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The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China
Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e7
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The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China Guanghui Dong a, *, Lin Wang b, Yifu Cui a, Robert Elston c, Fahu Chen a a MOE Key Laboratory of Western China’s Environmental System, Research School of Arid Environment and Climate Change, Lanzhou University, South Tianshui Road 222, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu Province, China b School of Architecture, HuaQiao University, Xiamen 361021, Fujian Province, China c Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada, Reno 89557, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Available online xxx
The Majiayao culture (5300e4000 cal BP) is the most important culture of the Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China, but its development and external connections remain unclear. This paper examines changing spatial and temporal patterns of the Majiayao culture and its subsistence strategies in relation to climate change. The research employed GIS analysis of data from the national archaeological survey, review excavation reports of Majiayao sites, and high-resolution paleoclimate records in northwest China. The results indicate that during the three phases of the Majiayao period (Majiayao, Banshan and Machang) site distribution, site density, and subsistence strategies exhibited significant shifts. This variability seems mostly due to changing precipitation that affected agricultural production and hunting resources. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
climate change. Many Neolithic and Bronze cultures (such as the famous Dadiwan culture) developed in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, the relationship between cultural evolution and climate change in the area during prehistoric period has been intensively discussed (An et al., 2004, 2005; Hou et al., 2009; Wu et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2010; Dong et al., 2012). However, the spatiotemporal pattern of the evolution of a single prehistoric culture, and its relationship to climate change and subsistence strategy variety has been rarely studied. The Majiayao culture (5300e4000 cal BP) is the most important Neolithic culture in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, and is also one of the keys in the understanding of tran-Eurasian exchange in late prehistory. The discovery of bronze vessels in Majiayao cultural sites suggest that it might have been affected by copper smelting technology from western Asia (Li, 2009). The Majiayao culture has been divided into four periods by some scholars (Xie, 2002): Shilingxia phase (5900e5000 cal BP), Majiayao phase (5300e 4800 cal BP), Banshan phase (4500e4300 cal BP), and Machang phase (4300e4000 cal BP). However, others suggest that the cultural features of the Shilingxia phase are undefined, concluding that Shilingxia should not be included as the early phase of the Majiayao culture (Zhang, 2002). The three-phase division of the Majiayao culture is used in this paper.
Prehistoric culture change and the factors influencing it are important issues widely studied over the last twenty years (Weiss et al., 1993; Cullen et al., 2000; DeMenocal, 2001; Munoz et al., 2010). Climate change has been suggested to be a very important factor behind the rise and fall of ancient cultures (Hodell et al., 1995, 2001; Haug et al., 2003; Chen and Wang, 2012; Medina-Elizalde and Rohling, 2012), while variability of subsistence strategies might also have affected the spread and evolution of Neolithic cultures (Larson et al., 2007; Jia et al., 2013). Gansu and Qinghai Provinces in northwest China was a key region for the intercontinental exchanges between communities living in different parts of Eurasia in ancient times, comprising important stations of the “old silk road”, one of the most important routes linking the central plain in north China with central Asia, west Asia, Africa, and Europe. The area is also the transitional region between the Tibet Plateau and the Loess Plateau, and is sensitive to
* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (G. Dong). 1040-6182/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.038
Please cite this article in press as: Dong, G., et al., The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.038
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G. Dong et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e7
According to data from the national relic survey in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces (Bureau of National Cultural Relics, 1996, 2011), the distribution and density of archaeological sites are different in each of the Majiayao cultural phases (Majiayao, Banshan and Machang). This paper analyzes these distributions, reviews the results of archaeological excavations through different phases of the Majiayao culture, and collects results of high resolution climate change study in northwest China, to study the spatiotemporal variation of the Majiayao sites, and explore its relationship to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy. 2. Study area The study area (33 240 e39 360 N, 98 420 e106 420 E) is located in the western part of the Loess Plateau and the northeastern margin of the Tibet plateau. It stretches about 160 km from Animaqing Mountains and Qinghai Lake in the west to the Liupan Mountains in the east. The mean annual temperature ranges from 0.3e14.8 C and the mean annual precipitation ranges from 50 to 860 mm. Altitude declines gradually from west to east: the highest elevation is 6282 m a.s.l in the Animaqing Mountains and the lowest elevation is 550 m a.s.l in Longnan county. The upper Yellow River, the Huangshui River, the Tao River and the upper Wei River, flow through this region (Fig. 1). According to the second national relic survey, numerous Majiayao sites are widely distributed in this area, including 706 Majiayao sites, 344 Banshan sites and 787 Machang sites (Bureau of National Cultural Relics, 1996, 2011).
3. Methods and materials The primary archaeological data is from the published “Atlas of Chinese Relics” in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces (Bureau of National Cultural Relics, 1996, 2011). Most these data are from the second national archaeological survey conducted in 1981e1985 organized by the Provincial Administration for Cultural Heritage. The data in the Atlas of Chinese Relics have been compiled by county using a unified format and mapping standard. We digitized the survey data obtained from the county maps of the Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, then conducted further density analysis. Density analysis is used to examine and compare the movements, expansions and retractions of the different phases of the Majiayao Culture, and to explore possible correlations between spatialetemporal variation and climate change. The kernel density tool of the spatial analyst module of ArcGIS 10 is utilized to achieve this goal. ArcGIS kernel density calculates the density of point features around each output raster cell. Conceptually, a smooth surface is first fitted over each point. This surface value is highest at the location of the point and diminishes with increasing distance from the point, reaching zero at the specified search radius. Only a circular neighborhood around each point is possible. The volume under the surface equals the Population field value for the point, or one if NONE is specified. The final density at each output raster cell is then calculated by adding the values of all the kernel surfaces where they overlay the raster cell center. We used the quadratic kernel function described by Silverman (Silverman, 1986). In this case, the search radius is specified as 20 km to manifest the overall
Fig. 1. Locations of the study area and the excavated Majiayao sites.
