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The role of research in fisheries development
The role of research in fisheries development
A.C. Simpson
The
author
discusses, the to
reference
with
the
countries,
increasingly
important
roles
that
research
has
to
development fisheries
as
reach
develop, discussion
effort
manage claim.
of
to the His and
of the research countries,
the
government
research,
institutional
The
countries
objectives
various
university
and fishing
an examination
the scale
in
research
all and
research
coordination
in more
increasing
an on
includes
priorities,
and
of national
protect they
fisheries of
more
throws
responsibility
fisheries play
full exploitation
as the extension iimits
special
developing
and
and
the
organization
of
and development.
author
is a consultant
on
the
evaluation of fisheries resources. He may be contacted at 106 Fambridge Road, Maldon,
Essex CM9
6BG,
UK.
’ This, decreasing however, is a percentage increase, falling from about 5% per year in 1955-58 to around 3.3% per year in 1970-73.
212
The total world production of fish and shellfish over the past 20 years is shown in Figure 1. When the Peruvian catch is excluded, to avoid the complication caused by the recent collapse of the great Peruvian anchoveta fishery, it can be seen that production in the rest of the world has continued to increase steadily at about 2 million tons per year.’ This increase is attributable largely to the influence of normal economic forces in a world where the demand for fish remains strong. Instances of increases attributable to the direct results of research by fisheries biologists are the exception rather than the rule, although some important fisheries have developed as a result of exploration by research vessels or recommendations resulting from research. Fisheries research has tended to follow rather than lead fisheries development, particularly in the capture fisheries which still account for over 90% of all fish and shellfish consumed.
Fisheries research objectives and role in development Traditional fisheries of coastal states have expanded and modernized their operations, making use of constantly advancing technology in vessels and gear, aids to navigation and fish location, handling, storage and processing, to increase, or in many cases simply to maintain their catch rates. The economic forces will probably continue to be predominant in determining the pattern of development for some time to come, but they will need to be guided increasingly by information which only the fisheries scientist can provide. Most countries maintain their fisheries laboratories with research staffs (usually predominantly biologists), and one or more research vessels, as an integral part of their fisheries departments. These frequently operate with a very broad mandate of helping the development of fisheries and advising the fisheries directorate on technical matters. Much of the research is directed towards general studies of the biology of the commercially important fishes, along the lines started in the early years of this century in a number of the advanced countries. In the developing countries these studies have little impact on the development of the fisheries or on fisheries policy and a good deal of time is also spent by the fisheries biologist in answering ad hoc questions from the industry referred to him for comment or advice.
0308-597X/78/0203-02
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C 1978
IPC Business
Press
The role of research in fisheries
development
E
B 2 5 Figure catches
1.
Annual
nominal
Yearbook 36, Table
-
IO
-
world
of fish.
Source: FAO Statistics, Vol Rome, 1973.
20
of Fisheries AO-1. FAO.
0
IIIIIIIIIIIIlII1LI 1960
1970
While these general biological studies correctly had first priority in the early days of fisheries research, the present state of fisheries science and development permits, or rather demands, that while some general studies are continued other priorities are established. Fisheries laboratories and research vessels are expensive to run and it is important that their work is effective. Capture fisheries
2 As early as 1974, one of the conclusions of the FAO review of the status of exploitation of the world fishery resources stated ‘very many - probably the majority _ of the most attractive stocks, such as the larger demersal species, lobsters, shrimps, the larger tunas, and the more abundant shoaling pelagic fish are now fully exploited’ (Review of rhe Sfafus of Some Heavily Exploited Fish Stocks, FAO Fisheries Circular No 328, FID/C/328, para 84, FAO, Rome, 1974). 3 An extension of such a role is the provision of comparable information on resources which are fished by that country but which extend beyond the limits of national jurisdiction and so are the joint responsibility of two or more adjacent countries or of an international fisheries body.
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
In most developing countries, where human populations continue to increase and protein is in short supply, a primary need of the country is to increase the supply of fish by any possible means, seeking out unused or little used resources, extending fisheries further from the coasts, developing the artisanal fisheries, increasing mechanization, improving gear, etc. Governments are increasingly putting money into fisheries directly or indirectly and are encouraging or are being asked to agree to joint ventures with foreign vessels or capital. On one side, then, there is this requirement to increase production as rapidly as possible, with government departments setting targets for annual increases, while on the other side, one expanding fishery after another (for example, the trawl fishery of Thailand) finds itself in difficulties as catches fall to uneconomic levels and it is found that the stocks of fish on which countries were relying for increased catches are already fully exploited and can only yield less weight of fish and fish of smaller average size, if the fisheries continue to expand.* Thus in the development of the capture fisheries, as opposed to the culture fisheries, there are two quite distinct basic needs. One is to know which stocks of fish are capable of yielding more fish, which are currently yielding their maximum, and which are overfished. The other is to know what can and should be done to increase the catches from those stocks which are capable of yielding more; that is, what form should development take to achieve these increased yields. The first need defines the major role of fisheries research in most countries: the evaluation of the resources within the countries’ jurisdiction and the determination of the degrees to which the potential yields of fish and shellfish are being realized and therefore where development could be successful.3
213
4 The constraint may be a lack of landing places, markets, roads and transport by road or sea to centres of demand for fish, lack of ice, or even traditional taboos. Most of these are shortcomings in the infrastructure of the industry and while the constraints remain the introduction or better use of improved vessels and gear will be of little value. In other cases, development may take the form of introducing methods of fishing new to the area such as jigging for squid or the combination of the use of lights with seining, or otter trawling.
214
Such evaluation provides essential information for the planning of development programmes, but in fisheries approaching full exploitation or already overfished, other information is needed in order to make the best use of the resources. The most important requirement is to know the amount of fishing that will obtain the maximum yield, or a slightly lower total yield which will give a higher catch per boat, larger average size of the fish caught, and a more stable fishery. Futhermore, the apparent maximum yield from any stock may be capable of being increased by appropriate management of such fishing activities as the adjustment of the meshes of the nets used, closed seasons or closed areas and it is the responsibility of fisheries research to evaluate the effectiveness of such actions so that the maximum yields can be achieved. While control of fishing effort is normally the key to obtaining close to maximum yields from any stock or stocks, such control is often difficult for organizational and political reasons and other measures may help alleviate the evils of overfishing. The government, therefore, needs clear information on the merits and demerits of each alternative. A further role of fisheries research related to the capture fisheries is to monitor the success or effects of development projects. Fisheries, involving the exploitation of natural self-regenerating resources, do not lend themselves to experimentation and therefore when there is a definite plan to develop a particular capture fishery, for instance by increasing the number of vessels or by improved or new fishing methods, much can be learned for future development and also for the understanding of fisheries dynamics if the proposed development is specifically monitored. This would require some additional routine observations on the fishing fleet and the fish caught. In the capture fisheries, then, the main thrust of research will be in resource evaluation, assessment of the degrees to which the stocks are fully exploited and their potential yields, the evaluation of methods of maximizing yields and the monitoring of development. The development of the capture fisheries requires a totally different approach. Different fisheries require quite different activities for their development. No fishery will develop, at least in most capitalist countries, unless it proves to be economically sound, taking into account any subsidies that may be available. in the developing countries, the In many cases, especially appropriate action for the development of a fishery found to be capable of expansion is first to identify the constraints to that expansion and to deal appropriately with these.4 Usually little input is required from the fisheries biologist once the potential for development is established and it is best carried out by a separate group with a variety of technological expertise and experience, working as a team to bring the appropriate action to bear where it can be most effective. An outward-looking approach is required, taking all factors into account, and in the sphere of improved technology the emphasis will be on the increased use of locally available expertise and equipment and the introduction of methods already established elsewhere, rather than on attempts to develop quite new approaches by national research in these fields. Socioeconomic studies will also play a role to ensure that developments relate to the real local needs and the actual local situation. In the capture fisheries the relationship between research, development and management is that the research provides the
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
The role qf research itljsheries
development
directorate with information on the extent of the resources and their potential for further exploitation and on the merits of management methods. The directorate uses this information, together with that provided by its economists and by reports from its local coastal staff who are in day-to-day touch with the fishermen, to formulate its policy for the development or control of the fisheries. The development policy is carried out by the development division or a separate authority, while the control is the task of the coastal-based staff responsible for, among many other things, enforcement of regulations. Culturejisheries In the culture fisheries the position is very different and much more comparable with agriculture. The limits to development are not bounded by the sizes of natural stocks but by the availability of suitable areas for culture, the availability of technical information related to local conditions in a form that can be readily understood and used, and the amount of investment. The objectives of research in aquaculture are to determine suitable areas, to test culture systems that have proved successful in other countries and adapt them to local conditions, and to devise and develop new systems for species already cultured or for wild indigenous species likely to be amenable to culture. Aquaculture, whether of molluscs in open coastal waters or of fish and shellfish in cages, netted enclosures or ponds, involves the production or collection of the juveniles and the provision of the conditions for fast growth with minimim mortalities. The research therefore involves the rearing of the young, the study of the food and environmental conditions required throughout life and developing systems that will provide these conditions. This involves experimentation and trial, at first on a laboratory scale and then on a pilot scale leading to trials on a fully commercial scale.5 Development will take the form of bringing information on culture systems suitable to the country to those who are in a position to use them and in the constant improvement of existing systems. This will be effectively performed by technical and non-technical written manuals and reports, by technical advice, and by demonstration farms run on a commercial basis. The research and its application should at all times be closely integrated, with a two-way flow of information and experience between research workers and the producers, and so there should be no separation between research and development, the team of research workers and their technical assistants being closely involved also in the development process.
5Aquaculture research, of course, is not only concerned with systems new to the country but with answering the many questions and solving the many problems, such as control of diseases and predators, that arise during culture operations even in established systems.
