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The stories of expert and novice student teachers' supervisors: Perspectives on professional development
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THE STORIES OF EXPERT AND NOVICE STUDENT TEACHERS’ SUPERVISORS: PERSPECTIVES ON PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT LYA KREMER-HAYON University
of Haifa.
Israel
Abstract-The study is aimed at disclosing some of the ways in which student teachers’ supervisors perceive their professional development and think about it. Three expert and three novice student teachers’ supervisors were interviewed in-depth in relation to this topic. The contentanalysis of the interview protocols revealed several topics of thought. regarding their professional development: Knowledge and Change; Reflection and Criticism: Theory and Research; Ideology and Values; Human Relations: and Difficulties. The thoughts of experts and novices were analyzed. compared, and interpreted. A comparison of the developmental trends that were identified in this study with those identified in studies on teacher developmental stages yielded substantial differences. Several implications and questions of theoretical and practical interest are put forward
The professional development of teachers has recently captured a considerable amount of the interest of educational researchers. The process of the professionalization of teaching that has generated the need to develop a teaching knowledge base and an attitude of accountability and of commitment has no doubt contributed to this interest. Within the general context of professional development research on expert and novice teachers has emerged as a more specific topic of interest, and a relatively large number of studies has been conducted on this topic (Berliner, 1986). The findings of these studies have enriched the knowledge and understanding of how teachers develop. Following the studies on teacher development the investigation of the professional development of the student teachers’ supervisors who help teachers develop seems to be in order. As student teachers’ supervisors play an important role in teacher education practices. the understanding of their professional development is apt to contribute to the progress of teacher education. It is thus the aim of this study to disclose and investigate some of the features that characterize the professional development of student teachers’ supervisors. More specific427
ally, the study is aimed at providing some answers to the following questions: I. What are the features that characterize the professional development of student teachers’ supervisors, according to their own perceptions? 2. Can any differences between the professional development features of novice and those of expert student teachers’ supervisors be detected? 3. Do the identified features follow any specific and identifiable sequence or mode of development comparable to those of the professional development of teachers? The latter question is of specific interest from several aspects: While teachers need to be certified before they can be employed, there is no specific certification for supervisors. Moreover, while teachers usually go through a sequential planned curriculum including student teaching experience before they are certified, there is no specific curriculum that supervisors have to go through. Supervisors are not requested to have prior training in supervision. Although such training is preferable, it is not a formal request. A literature search on the professional
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development of student teachers’ supervisors yielded only a paucity of studies on this topic, and hence the first question that came to mind was: Can the knowledge on teacher development inform the professional development of student teachers’ supervisors? In order to answer this question a literature survey on the professional development of teachers is in order. This is offered in the next section.
with the “self’ going through “tasks” and reaching concerns about the “impact” upon pupils. It should be emphasized, however, that these concerns have been observed in the course of student teachers’ development. As far as teachers are concerned, the 70s and the 80s have witnessed a growing number of studies: Unruh and Turner (1970) proposed a series of career stages that include an initial teaching period which lasts for about 5 to 6 years and in which teachers strive towards being accepted by pupils, parents, peers, and superiors; a period Perspectives of Teacher Development of building security which goes on for the next 9 years, approximately, and in which teachers In relating to studies conducted on teacher develop professional skills and security, and developmental phases, Huberman claims that finally, a period of maturity characterized by these studies are vulnerable from two points of involvement in educational matters outside the classroom, and by trying to implement new view: One pertains to a tendency to underestiideas and concepts. mate the importance of social and historical In a number of additional studies rather factors, and the other to the tendency of viewing similar conceptions were put forward: Periods individuals normatively and thereby passively of survival, consolidation, renewal, and maturity were suggested by Katz (1972). Stages somewhat like marionettes whose development strings are being pulled at critical ages, or in of becoming, growing, maturing, and of fully response to a ‘time clock’. As it happens, a large jimctioning were proposed by Gregorc (1973), part of individual development is “teleological”, and of survival, adjustment, and maturity were that is. individuals observe, study and plan out the put forward by Burden (1982). sequences through which they pass, and can thereby influence or even determine the nature of the succesIn the late 80s two rather extensive studies sion of stages in their career. (Huberman. in press) were conducted: one by Fessler (1985) and further developed by Fessler (in press) in the Bearing these vuinerabilities in mind