Please cite this article in press as: Dong, G., et al., The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.038
G. Dong et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e7
spatial pattern without losing distributional centers. The final result is shown in Fig. 2. 4. Results 4.1. Spatial distribution of the Majiayao, Banshan and Machang phases sites The distribution of the Majiayao, Banshan and Machang phases sites was shown in Fig. 2. Sites of the Majiayao phase are distributed widely in the valleys of the upper Yellow River, Huangshui River, Tao River, upper Wei River, Zuli River, and Bailong River, and Longdong basin (N33.5 e38.0 ; E100.6 e106.6 ). Their altitudes range between 1191 and 3522 m a.s.l, with a mean altitude of 2070 m a.s.l. The center of Majiayao phase site distribution is located in Minhe county, Qinghai Province. The distribution of Banshan phase sites shrinks to latitude N34.7 e37.3 and longitude E100.3 e106.1, and the site distribution center moves eastward to Lintao county and Linxia prefecture, Gansu Province. The Banshan phase sites are mainly distributed in the valleys of the upper Yellow River, Huangshui River, Tao River and Zuli River. Their altitudes range between 1446 and 2932 m a.s.l, with an average altitude of 2069 m a.s.l. The Machang phase sites are found in the valleys of the upper Yellow River, Huangshui River and Tao River, spreading westward along the Hexi corridor between latitude N33.8 e39.6 and longitude E98.8 e105.8 . Their altitudes range between 1375 and 2825 m a.s.l, with a mean altitude of 2063 m a.s.l. The center of Machang phase site distribution moves westward to Minhe and Ledu counties, Qinghai Province. 4.2. Changing subsistence strategies The subsistence strategies of prehistoric cultures in China have been of increasing interest and study in recent years, due to the development of archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological studies (Yuan, 2010; Zhao, 2010, 2011). However, because those methods have only rarely been applied in the excavations of Majiayao sites, farming tool to hunting tool ratios in assemblages from excavated Majiayao sites were used, as shown in Table 1. Some archaeologists argued that stone axes, Bens (adz), stone chisels, stone hammers,
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stone sickles, stone knives, stone spades, ceramic knives, bone knives and bone hilts were used for agricultural activities, such as plowing and reaping, while stone balls, flakes, stone net sinkers, arrow heads, bone awls, horn awls, bone daggers and ceramic balls were used for hunting and fishing (Shang, 1987; Wu, 1990; Bai, 2002), which is the basis for the classification of tool assemblages from those excavated Majiayao sites (Table 1). The classification has been partly supported by analysis of residues on stone tools. For example, both starch grain analysis on stone knives from Changning Qijia site in Qinghai Province (Li et al., 2013) and modern simulation experiments (Yang et al., 2013) suggested that stone knives might have been used to harvest grain crops. In four Majiayao phase sites, the ratio of farming tools to hunting tools is 1.74, indicating agriculture was the primary strategy and hunting secondary in the Majiayao phase society, which is also supported by other studies (Shang, 1987; Xie, 2002). One of the few Majiayao archaeobotanical studies from the Buziping Majiayao phase site in Dingxi, Gansu Province (4700 cal BP) suggests people were mainly engaged in millet agriculture, raised dogs and pigs, but also hunted deer (Jia et al., 2013). The ratio of farming tools to hunting tools dropped to 0.46 in eight Banshan phase sites, suggesting that overall hunting became the most important strategy, and agricultural activities became less important. In the Qinggangcha and Zhangjiatai Banshan sites, the numbers of farming tools are more than those of hunting tools (Table 1). However, caution is required with the deduction that the primary subsistence strategy is farming rather than hunting in those two Banshan sites, for only six tools were excavated from each site. Based on tool assemblages from five excavated sites, in the Machang phase hunting became less important as the ratio of the number of farming tools to hunting tools markedly increased to 3.17, with the lowest of 1 (5e5) in the Dashagou Machang site. Agricultural activities played a dominant role in Machang society, while hunting became an auxiliary strategy even less important than in the Majiayao phase. 5. Discussion Majiayao culture originated in the westward spread of Yangshao culture (7000e5000 cal BP) to Gansu and Qinghai Provinces from
Fig. 2. Density distribution of the Majiayao, Banshan and Machang phases sites.
Please cite this article in press as: Dong, G., et al., The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.038
G. Dong et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e7
8 1
2 15 44
1 60 5
196
2
165
23
1
49 149 31 136
1 11 1 1 1 14 2
Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang Zongri Shizhaocun Xishanping Fujiameng Total Qinggangcha Yuanyangchi Dibaping Liuwan Huazhaizi Suhusa Xitan Zhangjiatai Total Dashagou Yangshan Liuwan Xiahaishi Majiawan Total
9 56 8 20 488 2 1 2 9 5 1 4 2 76 3 19 178 1 5 622
6 42 2 14
9 21 5 14
1
1
1 3
2 9 24
1 1
8
8
1
2
1
1
2
3
36 23 1
15 43
3
42
2
1 7 7
2
1
1
7 1 13
1 2 40 4 49 283 20
70 2 11 8 43 81 8 37
Bone knife Ceramic knife Stone spade Stone knife Stone sickle Stone hammer Stone chisel Stone adz
GPICRAR, 2011 QPICRA, 1990 QPTAI, 1983 GPICRAR, 2008 GPICRAR, 2011
GPM, 1972 GPM, 1982 GPM, 1978 QPTAI, 1983 GPM, 1980 QPICRA, 1994 GPICRAR, 2011 GPICRAR, 2011
1 11
12 46 7 1
62 23
2
2
4
1
4
Ceramic ball Bone dagger Horn awl Bone awl Arrow-heads Stone ball
Flake
Hunting tools
Stone axe
Bone hilt Farming tools Cultural style Site
Table 1 Tool assembles from the excavation of 17 Majiayao culture sites.
