Eppinger (Eppinger & Ulrich, 2011). Focused refers to prototypes with fewer attributes of the design than comprehensive ones. For example, prior products and benchmarked products are used to inspire some features, like height of the boot and enclosure mechanisms, which are two more “focused” attributes of the prototype. In contrast, a CAD model of the boot has almost all of the details and attributes of the final product, thus making the prototype more “comprehensive”. The design team was involved with every prototype; therefore, they are not indicated by any specific color in Figure 4. The executives, indicated by yellow, interacted with mostly “focused” prototypes during the first review, and then more “comprehensive” prototypes during the second review. The external stakeholders, indicated by blue, mostly interacted with 3D comprehensive prototypes, with the exception of being shown selected 2D line art.

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Prototypes in communication between stakeholders

Encoder Design Team Decoder Design Team

Decoder Executives

Decoder External Stakeholders

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Table 3 Prototypes evolving role in communication between contexts

Context 1 Explain / Feedback Explain / Negotiate Active and standalone: Verbal, Nonverbal, Visual, Written, Tactile Context 2 Explain (Update) and Persuade (Buy-in) / Feedback / Explain / Negotiate Active and standalone: Verbal, Nonverbal, Visual, Written, Tactile Context 3 Explain / Persuade (Buy-in and Sales-Pitch) Feedback Active and standalone: Verbal, Nonverbal, Visual, Written, Tactile

Encoder Executives

Encoder External Stakeholders

Context 4 Explain (Update) or Persuade (Sales-Pitch) Standalone: Verbal, Nonverbal, Visual

Context 5 Persuade (Buy-in and Sales-Pitch) Active and standalone: Verbal, Nonverbal, Visual, Written, Tactile

Context 6 Persuade (Sales-Pitch) Standalone: Verbal, Nonverbal, Visual

Table 3 summarizes the prototype’s roles in communication between stakeholder groups, and it is similar in structure to Table 2 from data analysis. Each of these contexts is described in more detail in the following sections. Table 3 is a 3-by-3 matrix, where the columns are the “encoders” of the communication and the rows are the “decoders” of the communication. In each box, the transmitting of information is summarized, and the six contexts are labeled. In each context, the “encoder” uses the prototype and other communication types (i.e. verbal, non-verbal) to transmit information to the “decoder”, who then must make sense of this information. Understanding how the communication is enacted and translated between different groups of people is key to this research. Referring to Figure 3 from data analysis, we list the types of communication, usage of prototype in communication, and outcome of communication.

4.2

Prototypes role in communication between stakeholders when led by design team

In this section, we discuss Contexts 1, 2, and 3 where the design team is the encoder of the communication and transmits to other stakeholders. In Context 1, the design team mainly uses prototypes to gather feedback and negotiate requirements and features with other design team members. In Contexts 2 and 3, the design team blends explaining the concept and persuading executives and external stakeholders, with the primary outcome to gain buy-in from these groups of people. In all contexts, the design team actively uses the prototypes to aid in communication, and then allows the prototypes to become a standalone representation of the knowledge they shared.

4.2.1

Context 1: design team with design team

The first context involves the design team members, which includes the product designers, developers, and project managers. The design team is involved from the start of the project, and they are involved in creating all of the prototypes from sketches to line art to production samples. During an interview with the lead product developer, he stated that his position is “involved even from when picking the “last”1 of shoe, which is pretty initial, and we are involved all the way through [the development process].” In this context, the prototypes are used at every level of fidelity to explain ideas and details to internal team members and get pointed feedback to quickly iterate and improve the design. Occasionally, prototypes are used as a medium to negotiate requirements. The prototypes are actively used through tactile interactions, and all types of communication from verbal to tactile are engaged. The designers and developers cycle through “trial and error” situations over multiple prototype iterations, which is in-line with existing prototyping literature on how early prototyping is a form of hypothesis testing and learning about a product (Leifer & Steinert, 2011), a way to uncover unknowns about