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
Pollution If fisheries are to be protected from pollution there must be scientists in each country who are not only investigating the extent of pollution and its effects on the marine organisms, but who are also fully conversant with the national fisheries resources and the aspects that are particularly vulnerable to pollution, such as nursery grounds, potential areas for aquaculture, lagoons and lakes. This necessary link between research on pollution and knowledge of the fisheries can best be achieved within the framework of the government fisheries research department. Here also the scientists will have access to the
215
The role qfresearch
iu/isheries
developtnenf
experience of other countries on the effects of pollution on their fisheries. In all countries, particularly in those with increasing population and expanding economies, the prevention of damage to fisheries by pollution from new development, rather than its subesequent control, is of great importance. A group of scientists actively engaged in investigating current problems of pollution in relation to fisheries and familiar with experiences in other parts of the world can provide the best basis for providing national planners with the information required to make them aware of the problems, so that industrial, urban and rural developments can be planned to minimize damage to fishcries.
Priorities in fisheries research Capture fisheries
6 However, the advanced country may at the same time include exploratory work identified potential some newly 0” resource, such as the smaller gadoids which have recently formed the basis for industrial fishery for several a new European countries. ‘It has been estimated that, in general terms, the greatest yield from any stock will be taken when it has been reduced to rather less than half the unfished stock and therefore when catch rates have fallen to rather less than half those on the virgin stock, using comparable gear. See M.B. Schaefer, Some Aspects of the Dynamics of Populations lmportan t to the Management of the Commercial Marine fisheries, Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission Bulletin Vol 1, No 2, 1954; J.A. Gulland. The Fish Resources of the Ocean. Fishing News Books, London. 1971.
216
The very definite objectives outlined above are aimed at providing the directorate with information required for the development and management of fisheries, and also required by international fisheries organizations concerned with the coordination of efforts to exploit rationally resources fished by more than one country. The priorities for research in each country will differ, depending on the degree to which the resources under its jurisdiction or fished by its nationals are exploited and on the existing state of knowledge of those resources. For a developing country with coastal waters, whether limited or extensive, but with little traditional fishing, the emphasis is likely to be on exploratory fishing to establish the potential resources, while for an advanced country with most of its resources well known and heavily fished,. the priority will be for research to aid management and for more detailed biological research to maximize yields or economic returns.6 Where little exploited pelagic or demersal species are located or where there is the possibility of extending trawling to new grounds, the priority will be to establish the extent of the stocks and to determine the catch rates to allow an assessment of the commercial potentialities of fishing the stock. Where unexploited stocks are found an attempt should be made to establish the virgin biomass by quantitative fishing, as this permits a first estimate of the maximum sustainable yield (MSY).’ However, most fish stocks are already exploited to some extent, and the objective is therefore to establish the potential for futher expansion of the fishing. The most direct method of establishing that potential is to identify the various stocks in the given area and to examine for each the data for annual catch and fishing effort for as many past years as possible and, by drawing the yield curves, to establish the relationship between annual catch and fishing effort. Such data, even if quite crude, can show whether a fishery is in the phase of expansion and can be further developed or whether it is near full exploitation or overfished. As an example, the data for the trawl fishery along the west coast of Thailand are shown in Figure 2. In spite of limited information, there is little doubt that the MSY is about 200 000 tons per year and that in 1970 and 197 1, the latest years for which comparable data are available, the stock was at least being fully exploited and probably overfished. Further development should be positively discouraged and
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
The role
ofresearch infisheries 69
x
Figure
2.
annual
catch
the the
Relationship (b)
calculated trawl
(west)
amount
fishery
coast
between
catch
off the
per
boat
of
fishing
Indian
development
I
(a) and in
Ocean
of Thailand.
Source: Research vessel annual statistics of landings.
catches
and
0
IO
2 Amount of
frshrng , hours Y tom5
efforts should be made to reduce fishing to, at most, the equivalent of 13 x LOShours per year, corresponding to the line A on the graph, thus maintaining an average catch per boat of around 130 kg per hour. This method of studying directly the relationship between annual catch, fishing effort and catch per unit effort of each stock, often known as the Schaefer8 or the surplus yield model, is particularly applicable to the developing countries, where for many fisheries the effort has recently been expanding and may still be growing, thus providing over a short number of years a number of points on the yield curve or at least providing a first approximation to that curve, It is also particularly applicable in tropical and subtropical areas where age determination, growth rates and mortality rates are often almost impossible to obtain, thus rendering more di~cult the use of methods and models based on these parameters. The establishment of the yield curves for the various stocks of fish is a continuing process starting with any data available to estimate the fishery’s probable position on the curve and thus to decide whether development is to be encouraged. From then on, the research is increasingly devoted to con~rmin~ or modifying the original assessment of the shape and position of the curve and refining it by assessing and taking into account other factors which may influence the estimated position of the curve and thus altering the predicted MSY or other chosen target yield and the corresponding fishing effort.9
8 Schaefer, ibid. 9 Such factors include the extension of the fishery to cover more evenly the whole stock and the way the fishing effort is measured or the way it may be altering. It IS often necessary to begin with the number of fishing vessels (the only data available), but then the size and efficiency of the vessels may change, or their area of operation may extend and these changes have to be evaluated and incorporated Into the preparation of the yield curves.
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
Essential statistics. The determination of the yield curves, or in fact any assessment of the state of a stock, requires certain information on the annual catch and on the amount of fishing that has been expended in making that catch (ie annual statistics of catch and effort related to the major species or species groups). Without this information no adequate assessment can be made and no amount of biological research on the fish themselves can substitute for such statistical information. This means that in any country wanting to develop its fisheries on a rational basis, the very highest priority must be given to the establishment of adequate statistics which will provide not only the essential data of catch and effort for stock assessment purposes but also certain other data needed by the economists to prepare their contribution to the formulation of national fisheries policies.
217
‘OThere should be a real working link between the fisheries researchers and the statistics staff, at both the collection and This becomes processing levels. especially important when the statistics computerized in assisting the are preparation of tabulated data for research, extracted at points well before the tables for of the final preparation publication. Guidelines for the ” K. Brander, Coliection and Compilation of Fisheries Statistics, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No 148, FAO, Rome, 1976. “A case in point is the trawl fishery of the Gulf of Thailand (east coast of Thailand) where extensive annual trawl surveys have been made over 12 years coverino the main period of rapid expansion of the fishery leading to what is clearlv , aross overfishing, but the MSY _ and optimum fishing effort cannot be assessed accurately, as no satisfactory data are available on either the catch or the effort for this area alone. 13The relation between the biomass of any stock and the amount caught by fishing on that stock will give the proportion removed by fishing and permit an estimation of the potential for greater exploitation. Annual surveys can monitor the effects of changes in the amount of fishing and catch on the biomass and provide the basis for management. “A greet deal is known about many of the more important species and much is summarized in national research reports and the FAO species synopses, and there to give priority to iS rarely need confirming for one’s own country information that is already established in other countries of the same geographical region. I5 ie stocks which intermix and interbreed, but which have limited or no intermixing or interbreeding with neighbouring unit stocks.
Fisheries biologists have a responsibility to make clear their requirements so that the correct statistics can be collected permitting their analysis in ways that are useful for stock assessment purposes. This requires an adequate separation of the catch into species or species groups and areas of capture and that the data on fishing effort are collected in such a way that it is possible to obtain the amount of fishing by each of the major types of gear in each area with the corresponding catch of the different species or species groups. The biologist can also assist in preparing manuals or other aids to the identification of fish and classification of gear, etc.” The importance of relevant statistics at an adequate level of accuracy cannot be overstressed, and FAO has prepared a number of documents to aid in the establishment of national fisheries statistics suitable for national use, but also coordinated on a world basis so that they are comparable for regional and world use.” In the assessment of the fisheries for demersal fish the routine annual monitoring of catch rates by research surveys can be very valuable and should have priority particularly where statistics of the relevant fishing effort are not being obtained. However, such monitoring is of limited value if statistics of the annual catch from that particular stock or trawl fishery are also unavailable.” In fisheries for pelagic species, assessments of stocks by yield curves based on catch and effort data can be very successful, but in some cases, particularly where the catching is solely or largely by seines, the curves may be misleading. For the smaller pelagic species, and especially the mackereis, carangids and clupeioids, groups which in many countries are largely caught by seines, quantitative acoustic survey methods (with echo integrator and oscilloscope) have a special role to play, as they can rapidly give information on the distribution of the various species in space and time and enable determination of the standing stock (biomass) of each.‘j Acoustic surveys should have high priority where there are, or are indications of, substantial stocks of these smaller pelagic species. They require a vessel capable of making extensive surveys rapidly and with sufficient power to use a midwater trawl effectiveIy to identify the species seen on the sounder or, less conveniently, a second vessel can be used to do the fishing. The focusing of attention on the determination of resources and assessment of the states of exploitation of the stocks helps to identify the priorities among the many aspects of the biology of the species that need to be investigated. l4 Particularly important is the determination of the limits of distribution of the various pelagic species or species groups and the breaking up of their overall distributions into unit stocks. is Such investigations would start by a full examination of the catches of commercial vessels and research vessels to establish overall distributions, but the determination of the unit stocks would involve tagging experiments and possibly collaboration with other countries for additiona tagging and/or recovery of tags. Possible by-products of such experiments might be information on growth rates, and indications of mortality rates. Of lower priority is the determination of spawning areas and spawning times, seasonal migrations, and average size at first maturity. All of these can be important in the interpretations of catch data and decisions on minimum sizes, closed season and closed areas. The length-weight relationships for each major species are
The role of research in fisheriesdevelopment important data which are required in various calculations and which although readily obtainable in the course of other work, are often forgotten. Where management of fully exploited trawl fisheries is important, and particularly where valuable shrimp (prawn) fisheries occur in the adjacent more coastal waters, information is required on the effect on the catches of shrimps and fish of the use of different-sized meshes and experiments should be carried out to obtain the selection ogives of different mesh sizes for the shrimps and the more important fish, by abundance and value. Furthermore, surveys need to be made in these areas to define the distribution of the shrimps and fish, including juveniles, to determine whether closing areas to certain sizes of vessels or other measures can meet what has become a very serious problem in countries such as Malaysia, where the highly profitable shrimp fishery is overfishing in the coastal waters and apparently starving the more offshore grounds of recruits. An aspect of fisheries research that is often neglected, but which should be a continuing part of all resource research, is the study of the fishing itself. The fisheries biologist is using fishing effort as a vital parameter in his calculations and yet there is often little information on the selectivity of the gear or precisely how it is operated and, more importantly, how the catching capacity or efficiency of the chosen unit of effort is changing year by year as a result of changes such as improved seaworthiness of vessels, larger vessels, better navigation aids, better hauling gear, changes in the dimensions of the gear, improvements in how it is fished, or changes in the number or duration of sets or hauls. The fisheries biologist should know the fisheries as fully as he knows the fish. The priorities for research in the capture fisheries in general can be summarized as shown in Table 1, though the research underway on any particular stock at any particular time will depend on the state of knowledge and degree of exploitation of that stock. This focusing of attention on resource evaluation and assessments of the states of the fisheries not only sets the priorities in the biological work generally but provides a sound basis for answering the majority of ad hoc questions which arise from government and industry. These questions are seen in the context of a broad knowledge of the distribution and abundance of at least the major resources and the fisheries for them which is likely to produce better and quicker advice than when each question has to be tackled as a new problem with no such overall background.