and U.S., and the other by Huberman (1989, in based upon a variety of investigations a myriad press) in Europe. Fessler identified stages of preset-vice, inducof sequences, stages, phases, and cycles have building, enthusiasm and been proposed by educational researchers. A (ion, competency career frustration, career stability, glimpse into these proposals may illuminate the growing, scene of professional development throughout career wind down, and career exit. He sugthe teaching career. gested that these cycles should not be viewed as A significant part of the studies on teacher fixed, but rather as a tentative paradigm open to developmental sequences or stages in this area modifications and refinements, and as dynamic has its roots in the work done by Fuller (1969) cycles in an ebb and flow movement. Furtherwho suggested that development into the profes- more, he claimed that these cycles respond to conditions: “A supportive, sion revolves around several clusters of con- environmental nurturing, reinforcing environment can assist a cerns: Pre-teaching concerns are experienced by student teachers in their roles as pupils; teacher in the pursuit of a rewarding, positive survival concerns include doubts about having career progression” (in press). Drawing upon a number of Swiss studies and chosen the right occupation and about the supervisor’s evaluation; teaching concerns pertain to upon a rich data base of 4-6 hours of semithe employment of the right teaching methods. clinical interviews with 260 informants Huberman suggested to abandon the idea of “stages” Finally, it is the concerns about pupils’achievement, motivation, and satisfaction that preoc- and settle for “modal sequences” (Huberman, 1989, in press). He proposed a schematic model cupy the mind. These concerns develop in a sequence starting that constitutes modal sequences of the teacher
Expert and Novice Student Teachers’ Supervisors
career cycle. This model constitutes several theses/phases: career entry, stabilization, e.rperimentationldiversification, stocktaking/ conservatism, interrogation, serenity, and disengagement. A meta-analysis of the studies mentioned above does not reveal major substantial and significant conceptual differences concerning the type of experiences that teachers go through in the course of their career. Minor differences with regard to the duration of the various stages, their sequences, and the terms used to describe them - theme, phase, stage - do not seem to constitute basic theoretical differences. There is also an overall agreement regarding the impact of personal and environmental influences upon the sequence, the cycles, the duration, and the seniority level at which the various stages occur. A summary and integration of the proposed stages/phases/cycles into an inclusive model point to several developmental characteristics of the teaching career: The pre-teaching period, described by Fuller and Bown (1975) and by Vonk (in press) is followed by a period of career entry. The latter is typically characterized as a period of survival and discovery, a period of exploration in which teachers try to find out what teaching is really about, to “feel” and “touch” the nature of teaching experiences. This period is also described as a “reality shock” period (Veenman, 1984) resulting from the confrontation with the complexities of teaching, and with concerns with one’s adequacy as a teacher. Huberman (in press) suggests that it is the challenge and excitement of discovery that sometimes brings about the attrition of day-to-day survival. The beginning years are followed by a period of stabilization, in which teachers make attempts at understanding better what teaching is about, at focusing upon specific areas of interest, and at improving their teaching functions (Super, 1957). They develop teaching skills and competencies (Fessler, in press), and describe themselves as “consolidating and then refining a basic set of instructional repertoires on which they can, finally, rely” (Huberman, in press). As a result there is a period of greaterflexibility, of a more assertive autonomy, of instructional mastery, enthusiasm, experimentation, and diversification. This is also a period of socialization into the profession and of joining
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groups of peers. Viewed in an eclectic manner, this stage is characterized by growth and stabilization. The next stage is one of “stock taking” and mid-career interrogation, in which teachers contemplate about their careers, review their life as teachers, some go through a process of self-questioning (Huberman, in press). In the career cycles proposed by Fessler this is a stage of frustration, of dissatisfaction, and of disillusionment with teaching. Like Huberman, Fessler describes this stage as one in which “teachers begin to question why they are doing this work” (Fessler, in press). The stage that follows is described by Huberman as one of serenity and conservatism, and by Fessler as one of stability and stagnancy. In this period there is a lack of enthusiasm and of commitment to continuing growth and excellence. The level of ambition decreases. Teachers at this stage work more mechanically and tend to set more modest career objectives and feel less engaged. In Peterson’s study (1979) they are described as going home after school “peacefully, leaving it all behind”. The last identified period is described by Huberman as one of disengagement, and by Fessler as a stage of career wind down. While this may be a pleasant period with many memories of positive experiences, it may be an unpleasant period for others who cannot wait to retire from an unsatisfying job. This journey through the literature was brought forth as a preliminary step from which an investigation of the career cycles of student teachers’ supervisors, aS well as a comparison between supervisors and teachers with respect to this topic, may be started. Method As the study was not aimed at verifying any specific and operational hypotheses derived from theory, but rather to provide prefi&a~ answers to the questions raised, interpretive modes of research seemed most suitable (Erickson, 1986). Within these methods the interview was selected as an appropriate tool for obtaining the expected information. The subjects were three expert and three novice student teachers’ supervisors, all of