neighboring Central north China, blending with local cultures in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, developing the local “Yangshao” culture with unique local characteristics (Yan, 1989). The climate was relatively wet during the Majiayao phase (5300e4800 Cal BP) according to the redness proxy from the Liupan mountain Tianchi lake sediment and Oxygen isotope records from the Jiuxian cave (Fig. 3b and c), which are the high resolution climate records in the Loess Plateau. Favorable climate seems to have promoted the development of millet-based agriculture and its westward expansion during the Majiayao phase (Jia et al., 2013). Although agriculture was the primary subsistence strategy during the Majiayao phase, hunting was also important, especially in the narrow valleys of large rivers, where flat lands suitable for agriculture are deficient. For example, many Majiayao phase sites found in the high mountain areas in the upper Yellow River valley are probably hunting camps (Dong et al., 2013). Zongri is an excavated Majiayao phase site in the narrow valley of the upper Yellow River (Fig. 1), in which the number of hunting tools (76) is slightly less than that of farming tools (87) (Table 1). Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes analysis of human bones from the excavations in the Zongri site suggested that during the first stage of the site (corresponding with the Majiayao phase), human mainly engaged in
13
Stone net sinker
Reference
QPRA, 1998 IA,CASS, 1999 IA,CASS, 1999 GPICRAR, 2011
4
Fig. 3. Comparisons between climate records and the site numbers, radiocarbon dates probability of the Majiayao, Banshan and Machang phases. a. 18O isotope contents from Puruogangri ice core (Duan et al., 2012); b. d18O values from Jiuxian Cave stalagmite (Cai et al., 2010); c. Redness of lake core GSA in Liupan Tianchi Lake (Zhou et al., 2010); d. Site numbers of the Majiayao, Banshan and Machang phases; e. Probability of the published radiocarbon dates from the excavations of Majiayao cultural sites (IA, CASS, 1991, 2010). Shading shows the transitional period between the Majiayao and Banshan phases.
Please cite this article in press as: Dong, G., et al., The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.038
G. Dong et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e7
millet-agriculture activities, and hunting and fishing were auxiliary subsistence strategies (Cui et al., 2006). Preliminary zooarchaeological study shown that bone awls from the site were mostly made
5
was not an important influencing factor for the shift of subsistence strategies and spatiotemporal pattern of human settlements between the Majiayao and Banshan phases.
Table 2 Radiocarbon dates from the excavated Majiayao sites in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces. Lab no.
Dating material
14
C dating
Calibrated age 1s range
ZK-0523 ZK-2775 ZK-2263 ZK-0108 BK75020 BK77013 ZK-1068 ZK-1223 ZK-0521 ZK-4230 ZK-2150 ZK-0407 BK75033 ZK-0025 BK75002 ZK-0405 ZK-0406 ZK-1371 ZK-2299 ZK-1283 ZK-0021 ZK-0348 ZK-0345 BK75009 BK75010 BK75028 BK75012 BK75017 ZK-0346
Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Outer coffin Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Millet Charcoal Charcoal Coffin Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Coffin Coffin Coffin Coffin Charcoal Coffin Charcoal Coffin
4675 4635 4670 4525 4500 4450 4425 4420 4360 4230 3970 4180 4040 4015 3940 3935 3920 3900 3875 3837 4235 3970 3865 3860 3840 3780 3750 3680 3665
80 83 115 100 100 90 100 80 85 95 155 100 100 100 100 105 140 85 80 80 100 240 120 90 90 90 100 90 80
5445 5333 5441 5149 5143 5089 5073 5069 5026 4727 4473 4709 4611 4549 4381 4344 4333 4296 4288 4278 4728 4459 4262 4284 4279 4141 4107 4020 4041
130 243 144 169 163 195 201 199 186 143 315 130 195 250 145 179 234 136 128 128 147 359 171 129 129 152 175 128 127
Site
Cultural style
Location
Province
Reference
Linjia Fujiamen Shizhaocun Caojiazui Jiangjianping Shangsunjiazhai Shizhaocun Shizhaocun Linjia Linjia Xishanping Qinggangcha Liuwan Qinggangcha Qinggangcha Qinggangcha Qinggangcha Shizhaocun Shizhaocun Shizhaocun Majiawan Liuwan Liuwan Liuwan Liuwan Jiangjianping Liuwan Jiangjiaping Liuwan
Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang
Dongxiang county, GSP Wushan Tianshui Lanzhou Yongdeng Datong Tianshui Tianshui Dongxiang county, GSP Dongxiang county, GSP Tianshui Lanzhou Ledu Lanzhou Lanzhou Lanzhou Lanzhou Tianshui Tianshui Tianshui Yongjing county, GSP Ledu Ledu Ledu Ledu Yongdeng county, GSP Ledu Yongdeng county, GSP Ledu
Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Qinghai Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Qinghai Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Qinghai Qinghai Qinghai Qinghai Gansu Qinghai Gansu Qinghai
IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA
2s range 5331 5318 5311 5167 5154 5084 5076 5073 5012 4744 4414 4692 4540 4510 4447 4411 4399 4291 4266 4212 4827 4466 4347 4254 4248 4166 4142 4008 3983
262 266 330 298 294 224 237 217 283 296 425 267 290 316 358 398 418 277 254 226 383 746 436 356 266 251 274 284 255
from gazelle bones (Institute of archaeology in Qinghai Province, unpublished data), suggesting the importance of hunting in the settlement. In Shizhaocun, Xishanping and Fujiamen Majiayao phase sites located at lower elevations, farming tools are much more abundant than hunting tools (Table 1), indicating agricultural activities were the most important strategy in those settlements. Whether subsistence strategies of the Majiayao phase sites varied in different regions is worthy of further study. From the Majiayao phase to the Banshan phase, numbers of sites declined, the area shrank, and the center of distribution moved east (Fig. 2). There is a gap in radiocarbon dates between 4800 and 4500 cal BP during the transition between Majiayao and Banshan phases, according to the published radiocarbon dates from the excavated Majiayao sites (Table 2). In the upper Yellow River valley, the Majiayao phase may have persisted to 4600 cal BP (Dong et al., 2013). The Majiayao to Banshan transition and change in site distribution was likely induced by dry climate on the western Loess Plateau between 4900 and 4400 cal BP, as recorded in the Liupan mountain lake sediment and the Jiuxian stalagmite (Fig. 3). In east Qinghai Province, a drought event between 4900 and 4700 cal BP seems to have induced the eastward retraction of site location during the transition from the Majiayao to Banshan and Machang phases (Dong et al., 2012). The 4900e4400 cal BP event might have reduced rain-fed millet agricultural production, and reduced forest and hunting resources at high altitude areas, resulting in the contraction of the occupied area between the Majiayao and Banshan phases. The drought-caused instability of agricultural production during that period forced people to change their primary subsistence strategy to hunting. Climate was warm during 4900e 4400 cal BP (Duan et al., 2012, Fig. 3a), suggesting the temperature
CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS, CASS,
1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 2010 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991 1991
In the Machang phase, the number of sites increases (from 344 to 787), and the center of distribution moves westward to Minhe and Ledu counties in Qinghai Province (Fig. 2). The summed probability distribution of radiocarbon dates was used to indicate occupational intensity (Barton et al., 2007) and human population variation (Gamble et al., 2005) during prehistoric periods. However, to evaluate the variety of human population and settlement intensity by the summed probability of radiocarbon dates must be used with caution, as reliability may be affected by many factors such as site sampling, sample size, radiocarbon calibration, and taphonomic bias (Williams, 2012). Both the summed probability of published radiocarbon dates and the site number of the Machang phase are higher than those of the Banshan and Majiayao phases (Fig. 3), indicating human occupation intensity of the Machang phase might been much higher than during the Majiayao and Banshan phases. Agriculture was the primary human strategy during the Machang period, as deduced from the high ratio of the number of farming tools to hunting tools (Table 1), other studies also suggest that agriculture developed rapidly during that period (Shang, 1987). The paleoclimate proxies from the Liupan mountain lake and the Jiuxian stalagmite suggested that climate was wet during the Machang period (Fig. 3b and c). The valleys of the Huangshui River are relatively wide, flat and suitable for farming and comprise the most important agricultural region in Qinghai Province. The advantageous natural environment and climate seem to have induced the rapid development of agriculture and movement of site distribution during the Machang phase, and greatly contributed to the increase of population and the westward spread of the Machang along the Hexi Corridor (Fig. 2). The westward spread of
Please cite this article in press as: Dong, G., et al., The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.038
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people during the Machang phase might also have promoted the formation of multicultural patterns in eastern Xinjiang Province, where Machang people encountered the cultures from West Asia and South Siberia around 4000 cal BP (Li, 2009). 6. Conclusion During the three phases of the Majiayao culture period (Majiayao, Banshan and Machang), the areas occupied by late Neolithic cultures varied together with numbers of sites, expanding during the Majiayao phase, shrinking during the Banshan phase, and expanding again during the Machang phase. Subsistence strategies also shifted through those different periods, suggesting that people constantly adjusted their strategies to adapt to climate and environmental change during the Majiayao period. Changes in precipitation probably had the greatest influence on agricultural production and hunting resources, affecting both the cultural evolution and human subsistence strategies through the different phases of the Majiayao period. However, because the oxygen isotope proxy from the Puruogangri ice core in the nearby Tibet Plateau (Fig. 3a, Duan et al., 2012) does not correspond to the variability of site numbers and the summed probability distribution of radiocarbon dates (Fig. 3), temperature might have not significantly influenced the Majiayao cultural evolution. Acknowledgements This research was supported by “Strategic Priority Research Program e Climate Change: Carbon Budget and Relevant Issues” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. XDA05130601), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 41072123, 41271218 and 41021091), and 111 Program (#B06026) of Chinese State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs. We thank two anonymous reviews’ constructive comments and suggestions. References An, C.B., Feng, Z.D., Tang, L.Y., 2004. Environment change and cultural response between 8000 and 4000 cal. BP in the western Loess Plateau, NW China. Journal of Quaternary Science 19, 529e535. An, C.B., Tang, L.Y., Barton, L., Chen, F.H., 2005. Climate change and cultural response around 4000 cal yr B.P. in the western part of Chinese Loess Plateau. Quaternary Research 63, 347e352. Bai, Y.X., 2002. The archaeological discovery and observation of tools for agriculture production from Bronze sites in China. Nongye Kaogu (Agricultural Archaeology) 16, 165e171 (in Chinese). Barton, L., Brantingham, P.J., Ji, D., 2007. Late Pleistocene climate change and Paleolithic cultural evolution in northern China: implications from the Late Glacial Maximum. In: Madsen, D.B., Chen, F.H., Gao, X. (Eds.), Late Quaternary Climate Change and Human Adaptation in Arid China. Developments in Quaternary Science, vol. 9. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 105e128. Bureau of National Cultural Relics, 1996. Atlas of Chinese Cultural Relics-Fascicule of Qinghai Province. China Cartograghic Publishing House Press, Beijing (in Chinese). Bureau of National Cultural Relics, 2011. Atlas of Chinese Cultural Relics-Fascicule of Gansu Province. Surveying and Mapping Press, Beijing (in Chinese). Cai, Y.J., Tan, L.C., Cheng, H., An, Z.S., Edwards, R.L., Kelly, M.J., Kong, X.G., Wang, X.F., 2010. The variation of summer monsoon precipitation in central China since the last deglaciation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 291, 21e31. Chen, W., Wang, W.M., 2012. MiddleeLate Holocene vegetation history and environment changes revealed by pollen analysis of a core at Qingdao of Shandong Province, East China. Quaternary International 254, 68e72. Cui, Y.P., Hu, Y.W., Chen, H.H., Dong, Y., Guan, L., Weng, Q., Wang, C.S., 2006. Stable isotopic analysis on human bones from Zongri site. Quaternary Research 26, 604e611 (in Chinese). Cullen, H.M., deMenocal, P.B., Hemming, S., Hemming, G., Brown, F.H., Guilderson, T., Sirocko, F., 2000. Climate change and the collapse of the Akkadian empire: evidence from the deep sea. Geology 28, 379e382. DeMenocal, P.B., 2001. Cultural responses to climate change during the late Holocene. Science 292, 667e673. Dong, G.H., Jia, X., An, C.B., Chen, F.H., Zhao, Y., Tao, S.C., Ma, M.M., 2012. Mid-Holocene climate change and its effect on prehistoric cultural evolution in eastern Qinghai Province, China. Quaternary Research 77, 23e30.