Culturejisheries The priorities for research in the culture fisheries naturally vary from country to country, depending largely on the suitability of the terrain and climate for aquaculture and on the history of aquaculture in the particular country (while some developing countries have little or no aquaculture others have complex traditional systems). Most tropical and subtropical countries, with high temperatures and plenty of sunshine throughout the year, have considerable potential for aquaculture and where little at present exists the priority is not for research as such but for the selection of existing systems and their introduction, with perhaps some simple modifications, on a pilot or commercial scale under the guidance of someone experienced in their use in the country of origin.
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
219
Table 1. Summary of the sequence of overlapping rational development and management.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
phases in the investigation
Questions to be answered Action required Establishment of system for fhe collection of catch and effort statisfics What is the annual-catch bv soecies Set up machinery for statistics and areas and how much fishing by collection and compilation. different gears has been expended to catch it? identification of resources What commercially useful species are present? What unexploited stocks are present in commercial densities? What are the species currentiy being exploited?
Identification of unit stocks What are the unit stocks?
Sampling existing catches, Exploratory fishing. Acoustic survey combined with fishing.
Studies of distribution from commercial and research data. Tagging. Acoustic surveys.
Evaluation of the states of the fisheries Is the stock underexploited, fully exploited or overfished? What are the maximum and optimum mean annual yield? What is the corresponding fishing effort?
of fishery resources
Observations
needed for
to be made
Catch and effort by direct observations using samplings made daily or other short regular periods where necessary.
Identification
of species.
Full description of existing fisheries. Catch rates on commercial basis and estimation of virgin biomass of unexploited stocks.
Maps of distribution to show limits and discontinuities of species or species group. Distribution of unit stocks. Degree of interchange between apparently separate stocks.
on each stock Analyses of catch and effort data. Trawl surveys. acoustic survevs and bionomic studies. Studies of fisheries and fishing methods.
~onitofing of developmenf projects Have the development objectives been Additional observations on catches and changes in effort achieved? etc, depending on How have the catches, effort, catch development. per unit effort and size composition changed as a result of the development activities? tdentificafion and evaluation of management methods Selectivity experiments. What are the possible ways of Re-analysis of catch, effort managing the fishery? data, etc. What are the effects on total catch and catch per vessel of applying each Trial management on experimental basis. separately or together?
Determination, and yearly improvement of yield curves. Determination of spawning areas and times, average size at first maturity, length/weight data. Size composition of catches by different gears.
Changes in catch and effort over sufficient time to assess effects of action taken.
Selection ogives for different species and mesh sizes. Calculated effects of management. Observed effects of management from trials.
Once there is culture, on even a small scale, there is a need for the establishment of a permanent team of biologists, technologists and technicians who can guide the further development of aquaculture, giving the technical advice required for the smooth running, improvement and extension of the existing cultures and to guide the introduction of new systems. Such a group will need facilities both for trials on pilot and commercial scales and for experiments on a laboratory scale where conditions can be controlled and contributing factors studied one at a time. In some cases the constraints to the expansion of culture will be difficulties in the supply of ‘seed’ (mollusc spat, larvae of shrimps, or fish fry) and a priority for research and development will be to develop ‘seed production’ as a national service or to a scale where it
220
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
The ro& of research in fisheries
can be taken over by industry. Demonstration integral part of the research and development stage.
developtrtenl
farms will often be an process from an early
Pollution in relation to$sheries The primary objective is to provide the technical information needed to assess the effects on fisheries of existing pollution discharges or dumping, of pollution resulting from accidents, and of pollution which will arise from the discharge or dumping of waste from projected industrial or other human activities (this last being required to permit the rational siting of industry and discharge points without damaging fisheries). The work involves expertise in fisheries biology, chemistry and hydrography, and also in microbiology where there are problems of pollution of filterfeeding molluscs by sewage. Priority research in any country lies in establishing details of existing major industrial discharges and dumping to ascertain where the problem areas and problem industries are and to assess their effects. A study of the experience of other countries is extremely important in identifying possible future problems and the means of avoiding them. Case studies of all fish kills or other serious instances of damage to marine organisms should be made to build up experience related to local conditions. The monitoring of pesticides and metals in marine organisms should not be undertaken lightly as the equipment is very expensive and requires considerable technical expertise and a minimum load of work to be worthwhile. Initially at least such analyses should be made in cooperation with a laboratory already suitably equipped and well established, but with some spare capacity. General background monitoring of environmental conditions, while useful for establishing baselines, should have low priority and should only be undertaken with due regard for the greater urgency to establish expertise on the aspects outlined above,i6
Contribution of universities
monitoring can be *@Background undertaken more effectively by more academic institutions. “The flow of ideas and experience should be in both directions, the government biologists giving individual lectures or courses and using university library and other facilities, while the university staff relate their teaching on marine biology to national fisheries and so make their courses more realistic and useful.
GAMINE
POLICY
July 1978
The role of the universities will vary according to the importance of fisheries in the economy of the country, the history and current academic level of the universities and the degree to which they are required or encouraged to relate courses and research to the more immediate national needs, There is much the universities can do to aid the development of national fisheries. A primary contribution is the training of biologists with a basic understanding of biology, marine ecology and statistics, and sometimes also fisheries science, although the extent to which fisheries specialization will be possible will depend on the importance of fisheries to the economy. Where fisheries science is taught at undergraduate or postgraduate levels, there should be close links between the staff teaching fisheries science and the government fisheries laboratories and their staff.” Where there is teaching of fisheries there should also be research in fisheries and some universities will develop a school of marine biology and fisheries with its own research staff, field station(s) and research vessel(s). Much of the effort of such a school will be related to the training of scientists to work in a variety of applied and academic
221
The role qfresearch
itI fisheries development
18Where a country is an archipelago or the fishery is largely at an artisanal level, such as the Philippines or Indonesia, the statistics and research effort will need to be greater than in a country with the same annual catch but where the coastline is simple or most of the catch is taken by large vessels landing at a few ports. Similarly, a tropical country like Sri Lanka, in which no one species accounts for more than about 10% of the total catch, is likely to need a larger effort than a cold water country like Iceland: for while Iceland catches 10 times the quantity of fish, in 1973 two species alone (cod and capelin) accounted for 75% of their total catch. ” In the tropical and subtropical countries this is likely to mean a minimum of some 10 graduate biologists covering between them research on tunas and tuna-like species, mackerels, carangids, clupeoids. demersal spp, crustacea and molluscs. It would also allow for the development and staff. younger research training of However, the suggested figure would not concerned with the include those development of the capture fisheries. In countries with extensive and varied fisheries, the research staff required will be substantially more.
222
fields, but a positive attempt should be made in research to use commercial species of fish and invertebrates and, wherever possible, to build up background information on useful species. One cannot dictate what universities should investigate, but there should be close collaboration between government fisheries laboratories and university staff to avoid unnecessary duplication and to make effective use of expensive vessels and equipment. While it can be useful for universities to be involved in some resource work, in most cases the greatest contribution of their research can be in tackling the more long-term basic and background problems which must have a secondary priority in governmental fisheries research, but which should have first priority in the academic institutions, as they are not tied to the more immediate problems of development and management. The universities, related marine stations and oceanographic institutes, rather than the government fisheries laboratories, should be involved in such matters as the overall hydrography of the area, productivity studies, general ecology, physiology and behaviour. However, the physiology and behaviour of important commercial species, food web studies and the interdependence of commercial species can be of the greatest importance to the interpretation of resource relationships and will be studied by government fisheries laboratories that have enough staff to tackle these problems as well as the more urgent ones or by laboratories that have been working on the more immediate problems for many years. Biology departments can often make a particularly useful contribution in relation to the culture of marine organisms as the extensive experimentation lends itself to class work and postgraduate studies and does not depend on the running of a large research vessel. Investigation of the general biology, physiological and food requirements and the diseases of cultivated animals can effectively complement and supplement the research by the government fisheries laboratories.