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whom have been selected on the basis of recommendations received from their superiors as being highly evaluated by student teachers. The seniority range was 20-30 years for the expert supervisors and 3-5 years for the novice ones. One supervisor in each of these groups was affiliated with a Kibbutz college and the others with the regular State colleges. The inclusion of these two types of institutions was aimed at detecting any. possible effects of environmental factors: The Kibbutz Colleges curricula are known to be more autonomous as compared with the regular State Colleges. They are also characterized by a more open-progress educational orientation. The supervisors in both types of institutions share the same role: They supervise the planning, the implementation. and the evaluation of their student teachers’ teaching, they work with their student teachers in groups as well as on individual bases, and teach courses on teaching methods in which they try to make linkages between theory and practice. Inteniervs
The student teachers’ supervisors were interviewed in-depth by two trained interviewers. Each interview lasted for about 2 hours. The interview started with an open-ended question to allow for any topics that the interviewees thought relevant to emerge. After some rapport has been established the interview started as follows: “Looking in retrospect at your career as a supervisor could you please tell the story of your professional development?” The interviewers were instructed not to stop the flow of talk of the interviewees, unless they reached an impasse. It was only then that probing questions aimed at getting more information were posed. Data Analysis
The interviews were audiotaped and transcribed verbatim. The transcripts of the by two protocols were content-analyzed independent analyzers, after having reached 90% of inter-judge agreement. Following Marton’s distinction (1981) the data were analyzed in view of two perspectives: A firstorder perspective which is more amenable to statistical analysis and pertains to the questions
of “what”, “how much”, “how many”, and a second-order perspective which is less amenable to this sort of approach and it relates to the questions of “how” and “why”. Although sometimes this latter approach is amenable to statistical analysis, it usually lends itself better to interpretive analysis (Powney & Watts. 1987). In adopting the first mentioned perspective, key concepts from each sentence which served as units of analysis were derived, listed, counted, and classified into broader categories. The frequency count within each category was then turned into percentages to allow for comparisons (Fox, 1969). The second-order perspective constituted data interpretation, and attempts at disclosing tacit tendencies and underlying orientations. Results The results are reported from the two perspectives mentioned above: (a) quantitative, and (b) qualitative. Quantitatively, the category frequencies are presented for the whole group as well as for each group of expert and novice supervisors separately. Qualitatively, the content of the interviewees’ perceptions and thoughts regarding their professional development is reported and interpreted.
Quantitative
aspects
i%e Frequency of the Perceptions Thought References
and
The content analysis yielded seven relatively broad categories under which the key concepts derived from each unit of analysis classified. These were, in descending order of frequency, the following: Knowledge and Change; Reflection and Criticism; Human Relations; Theory and Research; Ideology and Values; and Difficulties. Table 1 presents these frequency distributions transformed into percentages to allow for easier comparisons. The frequency distribution of the categories points to a cognitive rather than to an affective nature of the supervisors’ references: Three of
Expert
Table
and Novice
Student
Teachers’
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Supervisors
I
Topics of Reference
-
Percenrage
Means Novice
Experts Topics
12
Knowledge Change Reflection Criticism
3x‘
4
5
18
15
6x
and 30
20
20
23.3
18
17
and 15
30
34
26.3
14
19
19
17.3
20
15
10
15
20
15
23
19.3
and Research
15
20
15
16.6
23
20
20
21
and Values
20
15
IO
15
10
18
8
12
8
4
15
13
12
Human
Relations
Theory Ideology
Difficulties
4-
the six categories - Knowledge and Change, Reflection and Criticism, and Theory and Research - may be more easily identified with cognitive aspects of supervision. Only two categories - Human Relations, and Ideology and Values connote affective aspects. The Difficulties category covers both aspects. The same tendency appears to emerge for the expert and novice interviewees. The findings presented in Table 1 point to the features of the supervisors’ professional development according to their own perceptions. The differences in the contents and in the intensity of reference which were noted will be presented later in the next section in which qualitative analyses and interpretations are discussed.
Qualitative
The most senior supervisor, who had been affiliated with a Kibbutz College for 25 years, expressed herself in this matter: There is so much to know in addition to teaching models and strategies, classroom management, psychology of learning and so many other areas related to teaching. These are actually the topics of my supervision, but in addition there are the processes through which student teachers develop towards becoming teachers that I have to understand and know how to facilitate. In fact, my professional knowledge has to cover two levels of learning: that of the pupils and that of the student teachers. Despite some similarities, student teaching is different as it involves in addition to the need for professional preparation extensive knowledge on adult development and learning.