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The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China Guanghui Dong a, *, Lin Wang b, Yifu Cui a, Robert Elston c, Fahu Chen a a MOE Key Laboratory of Western China’s Environmental System, Research School of Arid Environment and Climate Change, Lanzhou University, South Tianshui Road 222, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu Province, China b School of Architecture, HuaQiao University, Xiamen 361021, Fujian Province, China c Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada, Reno 89557, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Available online xxx
The Majiayao culture (5300e4000 cal BP) is the most important culture of the Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China, but its development and external connections remain unclear. This paper examines changing spatial and temporal patterns of the Majiayao culture and its subsistence strategies in relation to climate change. The research employed GIS analysis of data from the national archaeological survey, review excavation reports of Majiayao sites, and high-resolution paleoclimate records in northwest China. The results indicate that during the three phases of the Majiayao period (Majiayao, Banshan and Machang) site distribution, site density, and subsistence strategies exhibited significant shifts. This variability seems mostly due to changing precipitation that affected agricultural production and hunting resources. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
climate change. Many Neolithic and Bronze cultures (such as the famous Dadiwan culture) developed in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, the relationship between cultural evolution and climate change in the area during prehistoric period has been intensively discussed (An et al., 2004, 2005; Hou et al., 2009; Wu et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2010; Dong et al., 2012). However, the spatiotemporal pattern of the evolution of a single prehistoric culture, and its relationship to climate change and subsistence strategy variety has been rarely studied. The Majiayao culture (5300e4000 cal BP) is the most important Neolithic culture in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, and is also one of the keys in the understanding of tran-Eurasian exchange in late prehistory. The discovery of bronze vessels in Majiayao cultural sites suggest that it might have been affected by copper smelting technology from western Asia (Li, 2009). The Majiayao culture has been divided into four periods by some scholars (Xie, 2002): Shilingxia phase (5900e5000 cal BP), Majiayao phase (5300e 4800 cal BP), Banshan phase (4500e4300 cal BP), and Machang phase (4300e4000 cal BP). However, others suggest that the cultural features of the Shilingxia phase are undefined, concluding that Shilingxia should not be included as the early phase of the Majiayao culture (Zhang, 2002). The three-phase division of the Majiayao culture is used in this paper.
Prehistoric culture change and the factors influencing it are important issues widely studied over the last twenty years (Weiss et al., 1993; Cullen et al., 2000; DeMenocal, 2001; Munoz et al., 2010). Climate change has been suggested to be a very important factor behind the rise and fall of ancient cultures (Hodell et al., 1995, 2001; Haug et al., 2003; Chen and Wang, 2012; Medina-Elizalde and Rohling, 2012), while variability of subsistence strategies might also have affected the spread and evolution of Neolithic cultures (Larson et al., 2007; Jia et al., 2013). Gansu and Qinghai Provinces in northwest China was a key region for the intercontinental exchanges between communities living in different parts of Eurasia in ancient times, comprising important stations of the “old silk road”, one of the most important routes linking the central plain in north China with central Asia, west Asia, Africa, and Europe. The area is also the transitional region between the Tibet Plateau and the Loess Plateau, and is sensitive to
* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (G. Dong). 1040-6182/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.038
Please cite this article in press as: Dong, G., et al., The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.038
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G. Dong et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e7
According to data from the national relic survey in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces (Bureau of National Cultural Relics, 1996, 2011), the distribution and density of archaeological sites are different in each of the Majiayao cultural phases (Majiayao, Banshan and Machang). This paper analyzes these distributions, reviews the results of archaeological excavations through different phases of the Majiayao culture, and collects results of high resolution climate change study in northwest China, to study the spatiotemporal variation of the Majiayao sites, and explore its relationship to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy. 2. Study area The study area (33 240 e39 360 N, 98 420 e106 420 E) is located in the western part of the Loess Plateau and the northeastern margin of the Tibet plateau. It stretches about 160 km from Animaqing Mountains and Qinghai Lake in the west to the Liupan Mountains in the east. The mean annual temperature ranges from 0.3e14.8 C and the mean annual precipitation ranges from 50 to 860 mm. Altitude declines gradually from west to east: the highest elevation is 6282 m a.s.l in the Animaqing Mountains and the lowest elevation is 550 m a.s.l in Longnan county. The upper Yellow River, the Huangshui River, the Tao River and the upper Wei River, flow through this region (Fig. 1). According to the second national relic survey, numerous Majiayao sites are widely distributed in this area, including 706 Majiayao sites, 344 Banshan sites and 787 Machang sites (Bureau of National Cultural Relics, 1996, 2011).
3. Methods and materials The primary archaeological data is from the published “Atlas of Chinese Relics” in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces (Bureau of National Cultural Relics, 1996, 2011). Most these data are from the second national archaeological survey conducted in 1981e1985 organized by the Provincial Administration for Cultural Heritage. The data in the Atlas of Chinese Relics have been compiled by county using a unified format and mapping standard. We digitized the survey data obtained from the county maps of the Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, then conducted further density analysis. Density analysis is used to examine and compare the movements, expansions and retractions of the different phases of the Majiayao Culture, and to explore possible correlations between spatialetemporal variation and climate change. The kernel density tool of the spatial analyst module of ArcGIS 10 is utilized to achieve this goal. ArcGIS kernel density calculates the density of point features around each output raster cell. Conceptually, a smooth surface is first fitted over each point. This surface value is highest at the location of the point and diminishes with increasing distance from the point, reaching zero at the specified search radius. Only a circular neighborhood around each point is possible. The volume under the surface equals the Population field value for the point, or one if NONE is specified. The final density at each output raster cell is then calculated by adding the values of all the kernel surfaces where they overlay the raster cell center. We used the quadratic kernel function described by Silverman (Silverman, 1986). In this case, the search radius is specified as 20 km to manifest the overall
Fig. 1. Locations of the study area and the excavated Majiayao sites.