Scale of the research effort The factors determining the desirable scale of the research effort differ for the capture and the culture fisheries. The main theme of this article is that the primary role of research in the capture fisheries is to provide information on the resources and their state of exploitation, and therefore the size and complexity of both resources and fisheries will be of prime importance in determining the scale of research required. As the collection and analysis of statistics of the fisheries is so basic to this work, the statistics service should be considered as contributing to the required research effort and there is little doubt that the cost of the collection of statistics is closely related to the size and complexity of the fisheries.18 Any country with substantial marine capture fisheries, say landing over 100 000 tons per year, will need a research staff large enough to avoid spending most of its time on ad hoc questions raised by the industry or administration. Indeed, if most of the research staff do concentrate on resource investigations, they will in the course of that work gain the knowledge and experience to answer, with little extra effort, the ad hoc questions that should come to the resource biologists for their comment.19
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
The role of research in fisheriesdevelopment
Lo In some countries there is a major problem in retaining good biologists in government fisheries research due largely to poor conditions, and, more importantly, poor pay. There are good fisheries biologists who are dedicated to their research and would continue -to do excellent work for a pittance, but through lack of support these people become overburdened with administration and can no longer make as useful a contribution as they should. Consequently, many research workers will not stay in government laboratories, but transfer to the universities or administration in private business and the government does not obtain the quantity and quality of technical information it needs. It is essential that government research workers receive comparable status and pay to their university equivalents. *‘While more vessels may be needed if the fisheries are extensive and complex, research departments should not burden themselves with vessels that cannot be fully maintained or, if maintained, tend to dominate the research planning so that the scientific staff are at sea for much of the year and do not have time to keep up with the analyses of the data collected during these trips as well as from their shore-based activities. The preparation of good reports and scientific papers also suffers.
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
The useful output from the research effort will also depend on the quality and effectiveness of the people concerned. One good scientist is worth many poor ones, and while money alone will not ensure good scientists, there is no doubt that money spent on pay to ensure comparability with other employers, and the universities in particular, will result in more effective research work.20 A major expense in the research related to capture fisheries is often the cost and maintenance of research vessels, and it is therefore most important that their size and number are related as closely as possible to the research needs. For many developing countries the primary need will be for a vessel to do exploratory fishing, routine surveys of demersal stocks and acoustic surveys of the smaller pelagic species: a stern trawler with one engine of at least 800 hp capable of using a midwater trawl large and fast enough to catch mackerel would be appropriate. In addition, a second versatile vessel for seining, lining, using traps, gillnets, etc, will probably be required.*’ Considerable savings can be made by the short-term charter of fishing or other vessels for specific purposes, especially where expertise or equipment related to a particular fishing method may be required. Besides, countries with limited funds for research and research vessels could make cooperative arrangements with a neighbouring country or international agency to use their research vessel for specific investigation. There is much routine work in the evaluation of fisheries resources, and to permit the trained scientist to be most effective, the correct balance of technical assistants to those responsible for planning and carrying out the research is important; on average, each scientist can work effectively with one technician, but this depends on the specific work and personality of the individuals concerned. Other assistance in the form of qualified librarians and skilled staff for instrument making and maintenance can be an overall economy. With the culture fisheries, the scale of research depends largely on the size of the existing aquaculture and its potential development in the country, and on whether one central research station covering marine, brackish water and freshwater is practicable or whether research and demonstration centres need to be widely spread. Provided the quality of scientists is good, the direction dynamic, and conditions suitable for their expansion, the rate of development is likely to be more or less proportional to the research and development done, at least initially. As discussed above, research related to pollution involves fisheries biology, chemistry, hydrography and probably microbiology, so that any attempt to set up a comprehensive fisheries pollution research team should include people with training and experience in these fields. The fisheries biologist needs to be one with wide knowledge and experience capable of looking at the fish under threat of existing or possible pollution in the wider context of the particular ecological situation. Extensive toxicity testing is not likely to be necessary, though facilities for simple tests with live animals for 2 or 3 days to determine lethal or sublethal concentrations of particular effluents should be included.
Organization
of research and development
In fisheries departments,
this organization
needs to be planned
to
223
encourage the achievement of objectives with a minimum of overlapping of responsibilities between sections. There are a number of possible arrangements and none can be considered universally applicable, as the history of the development of fisheries departments and their research and development sections varies considerably, as do their immediate and long-term needs. The size of the organization as a whole is also a reievant factor. However, certain general principles appear to be valid. (Figure 3 shows major and secondary flows of information, policy and action.) There has been considerable discussion in developed and developing countries on whether research and development in fisheries should be done by the same people or by the same section, or whether they should be separated and carried out by different organizations. Research in the capture fisheries is primarily directed to advising the policy makers, national and international, on the state of exploitation of the resources and the advantages and disadvantages of different measures that can be used in managing the fisheries to reach MSYs or other chosen objectives. Resource research, therefore, needs to be organized in one division with a head directly responsible to the Director General or whoever is responsible for policy making. Within the research team the objectives are to examine the resources on the basis of the various major and minor stocks and therefore the organization is best arranged on the basis of the stocks rather than on areas or disciplines. In a country with limited fisheries and a small research team, each biologist will inevitably be responsible for a wider range of species than in a country which has many research workers. However, the aim should be that all resources are the responsibility of someone, so that when questions arise, he or she is already familiar with the basic background and will be in a position to search out
Planmng
and co&lot,on
11’ Economics
‘\ \\‘\ Figure
3. Major
of information, relation
224
and secondary policy
to research
and
I: , /I,’ / i
I
lnformotlon
P
Policy
A
Actton
flows
action
in
and development.
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
The role ofresearch injsheries Table 2. Primary and secondary categories responsibilities.
Primary Demersal
Pelagic
Crustacea Molluscs Oceanography (plankton) Pollution Freshwater
22 In some countries, freshwater research is placed with marine research and in others it is in a separate division. The appropriate arrangement depends partly on the administrative structure of the department, but if the two come together administratively there is little doubt that the research related to the capture fisheries in marine and freshwater environments would benefit from being together. z3 Within the aquaculture division, the most likely to prove categorization effective is by animal groups: fish, crustacea, molluscs, seaweed, as each of these groups has much more common ground within itself than would the groups in a division into marine, brackish, and freshwater animals. Arthur C. Simpson received the degree of BSc Agr at the University of Sydney in 1939 and that of BSc (London) at the University College of Hull in 194 1. From continued
MARINE
POLICY
on page 226
July 1978
used in the division of research
Secondary Resources
exploited
Resources
of coral and rocky bottoms
by trawl fisheries
Tunas and related species Mackerels Clupeoids Carangidae and other pelagic Squids and cuttlefish Shrimps (prawns) Crabs, lobsters All species (except squids
Fish Crustacea
development
species
and cuttlefish)
and molluscs
quickly and effectively the information relevant to the questions asked. At the same time each researcher will constantly be building up experience in a broad but specific field. A primary division according to the resources, into demersal fish, pelagic fish, crustacea and molluscs is widely and successfully used, with a secondary grouping along broad taxonomic lines, as shown in Table 2. The degree of specialization possible depends on the size of staff available. In this system, each scientist is responsible for a group of species and fisheries for them, but spends most time on particular species which form the most important resources in the area or which are presenting particular problems. The support research on oceanography and plankton and pollution should form separate groups at the primary level.** The organization for the development of the capture fisheries needs to be such that in carrying out the development policy of the directorate it can draw effectively on the expertise appropriate to each situation, for, as stressed above, development is not a question of raising the technological level everywhere, but of taking the appropriate action to achieve greater fishing on those stocks capable of yielding more fish and not on those already fully exploited. The development organization must be able to draw upon groups or individuals concerned with the various processes involved in fishing, ie boat and gear technology, fish handling and processing, marketing, harbours and landing facilities. Whether these different acitivities form parts of one development division or separate divisions depends largely on the size and importance of the fishing industry in the country, but there needs to be close coordination between them. In smaller countries some of this expertise may not be within the fisheries department but available on contract from within the country or abroad. The heads of the development division or of the separate development groups should be directly responsible to the directorate.
225
The role of research in$sheries
development
continued from page 225 1946-70 he was employed in the Fisheries Laboratories of the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food at Lowestoft, Conway (Officer in Charge), and Burnham on Crouch (Director of Shellfish Research). During 1970-77 he was with FAO: until 1974 he was involved with the research programme in Cube on oyster and shrimp culture and shrimp resources, and in 1975-76 he was Director of Resource Evaluation in Sea Fisheries South China the Development Programme, Manila. Mr most recent pubii~ations Simpson‘s include ~~o~iuscan resources: in The Fish Resources of the Ocean, edited by JA. Gulland, FAO, Rome, 1971: ‘Evaluation de /OS recursos camaroneras de la zona A; Res. Invest., No I, Cuba, 1974, pp 163- 166; Report of the Workshop on the Fishery Resources of the Malacca Strait, SCSP/Gen/76/2 and 6, FAO, Rome, 19 76; and ‘Size, composition and related data on the spiny lobsters (Panulirus in 1966: argos) in the Bahamas Crustaceana, Vof 3f, No 3, 1976, pp 225-232.
226
A case has been made in earlier sections for maint~ning research and development together in the culture fisheries and for putting together all culture, whether in fully saline, brackish or fresh water. These can benefit by being under the same overall direction, though clearly geographical conditions will require that demonstration farms for some freshwater species will be up in the mountains while those for marine fish must be on the coast. The appropriate position in the organization for the division covering research and development in aquaculture will depend on its size and importance in the economy. When a small group, it would have close links with the resource research, but when larger it would probably best stand on its own, directly responsible to the directorate, as there would be little need for links with the capture fisheries.23 The broad organizational requirements of a department of fisheries needed for the effective use of research for development, that have been discussed in this section, are set out in diagrammatic form in Figure 3. The diagram also shows the main and secondary flows of information, policy directives and action related to research and development between the sections of the department of fisheries and with the fishing industry. In addition, the figure shows the research links with the university.