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the product (Jensen et al., 2017), and can create “small wins” through navigating uncertainty in developing a new product (Gerber & Carroll, 2012). The variety of GlobalWear prototypes, as displayed in Figures 2 and 4, are only created in this context within this case study by these designers and developers. By creating multiple prototypes, the designers and developers leverage team members’ expertise to gather feedback and learn what works and does not work. One of the product designers described how multiple prototype iterations help build confidence in the overall design. “[Prototyping] is kind of like bowling with bumpers. It’s kind of like are we within the bumpers? Or are we way off in another lane or something? And then once we build that confidence that this is the direction that we’re taking, and we feel good that everyone is on board . [then we go into production].” The designers and developers learn important lessons between each prototype iteration without the risk of multiple errors in production, which is emphasized in this “bowling with bumpers” metaphor. The design team meets once a week to formally review progress. We found a pattern in how prototypes were used in these weekly meeting. First, the prototype would be shown visually to explain the progress made to date. Then, the “encoder” would call out areas where they needed feedback from the other team members (“decoders”). The prototypes moved from a standalone representation to an actively engaged artifact for experientially communicating details to the team. Then, after feedback was given, there would be a chance to negotiate requirements or elements of the design. We include a short segment from a weekly team meeting on September 7th. In the timeline, this meeting

Figure 5 Diagram of the key elements of a boot

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occurs between the two major external design reviews. In this excerpt, the product developer (as the encoder) discusses the winter boot with the project managers (as the decoders). The outcome of these conversations with the prototype is a decision on the appropriate height for the boot. We include a few lines of conversation from this discussion, which lasted approximately 10-min during a 1-h meeting. We also include Figure 5, which shows some of the key elements of a boot. Product Developer: So, all three [boots] are tall. Here is ours from last season. This is where our competitor is. And this is where we are in our current sample. [Product Developer places three boots on table and holds each up as he references them: last season, competitor, current sample.] Project Manager: Is this the height that we want? What does everyone think? [Project Manager points to the current version boot.] Product Developer: Yeah, I think it looks good. But as we get closer to the original height, I’ve got some issues. [Assistant Project Manager takes current sample boot from Product Developer and proceeds to open and close the Velcro on the boot, also putting her hand inside the boot and trying to pull out the gusset lining.] Assistant Project Manager: So, if we move . well, this tack is a little high, is it not? [Assistant Project Manager uses current sample boot in her hand to reference this tack point.] Product Developer: I think we can work on it. What I would do is, I would keep the gusset as high as it is, but I would lower where the binding stiches into the pattern at the bottom of the “V”. [Product Developer takes current sample boot from Assistant Project Manager and uses the boot to demonstrate the stitching locations.] Assistant Project Manager: Do you feel like this opens enough? [Points to the “V” opening for the boot in Product Developer’s hand.] Project Manager: So, when the kids are putting it [the boot] on, and they are smashing their foot in, just as long as this isn’t up too high, so that they can’t get the in-step down in there. Because then if this tack line moves to the bottom of the arch, or somewhere here, that might be better. [Project Manager snaps Velcro back and forth on prototype while talking] Product Developer: Yeah, yeah. If we lower [the tack] a little bit, then I’ll widen that triangle of the gusset accordingly.

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Project Manager: Yeah let’s do that. And I think we have enough closure travel here in the hook-and-loop for a constant contact. The boot is really coming together. This excerpt from a team meeting shows the discussion between the project managers and product developers, where they use the prototypes to discuss aspects like the height, tack point for the gusset lining, and fit for the kids’ feet. We indicate as best as possible through brackets the actions that is occurring with the prototype as the conversation unfolds. This example is representative of how the design team very actively uses prototypes to aid in communication during team meetings, leading to explicit feedback and a decision to move forward. Likely, these decisions are enhanced due to the ability for all members to have similar mental models of the intended design; as they can each physically interact with the prototypes as a means of communication to ultimately influence decision making. These interactions with the boot allowed for decisions to be made, and ultimately the decision was made to alter the boot to allow more room for children’s feet to enter it.