Please cite this article in press as: Dong, G., et al., The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.038
G. Dong et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e7
spatial pattern without losing distributional centers. The final result is shown in Fig. 2. 4. Results 4.1. Spatial distribution of the Majiayao, Banshan and Machang phases sites The distribution of the Majiayao, Banshan and Machang phases sites was shown in Fig. 2. Sites of the Majiayao phase are distributed widely in the valleys of the upper Yellow River, Huangshui River, Tao River, upper Wei River, Zuli River, and Bailong River, and Longdong basin (N33.5 e38.0 ; E100.6 e106.6 ). Their altitudes range between 1191 and 3522 m a.s.l, with a mean altitude of 2070 m a.s.l. The center of Majiayao phase site distribution is located in Minhe county, Qinghai Province. The distribution of Banshan phase sites shrinks to latitude N34.7 e37.3 and longitude E100.3 e106.1, and the site distribution center moves eastward to Lintao county and Linxia prefecture, Gansu Province. The Banshan phase sites are mainly distributed in the valleys of the upper Yellow River, Huangshui River, Tao River and Zuli River. Their altitudes range between 1446 and 2932 m a.s.l, with an average altitude of 2069 m a.s.l. The Machang phase sites are found in the valleys of the upper Yellow River, Huangshui River and Tao River, spreading westward along the Hexi corridor between latitude N33.8 e39.6 and longitude E98.8 e105.8 . Their altitudes range between 1375 and 2825 m a.s.l, with a mean altitude of 2063 m a.s.l. The center of Machang phase site distribution moves westward to Minhe and Ledu counties, Qinghai Province. 4.2. Changing subsistence strategies The subsistence strategies of prehistoric cultures in China have been of increasing interest and study in recent years, due to the development of archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological studies (Yuan, 2010; Zhao, 2010, 2011). However, because those methods have only rarely been applied in the excavations of Majiayao sites, farming tool to hunting tool ratios in assemblages from excavated Majiayao sites were used, as shown in Table 1. Some archaeologists argued that stone axes, Bens (adz), stone chisels, stone hammers,
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stone sickles, stone knives, stone spades, ceramic knives, bone knives and bone hilts were used for agricultural activities, such as plowing and reaping, while stone balls, flakes, stone net sinkers, arrow heads, bone awls, horn awls, bone daggers and ceramic balls were used for hunting and fishing (Shang, 1987; Wu, 1990; Bai, 2002), which is the basis for the classification of tool assemblages from those excavated Majiayao sites (Table 1). The classification has been partly supported by analysis of residues on stone tools. For example, both starch grain analysis on stone knives from Changning Qijia site in Qinghai Province (Li et al., 2013) and modern simulation experiments (Yang et al., 2013) suggested that stone knives might have been used to harvest grain crops. In four Majiayao phase sites, the ratio of farming tools to hunting tools is 1.74, indicating agriculture was the primary strategy and hunting secondary in the Majiayao phase society, which is also supported by other studies (Shang, 1987; Xie, 2002). One of the few Majiayao archaeobotanical studies from the Buziping Majiayao phase site in Dingxi, Gansu Province (4700 cal BP) suggests people were mainly engaged in millet agriculture, raised dogs and pigs, but also hunted deer (Jia et al., 2013). The ratio of farming tools to hunting tools dropped to 0.46 in eight Banshan phase sites, suggesting that overall hunting became the most important strategy, and agricultural activities became less important. In the Qinggangcha and Zhangjiatai Banshan sites, the numbers of farming tools are more than those of hunting tools (Table 1). However, caution is required with the deduction that the primary subsistence strategy is farming rather than hunting in those two Banshan sites, for only six tools were excavated from each site. Based on tool assemblages from five excavated sites, in the Machang phase hunting became less important as the ratio of the number of farming tools to hunting tools markedly increased to 3.17, with the lowest of 1 (5e5) in the Dashagou Machang site. Agricultural activities played a dominant role in Machang society, while hunting became an auxiliary strategy even less important than in the Majiayao phase. 5. Discussion Majiayao culture originated in the westward spread of Yangshao culture (7000e5000 cal BP) to Gansu and Qinghai Provinces from
Fig. 2. Density distribution of the Majiayao, Banshan and Machang phases sites.
Please cite this article in press as: Dong, G., et al., The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.038
G. Dong et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e7
8 1
2 15 44
1 60 5
196
2
165
23
1
49 149 31 136
1 11 1 1 1 14 2
Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang Zongri Shizhaocun Xishanping Fujiameng Total Qinggangcha Yuanyangchi Dibaping Liuwan Huazhaizi Suhusa Xitan Zhangjiatai Total Dashagou Yangshan Liuwan Xiahaishi Majiawan Total
9 56 8 20 488 2 1 2 9 5 1 4 2 76 3 19 178 1 5 622
6 42 2 14
9 21 5 14
1
1
1 3
2 9 24
1 1
8
8
1
2
1
1
2
3
36 23 1
15 43
3
42
2
1 7 7
2
1
1
7 1 13
1 2 40 4 49 283 20
70 2 11 8 43 81 8 37
Bone knife Ceramic knife Stone spade Stone knife Stone sickle Stone hammer Stone chisel Stone adz
GPICRAR, 2011 QPICRA, 1990 QPTAI, 1983 GPICRAR, 2008 GPICRAR, 2011
GPM, 1972 GPM, 1982 GPM, 1978 QPTAI, 1983 GPM, 1980 QPICRA, 1994 GPICRAR, 2011 GPICRAR, 2011
1 11
12 46 7 1
62 23
2
2
4
1
4
Ceramic ball Bone dagger Horn awl Bone awl Arrow-heads Stone ball
Flake
Hunting tools
Stone axe
Bone hilt Farming tools Cultural style Site
Table 1 Tool assembles from the excavation of 17 Majiayao culture sites.