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
A.C. Simpson
The
author
discusses, the to
reference
with
the
countries,
increasingly
important
roles
that
research
has
to
development fisheries
as
reach
develop, discussion
effort
manage claim.
of
to the His and
of the research countries,
the
government
research,
institutional
The
countries
objectives
various
university
and fishing
an examination
the scale
in
research
all and
research
coordination
in more
increasing
an on
includes
priorities,
and
of national
protect they
fisheries of
more
throws
responsibility
fisheries play
full exploitation
as the extension iimits
special
developing
and
and
the
organization
of
and development.
author
is a consultant
on
the
evaluation of fisheries resources. He may be contacted at 106 Fambridge Road, Maldon,
Essex CM9
6BG,
UK.
’ This, decreasing however, is a percentage increase, falling from about 5% per year in 1955-58 to around 3.3% per year in 1970-73.
212
The total world production of fish and shellfish over the past 20 years is shown in Figure 1. When the Peruvian catch is excluded, to avoid the complication caused by the recent collapse of the great Peruvian anchoveta fishery, it can be seen that production in the rest of the world has continued to increase steadily at about 2 million tons per year.’ This increase is attributable largely to the influence of normal economic forces in a world where the demand for fish remains strong. Instances of increases attributable to the direct results of research by fisheries biologists are the exception rather than the rule, although some important fisheries have developed as a result of exploration by research vessels or recommendations resulting from research. Fisheries research has tended to follow rather than lead fisheries development, particularly in the capture fisheries which still account for over 90% of all fish and shellfish consumed.
Fisheries research objectives and role in development Traditional fisheries of coastal states have expanded and modernized their operations, making use of constantly advancing technology in vessels and gear, aids to navigation and fish location, handling, storage and processing, to increase, or in many cases simply to maintain their catch rates. The economic forces will probably continue to be predominant in determining the pattern of development for some time to come, but they will need to be guided increasingly by information which only the fisheries scientist can provide. Most countries maintain their fisheries laboratories with research staffs (usually predominantly biologists), and one or more research vessels, as an integral part of their fisheries departments. These frequently operate with a very broad mandate of helping the development of fisheries and advising the fisheries directorate on technical matters. Much of the research is directed towards general studies of the biology of the commercially important fishes, along the lines started in the early years of this century in a number of the advanced countries. In the developing countries these studies have little impact on the development of the fisheries or on fisheries policy and a good deal of time is also spent by the fisheries biologist in answering ad hoc questions from the industry referred to him for comment or advice.
0308-597X/78/0203-02
12 $3.00
C 1978
IPC Business
Press
The role of research in fisheries
development
E
B 2 5 Figure catches
1.
Annual
nominal
Yearbook 36, Table
-
IO
-
world
of fish.
Source: FAO Statistics, Vol Rome, 1973.
20
of Fisheries AO-1. FAO.
0
IIIIIIIIIIIIlII1LI 1960
1970
While these general biological studies correctly had first priority in the early days of fisheries research, the present state of fisheries science and development permits, or rather demands, that while some general studies are continued other priorities are established. Fisheries laboratories and research vessels are expensive to run and it is important that their work is effective. Capture fisheries
2 As early as 1974, one of the conclusions of the FAO review of the status of exploitation of the world fishery resources stated ‘very many - probably the majority _ of the most attractive stocks, such as the larger demersal species, lobsters, shrimps, the larger tunas, and the more abundant shoaling pelagic fish are now fully exploited’ (Review of rhe Sfafus of Some Heavily Exploited Fish Stocks, FAO Fisheries Circular No 328, FID/C/328, para 84, FAO, Rome, 1974). 3 An extension of such a role is the provision of comparable information on resources which are fished by that country but which extend beyond the limits of national jurisdiction and so are the joint responsibility of two or more adjacent countries or of an international fisheries body.
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
In most developing countries, where human populations continue to increase and protein is in short supply, a primary need of the country is to increase the supply of fish by any possible means, seeking out unused or little used resources, extending fisheries further from the coasts, developing the artisanal fisheries, increasing mechanization, improving gear, etc. Governments are increasingly putting money into fisheries directly or indirectly and are encouraging or are being asked to agree to joint ventures with foreign vessels or capital. On one side, then, there is this requirement to increase production as rapidly as possible, with government departments setting targets for annual increases, while on the other side, one expanding fishery after another (for example, the trawl fishery of Thailand) finds itself in difficulties as catches fall to uneconomic levels and it is found that the stocks of fish on which countries were relying for increased catches are already fully exploited and can only yield less weight of fish and fish of smaller average size, if the fisheries continue to expand.* Thus in the development of the capture fisheries, as opposed to the culture fisheries, there are two quite distinct basic needs. One is to know which stocks of fish are capable of yielding more fish, which are currently yielding their maximum, and which are overfished. The other is to know what can and should be done to increase the catches from those stocks which are capable of yielding more; that is, what form should development take to achieve these increased yields. The first need defines the major role of fisheries research in most countries: the evaluation of the resources within the countries’ jurisdiction and the determination of the degrees to which the potential yields of fish and shellfish are being realized and therefore where development could be successful.3
213
4 The constraint may be a lack of landing places, markets, roads and transport by road or sea to centres of demand for fish, lack of ice, or even traditional taboos. Most of these are shortcomings in the infrastructure of the industry and while the constraints remain the introduction or better use of improved vessels and gear will be of little value. In other cases, development may take the form of introducing methods of fishing new to the area such as jigging for squid or the combination of the use of lights with seining, or otter trawling.
214
Such evaluation provides essential information for the planning of development programmes, but in fisheries approaching full exploitation or already overfished, other information is needed in order to make the best use of the resources. The most important requirement is to know the amount of fishing that will obtain the maximum yield, or a slightly lower total yield which will give a higher catch per boat, larger average size of the fish caught, and a more stable fishery. Futhermore, the apparent maximum yield from any stock may be capable of being increased by appropriate management of such fishing activities as the adjustment of the meshes of the nets used, closed seasons or closed areas and it is the responsibility of fisheries research to evaluate the effectiveness of such actions so that the maximum yields can be achieved. While control of fishing effort is normally the key to obtaining close to maximum yields from any stock or stocks, such control is often difficult for organizational and political reasons and other measures may help alleviate the evils of overfishing. The government, therefore, needs clear information on the merits and demerits of each alternative. A further role of fisheries research related to the capture fisheries is to monitor the success or effects of development projects. Fisheries, involving the exploitation of natural self-regenerating resources, do not lend themselves to experimentation and therefore when there is a definite plan to develop a particular capture fishery, for instance by increasing the number of vessels or by improved or new fishing methods, much can be learned for future development and also for the understanding of fisheries dynamics if the proposed development is specifically monitored. This would require some additional routine observations on the fishing fleet and the fish caught. In the capture fisheries, then, the main thrust of research will be in resource evaluation, assessment of the degrees to which the stocks are fully exploited and their potential yields, the evaluation of methods of maximizing yields and the monitoring of development. The development of the capture fisheries requires a totally different approach. Different fisheries require quite different activities for their development. No fishery will develop, at least in most capitalist countries, unless it proves to be economically sound, taking into account any subsidies that may be available. in the developing countries, the In many cases, especially appropriate action for the development of a fishery found to be capable of expansion is first to identify the constraints to that expansion and to deal appropriately with these.4 Usually little input is required from the fisheries biologist once the potential for development is established and it is best carried out by a separate group with a variety of technological expertise and experience, working as a team to bring the appropriate action to bear where it can be most effective. An outward-looking approach is required, taking all factors into account, and in the sphere of improved technology the emphasis will be on the increased use of locally available expertise and equipment and the introduction of methods already established elsewhere, rather than on attempts to develop quite new approaches by national research in these fields. Socioeconomic studies will also play a role to ensure that developments relate to the real local needs and the actual local situation. In the capture fisheries the relationship between research, development and management is that the research provides the
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
The role qf research itljsheries
development
directorate with information on the extent of the resources and their potential for further exploitation and on the merits of management methods. The directorate uses this information, together with that provided by its economists and by reports from its local coastal staff who are in day-to-day touch with the fishermen, to formulate its policy for the development or control of the fisheries. The development policy is carried out by the development division or a separate authority, while the control is the task of the coastal-based staff responsible for, among many other things, enforcement of regulations. Culturejisheries In the culture fisheries the position is very different and much more comparable with agriculture. The limits to development are not bounded by the sizes of natural stocks but by the availability of suitable areas for culture, the availability of technical information related to local conditions in a form that can be readily understood and used, and the amount of investment. The objectives of research in aquaculture are to determine suitable areas, to test culture systems that have proved successful in other countries and adapt them to local conditions, and to devise and develop new systems for species already cultured or for wild indigenous species likely to be amenable to culture. Aquaculture, whether of molluscs in open coastal waters or of fish and shellfish in cages, netted enclosures or ponds, involves the production or collection of the juveniles and the provision of the conditions for fast growth with minimim mortalities. The research therefore involves the rearing of the young, the study of the food and environmental conditions required throughout life and developing systems that will provide these conditions. This involves experimentation and trial, at first on a laboratory scale and then on a pilot scale leading to trials on a fully commercial scale.5 Development will take the form of bringing information on culture systems suitable to the country to those who are in a position to use them and in the constant improvement of existing systems. This will be effectively performed by technical and non-technical written manuals and reports, by technical advice, and by demonstration farms run on a commercial basis. The research and its application should at all times be closely integrated, with a two-way flow of information and experience between research workers and the producers, and so there should be no separation between research and development, the team of research workers and their technical assistants being closely involved also in the development process.
5Aquaculture research, of course, is not only concerned with systems new to the country but with answering the many questions and solving the many problems, such as control of diseases and predators, that arise during culture operations even in established systems.