4.2.2

Context 2: design team with executives

The second context involves the design team and executives from GlobalWear. There are two internal design reviews, which occurred in March and May before the external reviews (see timeline in Figure 2). These milestones are an opportunity for the design team to explain the progress they made and pitch concepts to the executives. These executives are familiar with the team on a high-level, since they are involved in the early stages of scoping the vision for the fall footwear season. The purpose of

Figure 6 Product designer pitching the footwear line to executives at GlobalWear

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prototypes in this context follows a similar pattern in both milestones: first, the prototypes are used to explain the concepts and validate the progress that the team has made, while at the same time persuading the executives to buy-in to the concepts the team proposes; then, the executives are given a chance to respond and give their feedback. This is followed by the design team responding to the executives, further explaining their intent (often persuading again with a prototype) and ending with some negotiation on the requirements. In summary, this pattern is: explain (update) and persuade (buy-in) / feedback / explain and persuade / negotiate. Figure 6 displays one product designer pitching to the executives at GlobalWear at the second internal line review. We include an excerpt from this second internal design review on May 13th with the design team and five GlobalWear executives, and the excerpt includes the product designer describing the line art for the boots in terms of styles and colors, followed by two executives responding with their feedback on the colors. The design team has also prepared a back-up option to changing one color, which they show in this excerpt, emphasizing the need to explain and persuade the executives to buy-in to their concepts through a second prototype. The executives approve of the effort the team put into the prototypes and presentation, and as a result it further helps to persuade the executives to move forward with this concept. Product Designer: Moving into the kids’ winter boot concepts. We have pepper-navy-tangerine combo, volt-slate gray combo. This one is smoke with yellow, and for the girls’ SKU2: amethyst, candy, and tangerine. [Product Designer points to the 2D line art boards as she talks.] Executive 1: Thank you. This is a really great way to visualize the assortment. But are we scared of orange/red combo? [Executive 1 point to the line art of pepper-navy-tangerine boot.] Executive 2: I think it makes the red look more interesting. Do you need the green in that one? [Executive 2 points to the line art of the boot with voltslate combo.] Executive 1: No, I’m also wondering if we should flip the navy and the red. [Executive 1 gets out of chair and stands and points to the line art of the boot with pepper-navy-tangerine combo, specifically to the “navy” and “red (pepper)” colors.] Executive 2: Yeah, we could do that. Make it a navy shoe. Product Designer: Yeah, that was our [the design team] top choice, too. We thought it might be stronger to have a red toe here, and so we did a back-

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up colorway.3 [Product Designer takes tacks out from pepper-navy-tangerine and replaces the shoe line art with another option behind it with the color/style different e more navy in the body of the shoe and red at the toe.] Executive 1: Wow, this is so easy, thank you for preparing. This is great. In this segment, the concept boards of the product line with all of the 2D line art prototypes are the organizing objects for the design review. In the brackets, we indicate the actions that the product designer and executives take related to the line art as the conversation unfolds. These prototypes facilitate most of the conversation; they act as a platform for persuasion, discussion, and feedback between the design team and the executives. They aid in transmitting information, such as when Executive 1 gets out of their chair and physically points to the two colors she thinks should be switched. During an interview with a senior executive at GlobalWear in December, toward the end of the project, we discussed the purpose and outcomes from the internal design reviews. The senior executive reflected on the reviews, stating that they are an opportunity to “socialize” around the product line because it is the first or second time that these concepts and designs are shared publicly within the company. Typically, these prototypes are standalone objects. However, based on the refinement of the object, they can be actively used. The executive noted, “These [internal] design reviews are the first time people see it. Right? And so they all socialize around it and those types of things. The design team is pitching their concepts, trying to convince us all that these are the best options. And then us executives, only talk about what we think we need in the line.” The prototypes represent an important part of the design process; they are objects that allow ideas to take form visually as a means to better communicate amongst executives who are a level removed from the project. They are a way for the design team to tell a coherent story around the product line and persuade the executives that this is the best direction forward.