neighboring Central north China, blending with local cultures in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, developing the local “Yangshao” culture with unique local characteristics (Yan, 1989). The climate was relatively wet during the Majiayao phase (5300e4800 Cal BP) according to the redness proxy from the Liupan mountain Tianchi lake sediment and Oxygen isotope records from the Jiuxian cave (Fig. 3b and c), which are the high resolution climate records in the Loess Plateau. Favorable climate seems to have promoted the development of millet-based agriculture and its westward expansion during the Majiayao phase (Jia et al., 2013). Although agriculture was the primary subsistence strategy during the Majiayao phase, hunting was also important, especially in the narrow valleys of large rivers, where flat lands suitable for agriculture are deficient. For example, many Majiayao phase sites found in the high mountain areas in the upper Yellow River valley are probably hunting camps (Dong et al., 2013). Zongri is an excavated Majiayao phase site in the narrow valley of the upper Yellow River (Fig. 1), in which the number of hunting tools (76) is slightly less than that of farming tools (87) (Table 1). Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes analysis of human bones from the excavations in the Zongri site suggested that during the first stage of the site (corresponding with the Majiayao phase), human mainly engaged in
13
Stone net sinker
Reference
QPRA, 1998 IA,CASS, 1999 IA,CASS, 1999 GPICRAR, 2011
4
Fig. 3. Comparisons between climate records and the site numbers, radiocarbon dates probability of the Majiayao, Banshan and Machang phases. a. 18O isotope contents from Puruogangri ice core (Duan et al., 2012); b. d18O values from Jiuxian Cave stalagmite (Cai et al., 2010); c. Redness of lake core GSA in Liupan Tianchi Lake (Zhou et al., 2010); d. Site numbers of the Majiayao, Banshan and Machang phases; e. Probability of the published radiocarbon dates from the excavations of Majiayao cultural sites (IA, CASS, 1991, 2010). Shading shows the transitional period between the Majiayao and Banshan phases.
Please cite this article in press as: Dong, G., et al., The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.038
G. Dong et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e7
millet-agriculture activities, and hunting and fishing were auxiliary subsistence strategies (Cui et al., 2006). Preliminary zooarchaeological study shown that bone awls from the site were mostly made
5
was not an important influencing factor for the shift of subsistence strategies and spatiotemporal pattern of human settlements between the Majiayao and Banshan phases.
Table 2 Radiocarbon dates from the excavated Majiayao sites in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces. Lab no.
Dating material
14
C dating
Calibrated age 1s range
ZK-0523 ZK-2775 ZK-2263 ZK-0108 BK75020 BK77013 ZK-1068 ZK-1223 ZK-0521 ZK-4230 ZK-2150 ZK-0407 BK75033 ZK-0025 BK75002 ZK-0405 ZK-0406 ZK-1371 ZK-2299 ZK-1283 ZK-0021 ZK-0348 ZK-0345 BK75009 BK75010 BK75028 BK75012 BK75017 ZK-0346
Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Outer coffin Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Millet Charcoal Charcoal Coffin Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal Coffin Coffin Coffin Coffin Charcoal Coffin Charcoal Coffin
4675 4635 4670 4525 4500 4450 4425 4420 4360 4230 3970 4180 4040 4015 3940 3935 3920 3900 3875 3837 4235 3970 3865 3860 3840 3780 3750 3680 3665
80 83 115 100 100 90 100 80 85 95 155 100 100 100 100 105 140 85 80 80 100 240 120 90 90 90 100 90 80
5445 5333 5441 5149 5143 5089 5073 5069 5026 4727 4473 4709 4611 4549 4381 4344 4333 4296 4288 4278 4728 4459 4262 4284 4279 4141 4107 4020 4041
130 243 144 169 163 195 201 199 186 143 315 130 195 250 145 179 234 136 128 128 147 359 171 129 129 152 175 128 127
Site
Cultural style
Location
Province
Reference
Linjia Fujiamen Shizhaocun Caojiazui Jiangjianping Shangsunjiazhai Shizhaocun Shizhaocun Linjia Linjia Xishanping Qinggangcha Liuwan Qinggangcha Qinggangcha Qinggangcha Qinggangcha Shizhaocun Shizhaocun Shizhaocun Majiawan Liuwan Liuwan Liuwan Liuwan Jiangjianping Liuwan Jiangjiaping Liuwan
Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Majiayao Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Banshan Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang Machang
Dongxiang county, GSP Wushan Tianshui Lanzhou Yongdeng Datong Tianshui Tianshui Dongxiang county, GSP Dongxiang county, GSP Tianshui Lanzhou Ledu Lanzhou Lanzhou Lanzhou Lanzhou Tianshui Tianshui Tianshui Yongjing county, GSP Ledu Ledu Ledu Ledu Yongdeng county, GSP Ledu Yongdeng county, GSP Ledu
Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Qinghai Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Qinghai Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Gansu Qinghai Qinghai Qinghai Qinghai Gansu Qinghai Gansu Qinghai
IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA IA
2s range 5331 5318 5311 5167 5154 5084 5076 5073 5012 4744 4414 4692 4540 4510 4447 4411 4399 4291 4266 4212 4827 4466 4347 4254 4248 4166 4142 4008 3983
262 266 330 298 294 224 237 217 283 296 425 267 290 316 358 398 418 277 254 226 383 746 436 356 266 251 274 284 255
from gazelle bones (Institute of archaeology in Qinghai Province, unpublished data), suggesting the importance of hunting in the settlement. In Shizhaocun, Xishanping and Fujiamen Majiayao phase sites located at lower elevations, farming tools are much more abundant than hunting tools (Table 1), indicating agricultural activities were the most important strategy in those settlements. Whether subsistence strategies of the Majiayao phase sites varied in different regions is worthy of further study. From the Majiayao phase to the Banshan phase, numbers of sites declined, the area shrank, and the center of distribution moved east (Fig. 2). There is a gap in radiocarbon dates between 4800 and 4500 cal BP during the transition between Majiayao and Banshan phases, according to the published radiocarbon dates from the excavated Majiayao sites (Table 2). In the upper Yellow River valley, the Majiayao phase may have persisted to 4600 cal BP (Dong et al., 2013). The Majiayao to Banshan transition and change in site distribution was likely induced by dry climate on the western Loess Plateau between 4900 and 4400 cal BP, as recorded in the Liupan mountain lake sediment and the Jiuxian stalagmite (Fig. 3). In east Qinghai Province, a drought event between 4900 and 4700 cal BP seems to have induced the eastward retraction of site location during the transition from the Majiayao to Banshan and Machang phases (Dong et al., 2012). The 4900e4400 cal BP event might have reduced rain-fed millet agricultural production, and reduced forest and hunting resources at high altitude areas, resulting in the contraction of the occupied area between the Majiayao and Banshan phases. The drought-caused instability of agricultural production during that period forced people to change their primary subsistence strategy to hunting. Climate was warm during 4900e 4400 cal BP (Duan et al., 2012, Fig. 3a), suggesting the temperature