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
Pollution If fisheries are to be protected from pollution there must be scientists in each country who are not only investigating the extent of pollution and its effects on the marine organisms, but who are also fully conversant with the national fisheries resources and the aspects that are particularly vulnerable to pollution, such as nursery grounds, potential areas for aquaculture, lagoons and lakes. This necessary link between research on pollution and knowledge of the fisheries can best be achieved within the framework of the government fisheries research department. Here also the scientists will have access to the
215
The role qfresearch
iu/isheries
developtnenf
experience of other countries on the effects of pollution on their fisheries. In all countries, particularly in those with increasing population and expanding economies, the prevention of damage to fisheries by pollution from new development, rather than its subesequent control, is of great importance. A group of scientists actively engaged in investigating current problems of pollution in relation to fisheries and familiar with experiences in other parts of the world can provide the best basis for providing national planners with the information required to make them aware of the problems, so that industrial, urban and rural developments can be planned to minimize damage to fishcries.
Priorities in fisheries research Capture fisheries
6 However, the advanced country may at the same time include exploratory work identified potential some newly 0” resource, such as the smaller gadoids which have recently formed the basis for industrial fishery for several a new European countries. ‘It has been estimated that, in general terms, the greatest yield from any stock will be taken when it has been reduced to rather less than half the unfished stock and therefore when catch rates have fallen to rather less than half those on the virgin stock, using comparable gear. See M.B. Schaefer, Some Aspects of the Dynamics of Populations lmportan t to the Management of the Commercial Marine fisheries, Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission Bulletin Vol 1, No 2, 1954; J.A. Gulland. The Fish Resources of the Ocean. Fishing News Books, London. 1971.
216
The very definite objectives outlined above are aimed at providing the directorate with information required for the development and management of fisheries, and also required by international fisheries organizations concerned with the coordination of efforts to exploit rationally resources fished by more than one country. The priorities for research in each country will differ, depending on the degree to which the resources under its jurisdiction or fished by its nationals are exploited and on the existing state of knowledge of those resources. For a developing country with coastal waters, whether limited or extensive, but with little traditional fishing, the emphasis is likely to be on exploratory fishing to establish the potential resources, while for an advanced country with most of its resources well known and heavily fished,. the priority will be for research to aid management and for more detailed biological research to maximize yields or economic returns.6 Where little exploited pelagic or demersal species are located or where there is the possibility of extending trawling to new grounds, the priority will be to establish the extent of the stocks and to determine the catch rates to allow an assessment of the commercial potentialities of fishing the stock. Where unexploited stocks are found an attempt should be made to establish the virgin biomass by quantitative fishing, as this permits a first estimate of the maximum sustainable yield (MSY).’ However, most fish stocks are already exploited to some extent, and the objective is therefore to establish the potential for futher expansion of the fishing. The most direct method of establishing that potential is to identify the various stocks in the given area and to examine for each the data for annual catch and fishing effort for as many past years as possible and, by drawing the yield curves, to establish the relationship between annual catch and fishing effort. Such data, even if quite crude, can show whether a fishery is in the phase of expansion and can be further developed or whether it is near full exploitation or overfished. As an example, the data for the trawl fishery along the west coast of Thailand are shown in Figure 2. In spite of limited information, there is little doubt that the MSY is about 200 000 tons per year and that in 1970 and 197 1, the latest years for which comparable data are available, the stock was at least being fully exploited and probably overfished. Further development should be positively discouraged and
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
The role
ofresearch infisheries 69
x
Figure
2.
annual
catch
the the
Relationship (b)
calculated trawl
(west)
amount
fishery
coast
between
catch
off the
per
boat
of
fishing
Indian
development
I
(a) and in
Ocean
of Thailand.
Source: Research vessel annual statistics of landings.
catches
and
0
IO
2 Amount of
frshrng , hours Y tom5
efforts should be made to reduce fishing to, at most, the equivalent of 13 x LOShours per year, corresponding to the line A on the graph, thus maintaining an average catch per boat of around 130 kg per hour. This method of studying directly the relationship between annual catch, fishing effort and catch per unit effort of each stock, often known as the Schaefer8 or the surplus yield model, is particularly applicable to the developing countries, where for many fisheries the effort has recently been expanding and may still be growing, thus providing over a short number of years a number of points on the yield curve or at least providing a first approximation to that curve, It is also particularly applicable in tropical and subtropical areas where age determination, growth rates and mortality rates are often almost impossible to obtain, thus rendering more di~cult the use of methods and models based on these parameters. The establishment of the yield curves for the various stocks of fish is a continuing process starting with any data available to estimate the fishery’s probable position on the curve and thus to decide whether development is to be encouraged. From then on, the research is increasingly devoted to con~rmin~ or modifying the original assessment of the shape and position of the curve and refining it by assessing and taking into account other factors which may influence the estimated position of the curve and thus altering the predicted MSY or other chosen target yield and the corresponding fishing effort.9
8 Schaefer, ibid. 9 Such factors include the extension of the fishery to cover more evenly the whole stock and the way the fishing effort is measured or the way it may be altering. It IS often necessary to begin with the number of fishing vessels (the only data available), but then the size and efficiency of the vessels may change, or their area of operation may extend and these changes have to be evaluated and incorporated Into the preparation of the yield curves.
MARINE
POLICY
July 1978
Essential statistics. The determination of the yield curves, or in fact any assessment of the state of a stock, requires certain information on the annual catch and on the amount of fishing that has been expended in making that catch (ie annual statistics of catch and effort related to the major species or species groups). Without this information no adequate assessment can be made and no amount of biological research on the fish themselves can substitute for such statistical information. This means that in any country wanting to develop its fisheries on a rational basis, the very highest priority must be given to the establishment of adequate statistics which will provide not only the essential data of catch and effort for stock assessment purposes but also certain other data needed by the economists to prepare their contribution to the formulation of national fisheries policies.
217
‘OThere should be a real working link between the fisheries researchers and the statistics staff, at both the collection and This becomes processing levels. especially important when the statistics computerized in assisting the are preparation of tabulated data for research, extracted at points well before the tables for of the final preparation publication. Guidelines for the ” K. Brander, Coliection and Compilation of Fisheries Statistics, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No 148, FAO, Rome, 1976. “A case in point is the trawl fishery of the Gulf of Thailand (east coast of Thailand) where extensive annual trawl surveys have been made over 12 years coverino the main period of rapid expansion of the fishery leading to what is clearlv , aross overfishing, but the MSY _ and optimum fishing effort cannot be assessed accurately, as no satisfactory data are available on either the catch or the effort for this area alone. 13The relation between the biomass of any stock and the amount caught by fishing on that stock will give the proportion removed by fishing and permit an estimation of the potential for greater exploitation. Annual surveys can monitor the effects of changes in the amount of fishing and catch on the biomass and provide the basis for management. “A greet deal is known about many of the more important species and much is summarized in national research reports and the FAO species synopses, and there to give priority to iS rarely need confirming for one’s own country information that is already established in other countries of the same geographical region. I5 ie stocks which intermix and interbreed, but which have limited or no intermixing or interbreeding with neighbouring unit stocks.
Fisheries biologists have a responsibility to make clear their requirements so that the correct statistics can be collected permitting their analysis in ways that are useful for stock assessment purposes. This requires an adequate separation of the catch into species or species groups and areas of capture and that the data on fishing effort are collected in such a way that it is possible to obtain the amount of fishing by each of the major types of gear in each area with the corresponding catch of the different species or species groups. The biologist can also assist in preparing manuals or other aids to the identification of fish and classification of gear, etc.” The importance of relevant statistics at an adequate level of accuracy cannot be overstressed, and FAO has prepared a number of documents to aid in the establishment of national fisheries statistics suitable for national use, but also coordinated on a world basis so that they are comparable for regional and world use.” In the assessment of the fisheries for demersal fish the routine annual monitoring of catch rates by research surveys can be very valuable and should have priority particularly where statistics of the relevant fishing effort are not being obtained. However, such monitoring is of limited value if statistics of the annual catch from that particular stock or trawl fishery are also unavailable.” In fisheries for pelagic species, assessments of stocks by yield curves based on catch and effort data can be very successful, but in some cases, particularly where the catching is solely or largely by seines, the curves may be misleading. For the smaller pelagic species, and especially the mackereis, carangids and clupeioids, groups which in many countries are largely caught by seines, quantitative acoustic survey methods (with echo integrator and oscilloscope) have a special role to play, as they can rapidly give information on the distribution of the various species in space and time and enable determination of the standing stock (biomass) of each.‘j Acoustic surveys should have high priority where there are, or are indications of, substantial stocks of these smaller pelagic species. They require a vessel capable of making extensive surveys rapidly and with sufficient power to use a midwater trawl effectiveIy to identify the species seen on the sounder or, less conveniently, a second vessel can be used to do the fishing. The focusing of attention on the determination of resources and assessment of the states of exploitation of the stocks helps to identify the priorities among the many aspects of the biology of the species that need to be investigated. l4 Particularly important is the determination of the limits of distribution of the various pelagic species or species groups and the breaking up of their overall distributions into unit stocks. is Such investigations would start by a full examination of the catches of commercial vessels and research vessels to establish overall distributions, but the determination of the unit stocks would involve tagging experiments and possibly collaboration with other countries for additiona tagging and/or recovery of tags. Possible by-products of such experiments might be information on growth rates, and indications of mortality rates. Of lower priority is the determination of spawning areas and spawning times, seasonal migrations, and average size at first maturity. All of these can be important in the interpretations of catch data and decisions on minimum sizes, closed season and closed areas. The length-weight relationships for each major species are
The role of research in fisheriesdevelopment important data which are required in various calculations and which although readily obtainable in the course of other work, are often forgotten. Where management of fully exploited trawl fisheries is important, and particularly where valuable shrimp (prawn) fisheries occur in the adjacent more coastal waters, information is required on the effect on the catches of shrimps and fish of the use of different-sized meshes and experiments should be carried out to obtain the selection ogives of different mesh sizes for the shrimps and the more important fish, by abundance and value. Furthermore, surveys need to be made in these areas to define the distribution of the shrimps and fish, including juveniles, to determine whether closing areas to certain sizes of vessels or other measures can meet what has become a very serious problem in countries such as Malaysia, where the highly profitable shrimp fishery is overfishing in the coastal waters and apparently starving the more offshore grounds of recruits. An aspect of fisheries research that is often neglected, but which should be a continuing part of all resource research, is the study of the fishing itself. The fisheries biologist is using fishing effort as a vital parameter in his calculations and yet there is often little information on the selectivity of the gear or precisely how it is operated and, more importantly, how the catching capacity or efficiency of the chosen unit of effort is changing year by year as a result of changes such as improved seaworthiness of vessels, larger vessels, better navigation aids, better hauling gear, changes in the dimensions of the gear, improvements in how it is fished, or changes in the number or duration of sets or hauls. The fisheries biologist should know the fisheries as fully as he knows the fish. The priorities for research in the capture fisheries in general can be summarized as shown in Table 1, though the research underway on any particular stock at any particular time will depend on the state of knowledge and degree of exploitation of that stock. This focusing of attention on resource evaluation and assessments of the states of the fisheries not only sets the priorities in the biological work generally but provides a sound basis for answering the majority of ad hoc questions which arise from government and industry. These questions are seen in the context of a broad knowledge of the distribution and abundance of at least the major resources and the fisheries for them which is likely to produce better and quicker advice than when each question has to be tackled as a new problem with no such overall background.