4.2.3

Context 3: design team with external stakeholders

The third context includes the design team pitching to the external stakeholders, such as global buyers and sales representatives. There are two external line reviews per season (see Figure 2). The first one occurs in July, five months after the start of the project and two months after the last internal design review. The second external review occurs three months later in October. The primary role of prototypes in this context is as a tool for persuasion. The prototypes are used to gather feedback, but ultimately the team is at too late of a stage in the process to incorporate any feedback into changes with their designs. Thus, even if feedback is given, it is often not incorporated. In this context, the prototypes are mostly used as a standalone tool. Only the design team member interacts with the handmade boot during the pitch presentation,

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Figure 7 Kids’ Team Assistant Project Manager using a handmade boot sample prototype to persuade the external stakeholders during the external design review

but then afterward she passes around the boot to be actively interacted with by the external stakeholders. All of the types of communication are used throughout the multi-day external review, including a written document explaining the technical details of the new waterproof boot. During the pitch, only verbal, nonverbal, and visual communication is used. At the first external line review, the design team presents the complete product line for the upcoming season. They have line art and some handmade physical prototypes of new products, as shown in Figure 7. The walls of the conference room are covered with refined product line art on white foam boards, and there are physical handmade samples of key products on wooden shelving. During the external line review, a representative from the design team presents the full line to the buyers and then waits to hear their comments, questions, or concerns. The design team is trying to sell their product line to these buyers and salespeople. In an attempt to create buy-in, the team must have a compelling story with great visuals (line art and handmade samples) to support this story and the claims they are making. Next, we show an excerpt from this external design review, where the Assistant Project Manager is pitching the winter boot product to the external stakeholders, as shown in Figure 7. Assistant Project Manager: We have our first [new] product for the season: the water-proof winter boot. I am very excited on how this is looking for first round samples. Just a few things we are still working through. The cinch cord and materials are not quite yet final. We are probably going to raise this up about an inch, and make sure that this actually functions and cinches down. So that this is a great added feature benefit for ‘mom’ . [This] is very iconicly [us] now with the base. And it is still at the $70 price point. It will have the functionality of the full-water proof boot. We are going to be able to tag and mark it with the technology that we are using.

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In this segment, the Assistant Project Manager is pitching the new kid’s winter boot. As shown in Figure 7, she uses the sample prototype along with words to sell this boot to them. She has multiple statements within her monologue that indicate this is a pitch and she is trying to sell this new product to these buyers. In particular, she states that she is “very excited on how this is looking for first round samples”, that it will have features which are “great added benefit for mom”, that it is “very iconicly [us]”, has a “$70 price point”, and has “functionality of the full-water proof boot” which they can “tag and mark it with the technology we are using”. Each of these statements is to excite the buyers and also anticipate any concerns they might have before they have a chance to state them. The prototypes in this context are used to persuade the buyers that this product line will be ready for market launch. The audience contains global buyers and salespeople who are disconnected from the daily development, meaning the design team needs to be explicit in describing the products, while also creating a cohesive and detailed story about the product line. The stakes are fairly high in this context because the design team needs these external stakeholders support to ensure the success of the company’s product line launch to market for the season. The global buyers will “purchase” a certain quantity of the products to distribute to their regional stores. The global salespeople will “pitch” the new products to stores to purchase. Therefore, the design team attempts to make the buyers/salespeople excited about their new products, such as the waterproof boot, to ensure that they purchase large quantities of it.

4.3

Translation of prototypes between stakeholders

In this section, we discuss Contexts 4, 5, and 6 where the re-encoders of information are executives and external stakeholders. In Contexts 1, 2, and 3 a member from the design team was the encoder of information, and these design team members have a depth of knowledge around the prototypes and can act as a champion spokesperson for these objects. However, in Contexts 4, 5, and 6, this information must be translated from the design team to the executives and external stakeholders, who in turn become the spokesperson for the prototype. A visual explanation of this is shown in Figure 8: the design

Figure 8 Visual translation of prototypes and communication between contexts. This is an example of translating from Context 2 (design team communicating to executive) to Context 5 (executive communicating to executive)