Other supervisors related to their initial lack of supervision knowledge as a result of lack of preparation:
aspects
What Were the Perceptions and Thoughts Brought up in Relation to Each Category the Professional Development?
13.3
of
Knowledge and Change. The most salient topic that emerged under this category constituted dilemmas regarding the knowledge that supervisors must have. Is it enough to have good experience in teaching in order to supervise student teachers? Is there any specific knowledge base without which efficient supervision cannot occur? If there is such a knowledge base, what is it?
The only preparation I had when I started by supervision career was some experience as a classroom teacher. I did not have at that time even a Bachelor’s Degree. (At the time of the interview she had a Master’s degree and had several publications in the field of teacher education.) I had to struggle for knowledge by myself, to look for literature and this was not always relevant to my circumstances. I tried hard to understand the ways in which my student learnt. Intuitively. I tried out a variety of supervision styles. It took me some time to recognize that I had to adapt my supervision to students’ individual characteristics. Nevertheless, I am glad I had to struggle and create supervision knowledge on my
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own. It was a difficult, however, a fascinating and rewarding experience . it is still a constant intellectual challenge . . . My development as a supervisor is in constant interaction with my general development as a human being. Once I started supervising a lot of things that I learnt in university courses, which at that time seemed irrelevant. helped me in understanding the underlying processes in my interactions with students courses that I took after having some exberience in supervision were even more helpful. . I was fascinated in discovering that a lot of things I did intuitively had a theoretical basis . . In the course of the years I got the feeling that there is a structure of knowledge in supervision, that there are some principles that work. .
As far as Change is concerned, the following protocol excerpts may illustrate the perceptions in this respect: I feel I keep growing, I think that thanks to my students I have changed, I grew in my understanding of human nature, I sympathize more with individual problems and difficulties that my students face while student teaching . . .
Another supervisor perceived the changes that she experienced as processes of absorption and incubation: I perceive my development as a supervisor as a process of absorption from the outside and elaboration and incubation on the inside . it is an inner dialect between the two. it takes you ,off your balance for a while, but after a period of assimilation you get back on your feet . . . I argue with every new idea I encounter, I think about the pros and cons it is like an inner debate a discussion with myself If I would compare my professional profile today with the one in the past I would get an entirely different one self confrontation helped me a lot in changing my perceptions of students . the main change was from looking at my student teachers and treating them as a group towards seeing each one as a unique person. I no more expected all of them to implement and carry out exactly the teaching methods which I presented, but rather encouraged each one to use these methods flexibly the more I became confident and at each with my supervision the more I could tolerate individual differences and adapt my supervision accordingly.
tunity to observe many classroom situations, varying teaching methods, and mainly by watching and analyzing. I started as a teacher after having been well prepared in the College. As a teacher I was highly evaluated by my superiors, parents, and pupils and became very confident and sure of myself. My start as a supervisor was different: I had no specific knowledge of supervision, I lost my confidence and had to start anew, and struggle day by day without having a rich perspective or rationale to guide me. I learnt by doing.
These are only a few of the expressions that represent the interviewees’ perceptions and thoughts in the area of knowledge and change. In sum, there is a general mixed feeling about having had no specific training and preparation for the job, which on the one hand resulted in lack of confidence and hard work and in the need to built up their own practical knowledge, but on the other hand in a feeling of experiencing a satisfying challenge. The question of whether supervision may be built upon a solid knowledge base remained unsolved. Rejlection and Criticism. Thinking about the supervision method and style during the process of supervision was reported by the more senior supervisors as an important constituent of their professional development. This ability developed in the course of time and made it possible to make corrections and changes on the spot. The thinking processes described in the interviews are parallel to those termed by Schon (1983) as reflection in action. Interestingly, as one supervisor remarked, such thinking could occur only after having developed some criteria, or at least images of effective supervision in view of which they could analyze and evaluate what they were doing. This notion was expressed by one supervisor as follows: During the first 2 years I was preoccupied and involved in the process itself to such an extent that I could not supervise and at the same rifle think of what was going on . . now I can play two roles at the same time, that of the supervisor and that of the spectator who looks at the process and thinks about it.
The next two excerpts point to the sources from
which
they
derived
their
knowledge:
I learnt about teaching from supervision much more than from my own teaching by having the oppor-
Another supervisor remarked: It is my own experience and my constant self evaluation that guides me in practice, it is like building a
Expert
and Novice
Student Teachers’
home and rebuilding and innovating and changing its furniture . . . the feedback I got from students guided me in reshaping my style of work.