Culturejisheries The priorities for research in the culture fisheries naturally vary from country to country, depending largely on the suitability of the terrain and climate for aquaculture and on the history of aquaculture in the particular country (while some developing countries have little or no aquaculture others have complex traditional systems). Most tropical and subtropical countries, with high temperatures and plenty of sunshine throughout the year, have considerable potential for aquaculture and where little at present exists the priority is not for research as such but for the selection of existing systems and their introduction, with perhaps some simple modifications, on a pilot or commercial scale under the guidance of someone experienced in their use in the country of origin.
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219
Table 1. Summary of the sequence of overlapping rational development and management.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
phases in the investigation
Questions to be answered Action required Establishment of system for fhe collection of catch and effort statisfics What is the annual-catch bv soecies Set up machinery for statistics and areas and how much fishing by collection and compilation. different gears has been expended to catch it? identification of resources What commercially useful species are present? What unexploited stocks are present in commercial densities? What are the species currentiy being exploited?
Identification of unit stocks What are the unit stocks?
Sampling existing catches, Exploratory fishing. Acoustic survey combined with fishing.
Studies of distribution from commercial and research data. Tagging. Acoustic surveys.
Evaluation of the states of the fisheries Is the stock underexploited, fully exploited or overfished? What are the maximum and optimum mean annual yield? What is the corresponding fishing effort?
of fishery resources
Observations
needed for
to be made
Catch and effort by direct observations using samplings made daily or other short regular periods where necessary.
Identification
of species.
Full description of existing fisheries. Catch rates on commercial basis and estimation of virgin biomass of unexploited stocks.
Maps of distribution to show limits and discontinuities of species or species group. Distribution of unit stocks. Degree of interchange between apparently separate stocks.
on each stock Analyses of catch and effort data. Trawl surveys. acoustic survevs and bionomic studies. Studies of fisheries and fishing methods.
~onitofing of developmenf projects Have the development objectives been Additional observations on catches and changes in effort achieved? etc, depending on How have the catches, effort, catch development. per unit effort and size composition changed as a result of the development activities? tdentificafion and evaluation of management methods Selectivity experiments. What are the possible ways of Re-analysis of catch, effort managing the fishery? data, etc. What are the effects on total catch and catch per vessel of applying each Trial management on experimental basis. separately or together?
Determination, and yearly improvement of yield curves. Determination of spawning areas and times, average size at first maturity, length/weight data. Size composition of catches by different gears.
Changes in catch and effort over sufficient time to assess effects of action taken.
Selection ogives for different species and mesh sizes. Calculated effects of management. Observed effects of management from trials.
Once there is culture, on even a small scale, there is a need for the establishment of a permanent team of biologists, technologists and technicians who can guide the further development of aquaculture, giving the technical advice required for the smooth running, improvement and extension of the existing cultures and to guide the introduction of new systems. Such a group will need facilities both for trials on pilot and commercial scales and for experiments on a laboratory scale where conditions can be controlled and contributing factors studied one at a time. In some cases the constraints to the expansion of culture will be difficulties in the supply of ‘seed’ (mollusc spat, larvae of shrimps, or fish fry) and a priority for research and development will be to develop ‘seed production’ as a national service or to a scale where it
220
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The ro& of research in fisheries
can be taken over by industry. Demonstration integral part of the research and development stage.
developtrtenl
farms will often be an process from an early
Pollution in relation to$sheries The primary objective is to provide the technical information needed to assess the effects on fisheries of existing pollution discharges or dumping, of pollution resulting from accidents, and of pollution which will arise from the discharge or dumping of waste from projected industrial or other human activities (this last being required to permit the rational siting of industry and discharge points without damaging fisheries). The work involves expertise in fisheries biology, chemistry and hydrography, and also in microbiology where there are problems of pollution of filterfeeding molluscs by sewage. Priority research in any country lies in establishing details of existing major industrial discharges and dumping to ascertain where the problem areas and problem industries are and to assess their effects. A study of the experience of other countries is extremely important in identifying possible future problems and the means of avoiding them. Case studies of all fish kills or other serious instances of damage to marine organisms should be made to build up experience related to local conditions. The monitoring of pesticides and metals in marine organisms should not be undertaken lightly as the equipment is very expensive and requires considerable technical expertise and a minimum load of work to be worthwhile. Initially at least such analyses should be made in cooperation with a laboratory already suitably equipped and well established, but with some spare capacity. General background monitoring of environmental conditions, while useful for establishing baselines, should have low priority and should only be undertaken with due regard for the greater urgency to establish expertise on the aspects outlined above,i6
Contribution of universities
monitoring can be *@Background undertaken more effectively by more academic institutions. “The flow of ideas and experience should be in both directions, the government biologists giving individual lectures or courses and using university library and other facilities, while the university staff relate their teaching on marine biology to national fisheries and so make their courses more realistic and useful.
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The role of the universities will vary according to the importance of fisheries in the economy of the country, the history and current academic level of the universities and the degree to which they are required or encouraged to relate courses and research to the more immediate national needs, There is much the universities can do to aid the development of national fisheries. A primary contribution is the training of biologists with a basic understanding of biology, marine ecology and statistics, and sometimes also fisheries science, although the extent to which fisheries specialization will be possible will depend on the importance of fisheries to the economy. Where fisheries science is taught at undergraduate or postgraduate levels, there should be close links between the staff teaching fisheries science and the government fisheries laboratories and their staff.” Where there is teaching of fisheries there should also be research in fisheries and some universities will develop a school of marine biology and fisheries with its own research staff, field station(s) and research vessel(s). Much of the effort of such a school will be related to the training of scientists to work in a variety of applied and academic
221
The role qfresearch
itI fisheries development
18Where a country is an archipelago or the fishery is largely at an artisanal level, such as the Philippines or Indonesia, the statistics and research effort will need to be greater than in a country with the same annual catch but where the coastline is simple or most of the catch is taken by large vessels landing at a few ports. Similarly, a tropical country like Sri Lanka, in which no one species accounts for more than about 10% of the total catch, is likely to need a larger effort than a cold water country like Iceland: for while Iceland catches 10 times the quantity of fish, in 1973 two species alone (cod and capelin) accounted for 75% of their total catch. ” In the tropical and subtropical countries this is likely to mean a minimum of some 10 graduate biologists covering between them research on tunas and tuna-like species, mackerels, carangids, clupeoids. demersal spp, crustacea and molluscs. It would also allow for the development and staff. younger research training of However, the suggested figure would not concerned with the include those development of the capture fisheries. In countries with extensive and varied fisheries, the research staff required will be substantially more.
222
fields, but a positive attempt should be made in research to use commercial species of fish and invertebrates and, wherever possible, to build up background information on useful species. One cannot dictate what universities should investigate, but there should be close collaboration between government fisheries laboratories and university staff to avoid unnecessary duplication and to make effective use of expensive vessels and equipment. While it can be useful for universities to be involved in some resource work, in most cases the greatest contribution of their research can be in tackling the more long-term basic and background problems which must have a secondary priority in governmental fisheries research, but which should have first priority in the academic institutions, as they are not tied to the more immediate problems of development and management. The universities, related marine stations and oceanographic institutes, rather than the government fisheries laboratories, should be involved in such matters as the overall hydrography of the area, productivity studies, general ecology, physiology and behaviour. However, the physiology and behaviour of important commercial species, food web studies and the interdependence of commercial species can be of the greatest importance to the interpretation of resource relationships and will be studied by government fisheries laboratories that have enough staff to tackle these problems as well as the more urgent ones or by laboratories that have been working on the more immediate problems for many years. Biology departments can often make a particularly useful contribution in relation to the culture of marine organisms as the extensive experimentation lends itself to class work and postgraduate studies and does not depend on the running of a large research vessel. Investigation of the general biology, physiological and food requirements and the diseases of cultivated animals can effectively complement and supplement the research by the government fisheries laboratories.