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team member explains and persuades an executive (context 2) who then in turn must persuade external stakeholders (context 5). In these translation scenarios, the prototypes remain the same, and yet the stakeholder re-encoding the information around it changes. Prototypes become standalone “vessels of knowledge” that embody the intent and information originally conveyed from the design team. In Context 4, executives use prototypes to update other executives in GlobalWear. The prototypes serve as standalone representations. Across Contexts 5 and 6, the primary purpose of prototypes is to persuade other stakeholders. This is a unique situation, since the prototype and the new spokesperson must fully embody the knowledge originally transmitted, and then effectively transmit this information again. In a sense, the executives and external stakeholders become “shepherds” to the prototypes, by guiding the prototypes (as their “flock”) in the correct direction.

4.3.1

Context 4: executives with executives

The fourth context involved GlobalWear executives communicating with other internal executives. Not all executives attend the internal design reviews, and some can only attend for a portion of the day. Due to this, information regarding the prototypes is then translated between executives at a later time. The purpose of the prototype in this context is to explain and update other executives to be aware of project and product status. Typically, these prototypes are standalone objects that are not actively interacted with during discussions. The primary mode of communication is verbally talking and visually viewing the prototype. The first example is from the second internal design review on May 13th. In this context, one executive arrives late and misses the design team presentation. During a break in the afternoon, another executive explains the boot prototype and updates progress. In the excerpt, Executive 1 refers to the “encoder” and Executive 2 refers to the “decoder”. Executive 2 initiatives the conversation by asking for an update on the boot. Executive 2: So, how many SKUs did we land on for the new boot for FH17 (fall holiday 2017)? Executive 1: Well, we ended the session with four colorways: two SKUs for boys, one SKU for girls, and one gender neutral SKU. Executive 2: So, four SKUs, is that all we are trying to hit for this product? Executive 1: Yes, ah, we think four is a safe number for launching a new product. The rest of the line will have standard number of SKUs. And we are confident in

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the chosen colorways. [Executive 1 points with his hand to the refined line art boards where the boots are displayed.] Executive 2: Okay, okay. Makes sense. In this excerpt, Executive 1 summarizes the decision and direction of the new winter boot and shares with Executive 2. Although the final decision is transmitted (“ended the session with four colorways”), no additional details describing how the decision was made to have four SKUs and the specific colorways are shared. The prototypes are not actively engaged, but rather Executive 1 only points to the wall where these four line-art images of the boot serve as a visual aid and standalone representation. The second example is described in an interview with the senior vice president of product development. In this interview, he describes how he had to update executives from different departments across the world. Sharing the updates on prototypes with these other executives is meant to keep them aware of the different statuses of projects and products. He shares, “Often my job is to keep everyone [at GlobalWear] up to speed and on board with the direction we are going. In some sense, I’m kind of like the conductor (laughs) on a train . making sure all the passengers know where we are headed. (long pause) That means I’m sharing updates with my colleagues, from Europe to Asia, telling them about the status of our team projects.” This executive believes that sharing information on the prototypes with other executives helps to build confidence within the company and product line. Later in the interview he states, “[Prototypes] they build confidence in the direction we are going. The ultimate goal is gaining that confidence to launch to market.” Even in first example, Executive 1 states “we are confident in the chosen colorways” when updating Executive 2. This highlights the importance of information about the prototypes being shared between executives, and how the outcome is related to building confidence in a product before launching to market.

4.3.2

Context 5: executives with external stakeholders

The fifth context involves GlobalWear executives communicating with external stakeholders. The majority of these interactions occur during the external line reviews. The executives are responsible for setting the tone for these week-long reviews. Therefore, they present the design teams’ prototypes periodically throughout the week. The design team still presents the whole product line in more detail during allocated time periods. The purpose of the prototypes in this context is to persuade external stakeholders to buy-in to this project line. The executives act as another internal “salespeople”, using their status in the company to further influence these buyers and salespeople. The interactions are primarily verbal, with the visuals of the prototypes along the walls and on the shelves. The primary mode of communication is verbally