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In the Machang phase, the number of sites increases (from 344 to 787), and the center of distribution moves westward to Minhe and Ledu counties in Qinghai Province (Fig. 2). The summed probability distribution of radiocarbon dates was used to indicate occupational intensity (Barton et al., 2007) and human population variation (Gamble et al., 2005) during prehistoric periods. However, to evaluate the variety of human population and settlement intensity by the summed probability of radiocarbon dates must be used with caution, as reliability may be affected by many factors such as site sampling, sample size, radiocarbon calibration, and taphonomic bias (Williams, 2012). Both the summed probability of published radiocarbon dates and the site number of the Machang phase are higher than those of the Banshan and Majiayao phases (Fig. 3), indicating human occupation intensity of the Machang phase might been much higher than during the Majiayao and Banshan phases. Agriculture was the primary human strategy during the Machang period, as deduced from the high ratio of the number of farming tools to hunting tools (Table 1), other studies also suggest that agriculture developed rapidly during that period (Shang, 1987). The paleoclimate proxies from the Liupan mountain lake and the Jiuxian stalagmite suggested that climate was wet during the Machang period (Fig. 3b and c). The valleys of the Huangshui River are relatively wide, flat and suitable for farming and comprise the most important agricultural region in Qinghai Province. The advantageous natural environment and climate seem to have induced the rapid development of agriculture and movement of site distribution during the Machang phase, and greatly contributed to the increase of population and the westward spread of the Machang along the Hexi Corridor (Fig. 2). The westward spread of
Please cite this article in press as: Dong, G., et al., The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.038
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people during the Machang phase might also have promoted the formation of multicultural patterns in eastern Xinjiang Province, where Machang people encountered the cultures from West Asia and South Siberia around 4000 cal BP (Li, 2009). 6. Conclusion During the three phases of the Majiayao culture period (Majiayao, Banshan and Machang), the areas occupied by late Neolithic cultures varied together with numbers of sites, expanding during the Majiayao phase, shrinking during the Banshan phase, and expanding again during the Machang phase. Subsistence strategies also shifted through those different periods, suggesting that people constantly adjusted their strategies to adapt to climate and environmental change during the Majiayao period. Changes in precipitation probably had the greatest influence on agricultural production and hunting resources, affecting both the cultural evolution and human subsistence strategies through the different phases of the Majiayao period. However, because the oxygen isotope proxy from the Puruogangri ice core in the nearby Tibet Plateau (Fig. 3a, Duan et al., 2012) does not correspond to the variability of site numbers and the summed probability distribution of radiocarbon dates (Fig. 3), temperature might have not significantly influenced the Majiayao cultural evolution. Acknowledgements This research was supported by “Strategic Priority Research Program e Climate Change: Carbon Budget and Relevant Issues” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. XDA05130601), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 41072123, 41271218 and 41021091), and 111 Program (#B06026) of Chinese State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs. We thank two anonymous reviews’ constructive comments and suggestions. References An, C.B., Feng, Z.D., Tang, L.Y., 2004. Environment change and cultural response between 8000 and 4000 cal. BP in the western Loess Plateau, NW China. Journal of Quaternary Science 19, 529e535. An, C.B., Tang, L.Y., Barton, L., Chen, F.H., 2005. Climate change and cultural response around 4000 cal yr B.P. in the western part of Chinese Loess Plateau. Quaternary Research 63, 347e352. Bai, Y.X., 2002. The archaeological discovery and observation of tools for agriculture production from Bronze sites in China. Nongye Kaogu (Agricultural Archaeology) 16, 165e171 (in Chinese). Barton, L., Brantingham, P.J., Ji, D., 2007. Late Pleistocene climate change and Paleolithic cultural evolution in northern China: implications from the Late Glacial Maximum. In: Madsen, D.B., Chen, F.H., Gao, X. (Eds.), Late Quaternary Climate Change and Human Adaptation in Arid China. Developments in Quaternary Science, vol. 9. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 105e128. Bureau of National Cultural Relics, 1996. Atlas of Chinese Cultural Relics-Fascicule of Qinghai Province. China Cartograghic Publishing House Press, Beijing (in Chinese). Bureau of National Cultural Relics, 2011. Atlas of Chinese Cultural Relics-Fascicule of Gansu Province. Surveying and Mapping Press, Beijing (in Chinese). Cai, Y.J., Tan, L.C., Cheng, H., An, Z.S., Edwards, R.L., Kelly, M.J., Kong, X.G., Wang, X.F., 2010. The variation of summer monsoon precipitation in central China since the last deglaciation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 291, 21e31. Chen, W., Wang, W.M., 2012. MiddleeLate Holocene vegetation history and environment changes revealed by pollen analysis of a core at Qingdao of Shandong Province, East China. Quaternary International 254, 68e72. Cui, Y.P., Hu, Y.W., Chen, H.H., Dong, Y., Guan, L., Weng, Q., Wang, C.S., 2006. Stable isotopic analysis on human bones from Zongri site. Quaternary Research 26, 604e611 (in Chinese). Cullen, H.M., deMenocal, P.B., Hemming, S., Hemming, G., Brown, F.H., Guilderson, T., Sirocko, F., 2000. Climate change and the collapse of the Akkadian empire: evidence from the deep sea. Geology 28, 379e382. DeMenocal, P.B., 2001. Cultural responses to climate change during the late Holocene. Science 292, 667e673. Dong, G.H., Jia, X., An, C.B., Chen, F.H., Zhao, Y., Tao, S.C., Ma, M.M., 2012. Mid-Holocene climate change and its effect on prehistoric cultural evolution in eastern Qinghai Province, China. Quaternary Research 77, 23e30.
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Please cite this article in press as: Dong, G., et al., The spatiotemporal pattern of the Majiayao cultural evolution and its relation to climate change and variety of subsistence strategy during late Neolithic period in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces, northwest China, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.07.038