Scale of the research effort The factors determining the desirable scale of the research effort differ for the capture and the culture fisheries. The main theme of this article is that the primary role of research in the capture fisheries is to provide information on the resources and their state of exploitation, and therefore the size and complexity of both resources and fisheries will be of prime importance in determining the scale of research required. As the collection and analysis of statistics of the fisheries is so basic to this work, the statistics service should be considered as contributing to the required research effort and there is little doubt that the cost of the collection of statistics is closely related to the size and complexity of the fisheries.18 Any country with substantial marine capture fisheries, say landing over 100 000 tons per year, will need a research staff large enough to avoid spending most of its time on ad hoc questions raised by the industry or administration. Indeed, if most of the research staff do concentrate on resource investigations, they will in the course of that work gain the knowledge and experience to answer, with little extra effort, the ad hoc questions that should come to the resource biologists for their comment.19
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The role of research in fisheriesdevelopment
Lo In some countries there is a major problem in retaining good biologists in government fisheries research due largely to poor conditions, and, more importantly, poor pay. There are good fisheries biologists who are dedicated to their research and would continue -to do excellent work for a pittance, but through lack of support these people become overburdened with administration and can no longer make as useful a contribution as they should. Consequently, many research workers will not stay in government laboratories, but transfer to the universities or administration in private business and the government does not obtain the quantity and quality of technical information it needs. It is essential that government research workers receive comparable status and pay to their university equivalents. *‘While more vessels may be needed if the fisheries are extensive and complex, research departments should not burden themselves with vessels that cannot be fully maintained or, if maintained, tend to dominate the research planning so that the scientific staff are at sea for much of the year and do not have time to keep up with the analyses of the data collected during these trips as well as from their shore-based activities. The preparation of good reports and scientific papers also suffers.
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The useful output from the research effort will also depend on the quality and effectiveness of the people concerned. One good scientist is worth many poor ones, and while money alone will not ensure good scientists, there is no doubt that money spent on pay to ensure comparability with other employers, and the universities in particular, will result in more effective research work.20 A major expense in the research related to capture fisheries is often the cost and maintenance of research vessels, and it is therefore most important that their size and number are related as closely as possible to the research needs. For many developing countries the primary need will be for a vessel to do exploratory fishing, routine surveys of demersal stocks and acoustic surveys of the smaller pelagic species: a stern trawler with one engine of at least 800 hp capable of using a midwater trawl large and fast enough to catch mackerel would be appropriate. In addition, a second versatile vessel for seining, lining, using traps, gillnets, etc, will probably be required.*’ Considerable savings can be made by the short-term charter of fishing or other vessels for specific purposes, especially where expertise or equipment related to a particular fishing method may be required. Besides, countries with limited funds for research and research vessels could make cooperative arrangements with a neighbouring country or international agency to use their research vessel for specific investigation. There is much routine work in the evaluation of fisheries resources, and to permit the trained scientist to be most effective, the correct balance of technical assistants to those responsible for planning and carrying out the research is important; on average, each scientist can work effectively with one technician, but this depends on the specific work and personality of the individuals concerned. Other assistance in the form of qualified librarians and skilled staff for instrument making and maintenance can be an overall economy. With the culture fisheries, the scale of research depends largely on the size of the existing aquaculture and its potential development in the country, and on whether one central research station covering marine, brackish water and freshwater is practicable or whether research and demonstration centres need to be widely spread. Provided the quality of scientists is good, the direction dynamic, and conditions suitable for their expansion, the rate of development is likely to be more or less proportional to the research and development done, at least initially. As discussed above, research related to pollution involves fisheries biology, chemistry, hydrography and probably microbiology, so that any attempt to set up a comprehensive fisheries pollution research team should include people with training and experience in these fields. The fisheries biologist needs to be one with wide knowledge and experience capable of looking at the fish under threat of existing or possible pollution in the wider context of the particular ecological situation. Extensive toxicity testing is not likely to be necessary, though facilities for simple tests with live animals for 2 or 3 days to determine lethal or sublethal concentrations of particular effluents should be included.
Organization
of research and development
In fisheries departments,
this organization
needs to be planned
to
223
encourage the achievement of objectives with a minimum of overlapping of responsibilities between sections. There are a number of possible arrangements and none can be considered universally applicable, as the history of the development of fisheries departments and their research and development sections varies considerably, as do their immediate and long-term needs. The size of the organization as a whole is also a reievant factor. However, certain general principles appear to be valid. (Figure 3 shows major and secondary flows of information, policy and action.) There has been considerable discussion in developed and developing countries on whether research and development in fisheries should be done by the same people or by the same section, or whether they should be separated and carried out by different organizations. Research in the capture fisheries is primarily directed to advising the policy makers, national and international, on the state of exploitation of the resources and the advantages and disadvantages of different measures that can be used in managing the fisheries to reach MSYs or other chosen objectives. Resource research, therefore, needs to be organized in one division with a head directly responsible to the Director General or whoever is responsible for policy making. Within the research team the objectives are to examine the resources on the basis of the various major and minor stocks and therefore the organization is best arranged on the basis of the stocks rather than on areas or disciplines. In a country with limited fisheries and a small research team, each biologist will inevitably be responsible for a wider range of species than in a country which has many research workers. However, the aim should be that all resources are the responsibility of someone, so that when questions arise, he or she is already familiar with the basic background and will be in a position to search out
Planmng
and co&lot,on
11’ Economics
‘\ \\‘\ Figure
3. Major
of information, relation
224
and secondary policy
to research
and
I: , /I,’ / i
I
lnformotlon
P
Policy
A
Actton
flows
action
in
and development.
MARINE
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July 1978
The role ofresearch injsheries Table 2. Primary and secondary categories responsibilities.
Primary Demersal
Pelagic
Crustacea Molluscs Oceanography (plankton) Pollution Freshwater
22 In some countries, freshwater research is placed with marine research and in others it is in a separate division. The appropriate arrangement depends partly on the administrative structure of the department, but if the two come together administratively there is little doubt that the research related to the capture fisheries in marine and freshwater environments would benefit from being together. z3 Within the aquaculture division, the most likely to prove categorization effective is by animal groups: fish, crustacea, molluscs, seaweed, as each of these groups has much more common ground within itself than would the groups in a division into marine, brackish, and freshwater animals. Arthur C. Simpson received the degree of BSc Agr at the University of Sydney in 1939 and that of BSc (London) at the University College of Hull in 194 1. From continued
MARINE
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on page 226
July 1978
used in the division of research
Secondary Resources
exploited
Resources
of coral and rocky bottoms
by trawl fisheries
Tunas and related species Mackerels Clupeoids Carangidae and other pelagic Squids and cuttlefish Shrimps (prawns) Crabs, lobsters All species (except squids
Fish Crustacea
development
species
and cuttlefish)
and molluscs
quickly and effectively the information relevant to the questions asked. At the same time each researcher will constantly be building up experience in a broad but specific field. A primary division according to the resources, into demersal fish, pelagic fish, crustacea and molluscs is widely and successfully used, with a secondary grouping along broad taxonomic lines, as shown in Table 2. The degree of specialization possible depends on the size of staff available. In this system, each scientist is responsible for a group of species and fisheries for them, but spends most time on particular species which form the most important resources in the area or which are presenting particular problems. The support research on oceanography and plankton and pollution should form separate groups at the primary level.** The organization for the development of the capture fisheries needs to be such that in carrying out the development policy of the directorate it can draw effectively on the expertise appropriate to each situation, for, as stressed above, development is not a question of raising the technological level everywhere, but of taking the appropriate action to achieve greater fishing on those stocks capable of yielding more fish and not on those already fully exploited. The development organization must be able to draw upon groups or individuals concerned with the various processes involved in fishing, ie boat and gear technology, fish handling and processing, marketing, harbours and landing facilities. Whether these different acitivities form parts of one development division or separate divisions depends largely on the size and importance of the fishing industry in the country, but there needs to be close coordination between them. In smaller countries some of this expertise may not be within the fisheries department but available on contract from within the country or abroad. The heads of the development division or of the separate development groups should be directly responsible to the directorate.
225
The role of research in$sheries
development
continued from page 225 1946-70 he was employed in the Fisheries Laboratories of the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food at Lowestoft, Conway (Officer in Charge), and Burnham on Crouch (Director of Shellfish Research). During 1970-77 he was with FAO: until 1974 he was involved with the research programme in Cube on oyster and shrimp culture and shrimp resources, and in 1975-76 he was Director of Resource Evaluation in Sea Fisheries South China the Development Programme, Manila. Mr most recent pubii~ations Simpson‘s include ~~o~iuscan resources: in The Fish Resources of the Ocean, edited by JA. Gulland, FAO, Rome, 1971: ‘Evaluation de /OS recursos camaroneras de la zona A; Res. Invest., No I, Cuba, 1974, pp 163- 166; Report of the Workshop on the Fishery Resources of the Malacca Strait, SCSP/Gen/76/2 and 6, FAO, Rome, 19 76; and ‘Size, composition and related data on the spiny lobsters (Panulirus in 1966: argos) in the Bahamas Crustaceana, Vof 3f, No 3, 1976, pp 225-232.
226
A case has been made in earlier sections for maint~ning research and development together in the culture fisheries and for putting together all culture, whether in fully saline, brackish or fresh water. These can benefit by being under the same overall direction, though clearly geographical conditions will require that demonstration farms for some freshwater species will be up in the mountains while those for marine fish must be on the coast. The appropriate position in the organization for the division covering research and development in aquaculture will depend on its size and importance in the economy. When a small group, it would have close links with the resource research, but when larger it would probably best stand on its own, directly responsible to the directorate, as there would be little need for links with the capture fisheries.23 The broad organizational requirements of a department of fisheries needed for the effective use of research for development, that have been discussed in this section, are set out in diagrammatic form in Figure 3. The diagram also shows the main and secondary flows of information, policy directives and action related to research and development between the sections of the department of fisheries and with the fishing industry. In addition, the figure shows the research links with the university.
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