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talking about the prototype. These prototypes serve as a standalone representation during the conversation, but they can be actively interacted with afterward. At the beginning of the first external line review, the executive in charge of marketing introduces the new boot design for the first time to the room of external stakeholders. She is presenting at the front of the room but does not hold or use any prototypes during her presentation. Instead, the prototypes are situated along the wall and on the shelves. Executive: We are thrilled to have this new [GlobalWear] boot for kids fall/ holiday season. The [design] team has been working hard to deliver this first handmade sample today. This boot design is very on trend right now with the cinch closure and added water-proof technology, while still having key attributes of the [GlobalWear] design DNA. It is iconic, and yet trendy. The perfect balance with our pops of color and added features. We know it [the new boot] will be a worthwhile investment for all of our global partners. From this excerpt, it is clear that the executive is “selling” the new boot to the external stakeholders. She gives high-level details of the boot, like how it is “on trend” and has “added water-proof technology”. In a later interview, we asked this executive about her presentations at the external line reviews. She states, “Part of my job is to de-risk a new investment. To them [external stakeholder: buyers and salespeople], there is a fear in the unknown. A new product is an unknown. I have to sell them that this is the right direction.” The main role of the prototype is to aid the executives in persuading the external stakeholders, which emphasizes the importance of ensuring the executives have fully “decoded” the information from the design team and prototypes before “encoding” the information to external stakeholders.

4.3.3

Context 6: external stakeholders with external stakeholders

The sixth and final context involves external stakeholders interacting with other external stakeholders. External stakeholders refer to the people that are outside of GlobalWear, like sales representatives or consumers, but still have a level of interest or stake in the product. Interactions between buyers and sales representatives occurred during external line reviews and were also recounted in discussions during these reviews, while interactions between sales representatives and consumers/users were only recounted in interviews. In this context, the primary purpose of the prototype is to persuade other stakeholders to buy or invest in the product. The prototype is used as a standalone tool, with the majority of communication occurring verbally.

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During the external line review, there are scheduled breaks throughout the day. During these times, many external stakeholders will talk with one another or other employees from GlobalWear. We were present for these conversations and drew on them for Context 6. In one exchange between two buyers, they discuss their strategy for pitching this boot to stores. This exchange occurs after the design team presents their product line, including the new boot and all of its features. Buyer 1: Although I really like this new kids’ boot, I’m struggling with the unit cost. Buyer 2: I know what you mean. My issue is going to be the price point, too. I’m not sure the stores are going to like the cost. But it is high-quality material, you know? (pause) Look at this description of the waterproof material and layers. [Buyer 2 refers to the handout given by the design team explaining the waterproof materials in the boot.] Buyer 1: Yeah, maybe we just need to sell the tech side of the boot. It’s waterproof . that’s worth more. In this excerpt, the buyers are struggling with the high price point, but they know that the materials quality make it worth the price. It appears that they plan to use the waterproof technology as part of their pitch to the stores where the products will sell. This is an example of how the external stakeholders must “decode” information from the design team and executives and they “encode” their own version of the information into the prototype when they go to sell the product to stores. These external stakeholders are given pre-production samples after the second external design review so that they can bring it with them to pitch the product to store. They also have this paper handout that explains the waterproof material technology, which they reference in the conversation (“Look at this description of the waterproof material and layers”). The primary purpose of the prototype in this situation is to serve as an aid in persuasion, to gain buy-in and sales from stores.

5

Discussion

In the findings, we presented six contexts where different prototypes and stakeholders interacted. In these contexts, we described the transmitting of prototype information from “encoders” to “decoders”. As shown in Figure 8, stakeholders will decode information from the prototypes and the re-encode their interpretation of that information and share with other stakeholders. In each context, prototypes were either actively used or served as a standalone visual tool to aid in the communication. We used Mol’s theory on object enactments to first aid in the segmentation of the contexts, and then to uncover

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how prototypes were “enacted” or used in communication for each context (Mol, 2002). As is summarized in Table 3, prototypes were used as tools to explain concepts and visualize progress, gather feedback, negotiate details and requirements, and persuade others to buy-in to the concept or sell the product. A prototype begins as a physical or digital object until it is given meaning through the socially-constructed contexts and environments in which it is being used. This is why the purpose of the prototypes, through their role in communication, can change based on the context of use. Moreover, because relations between objects and people are not given and are instead created in each specific context, prototypes are inevitably used differently between stakeholder groups. Each stakeholder group has a different knowledge level about the boot prototypes based on their proximity to the project. As a result, no object’s purpose is ever singular; an object’s reality is always multiple. The object’s reality is constantly being enacted through practice (Mol, 2002), and it can change based on the situation, specifically defined by the people involved. This is the main finding and contribution of this research. In this paper, we build on prior theories, such as how prototypes are language units between people (Vinck, 2011) and act as boundary objects between stakeholders (Star & Griesemer, 1989). Instead of describing the role of prototypes in one social context, we explore the enactment of prototypes across multiple contexts, which is a contribution to the field. This adds to our understanding of the fluid nature of prototype’s role in communication, and how the “decoding” and “re-encoding” of information from various stakeholders can drastically influence the outcomes of the intended communication. The communication enabled by prototypes appeared to follow three different evolution paths. The first path occurred in Contexts 1 and 2, where the prototypes started as a way to visualize and explain concepts, show forward progress and accountability, and then gather feedback and negotiate features. Likely, this communication path was able to occur because these stakeholders (design team and executives) were more familiar with the product and the prototypes were at a level of fidelity that allowed feedback. These prototypes were at enough level of fidelity to get the ideas across, while still encouraging critical and productive feedback. The second path of communication was for explanation and updating stakeholders, such as in Context 4 between executives. The executives are far enough removed from the project that they do not necessarily need to provide detailed feedback to another executive unless there is a major issue. The third path occurred in Contexts 3, 5, and 6 and was focused around persuading external stakeholders. This is likely due to the fact that external stakeholders are farther removed from the product, and yet still serve an important role in bringing the final product into stores around the world. Although some feedback was inevitably given by the external stakeholders, this feedback was not incorporated back into the product. Likely, this is

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because the prototypes were at too high a level of fidelity and too late in the project timeline for the changes to be implemented. This highlights an insight about how project timing and prototype fidelity can influence the type of communication that occurs, which is a topic for further investigation. Regardless of the type or path of communication, socialization occurs around prototypes. They are objects that facilitate discussion. This socialization seems to be about creating a story of confidence in the product; building off the language using by the GlobalWear design team, prototypes give them the confidence to “bowl without bumpers” over the course of the project. All of the conversations across the six contexts are about building confidence in the prototype before launch to market. In Context 1, the product designer states that prototypes help to “build that confidence . [in] the direction that we’re taking.” In Context 2, the executive states that internal line reviews are to “convince us all that these are the best options”, and as such building confidence in the product offerings. In Context 3, the assistant project manager pitches to external stakeholders, crafting a story about how she is “very excited . for [these] first round samples” to translate that confidence and excitement to the stakeholders. In Context 4, another executive shares those prototypes “build confidence in the direction we are going.” In Context 5, an executive states that part of their pitch at the external design reviews is to “de-risk a new investment [in the boot]” and “sell them [external stakeholders] that this is the right direction.” In Context 6, the buyers discuss how the “high-quality material” is a key selling point when pitching these boots to stores. Socializing around prototypes enables people to feel more comfortable with the ambiguity in a new product, while developing more of an emotional investment over time. In this sense, it is also important to anticipate the needs or concerns of stakeholders prior to these conversations, so that the prototype and intended communication match. Building confidence in a prototype/product appears to be directly linked to how well stakeholders can pitch and persuade others (as the re-encoder). It becomes evident that prototypes need a “spokesperson” as their champion in social situations. In Contexts 1, 2, and 3, this person is a design team member, who is often deeply invested in the project and knowledgeable about the product. However, in Contexts 4, 5, and 6, the spokesperson is either an executive or external stakeholder. There is a translation between stakeholder groups; the prototypes stay the same, but the spokesperson changes. The prototypes become “vessels of knowledge” that are consistent across contexts and can be “encoded” and “decoded” differently by various stakeholders. This begs the question as to what information gets translated and kept between contexts? And what gets lost in translation? Design team members cannot travel everywhere with prototypes/products, so the objects must either standalone to represent their intention or must be championed by another spokesperson. In this sense, the messaging around the prototype (verbal, nonverbal, written,

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tactile/experiential) is just as important as the prototype itself. By understanding how prototypes can influence or shape the situation at hand, and conversely how people and the environment might influence the use of prototypes, stakeholders can become aware of how critical prototypes are in communication throughout the entire product development process.

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Limitations and future work

Despite following systematic guidelines for collecting and analyzing data, qualitative research is not well suited for generalizability of the insights it generates (Yin, 1994). However, qualitative research provides the opportunity to draw new insights into social situations, like prototyping in companies, and thus develop theory to better describe the situation, which could eventually be applied more generally. In this paper, we provide a descriptive representation of prototypes and stakeholders interactions throughout the design process. There needs to be continued research to develop a more prescriptive model to recommend what type of prototypes should be created for the desired type of communication between certain stakeholders. Researchers have developed strategies for ensuring validity in qualitative projects (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 1998). Suggestions from these articles has informed the validity of this study, such as conducting intensive long-term research, collecting various types of data and then triangulating those multiple data sources, using a diverse research team during analysis, conducting negative case analysis, and validating our analysis with some key stakeholders from the company. In this research, we attempt to address threats to validity, but we also recognize that understanding the role of prototypes in communication is the primary goal of this work. Future studies will collect and compare more cases of prototypes role in communication between stakeholders so that we can move from a descriptive to a prescriptive model. There are additional limitations to this study. We did not address the fidelity of the prototypes, or the level of interactivity with each prototype. These two attributes likely play an important role in the types of social interactions that occur between the stakeholders and the “type” of prototype (i.e. 2D to 3D, focused to comprehensive). We plan to address these types of questions in future research. Communication is the process of encoding, transmitting, and decoding information. This information is then re-encoded by the person who originally decoded the information. There needs to be more done to understand the manifestation of how prototypes are being “encoded” with information by the designers who make it and then “decoded” and “re-encoded” by other stakeholders. Then, there is a need to better understand the translation of knowledge between stakeholder groups, especially when the design team “hands over” prototypes to executives or external stakeholders. This type of work would benefit from the collaboration with learning scientists and

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psychologists. Uncovering the science behind how prototypes embody meaning and knowledge as artifacts for communication will be critical to the field of design science. We have taken one small step toward this larger goal, but there is much more to do.

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Summary

This research views product development as an equally social and technical process, where objects like prototypes are critical to social interactions and embodying technical knowledge. We adopt a social science theory as a framework to view objects as having multiple enactments (Mol, 2002). Using this framework, we studied the use of prototypes across six stakeholder contexts at a global footwear company over ten-months. Results from this study confirm that prototypes are objects that can embody multiple meanings and enable various actions, such as a single prototype both serving as a vessel of knowledge to explain a product’s intent and also being used as a persuasive tool to gain buy-in. By becoming aware of prototype’s role in communication between different types of stakeholders, in terms of what types of communication occur, how prototypes are being leveraged in social situations, and the intent and outcome of that communication, teams can better plan and prepare for how information is encoded into the prototyped artifact and the messaging surrounding the object. These insights can help designers, project managers, and other stakeholders become aware of the benefits and biases prototypes create in common situations throughout the design process. Becoming aware of prototypes role in communication between stakeholders is essential to achieving better product development practices.

Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments We thank the company in this research project for the unlimited access to their organization. We also thank the many formal and informal reviewers who aided in the revisions for this paper. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation through the Graduate Research Fellowship Program.

Notes 1. A “last” is the physical form and shape of the shoe. It is a technical term in the footwear industry that refers to the molded shape of a human foot for the intended shoe. Every shoe has its own unique last. 2. SKU refers to Stock Keeping Unit, and it is a term used when talking about inventory management. 3. Colorway refers to the range of color combinations in a certain style or design. In this instance, the color pattern for the boot prototype.

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