Although some of these references could easily be classified under Change, we preferred to classify them under Reflection in order to emphasize this specific and important aspect of professional knowledge. Human Relations. The wisdom of practice which points to the importance of human relations seems to have been transferred from previous education experiences, as some interviewees noted: As a teacher I learnt that good relationships with pupils enhance their learning it also makes your work more pleasant . it is like a chain reaction, the more supportive the atmosphere the better the learning. . . I made the transfer from my interactions with pupils to those with my student teachers.
Other remarks made on this topic were: “If you want to work with people, peel off your facade, don’t cover up your weaknesses, admit that you can be wrong, this way your strengths will emerge. . .“, “Look at your student as if it a unique being . . .“, “Students have to trust you, this is a precondition for learning. . . .“. Theory and Research. This category constituted a specific and distinct aspect of the more general nature of Knowledge. Most of the references made in this respect concerned the contribution of theory and research to the quality of supervision and student teaching. this category hosted extreme Interestingly, variations. On the one hand, theory and research were not too highly regarded: “. . . research is remote from real situations. . .“, and “I could never solve my problems with the aid of theories . . . when it comes down to concrete classroom situations it is my personal experience rather than research that guides my supervision”. On the other hand, however, supervisors found theory and research helpful in guiding their work: “I was guided by what I learnt in university courses . . . the concepts of ‘support’ and ‘acceptance’ that I learnt from Carl Rogers helped me to shape my practice accordingly”.
Supervisors
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Ideology and Values. The supervisors’ references to ideology and values pointed to several dilemmas and concerns. The emphasis on values at the expense of the development of professional skills created a dilemma for some of the interviewees: In the extremely limited time we have for the implementation of our teacher education curriculum it seems impossible to deal both with the development of specific teaching skills and with value education. I would like to have more time for discussions on educational issues that transcend the immediate classroom environment, but then the question is: at the expense of what?
Additional worries that were expressed cerned more specific value issues:
con-
I am worried because of the growing materialistic orientation I fear that our students learn to take and not to give . you don’t lose anything by giving. on the contrary, you only gain I would not like to live and educate in such a society we have to strive towards a better society and towards a value orientation in teacher education.
Finally, a fear of being unaware of indoctrination that might occur was stated: “I have to be careful not to inflict my values upon them, they should develop their own values . . . this is a real danger . . not to use my authority . . .” Dificulties. The main difficulty encountered was lack of collegial support: I
was offered a position as a student teacher supervisor. which I gladly accepted as an interesting challenge, but I had no idea that I’ll have nobody to help me and advise me on a formal basis. A senior colleague told me “you can do this and that” but for a beginner like me this was not enough. 1 learnt by trial and error, which was sometimes frustrating My students were by teachers We learnt together.
Another difficulty concerned the relations with cooperating schools: “Bureaucracy on the part of cooperating schools was a pain in the neck . . they would not let my students try out teaching methods that were different than theirs. ” I did not succeed in introducing change in the cooperating schools with which I worked and this made it really difficult to make the linkage between
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theory and practice, because 1 could not show my students that the teaching methods that I suggested and discussed do work in real classroom situations.
The evaluation of student teachers constituted an additional difficulty, because of lack of clear and unambiguous criteria: “I failed several times in evaluating my students. Students whom I evaluated highly in student teaching did not do well, and others whom I evaluated as poor in student teaching proved to be successful in schools”. The interview excerpts quoted above represent the contents classified under the various categories of each category for the interviewed group as a whole. However, the two groups of the student teachers’ supervisors - novice and expert - differed in several way.
Novice
and e,rpert srlpenisors they different 1
-
How are
The content analysis of the expert and novice supervisors yielded the same categories of reference, however, the two groups differed substantially in the frequency of reference to the various topics and in the intensity of reference. In three categories Reflection and and Knowledge and Change, Criticism, Ideology and Values - the expert supervisors appeared to be substantially different when compared to their novice colleagues. More specifically, the category of Rejlection und Criticism yielded the largest frequency difference between the novice and expert supervisors. The latter related to this topic more than the novice supervisors. Reflection and Criticism are no doubt two high levels of thought that need time to develop when studying a new area. Furthermore, it is only natural that at the career entry stage supervisors, like any other professionals, are concerned with adapting themselves to the new situations they encounter, and with developing the skills and knowledge that are necessary in order to function effectively. Also, in order to reflect, one must have something to reflect upon: Reflection is not an independent process, there must be some content to reflect upon. In the area of teaching reflection must be practiced on the basis of professional knowledge (Kremer-Hayon, in press). It is only
logical to propose that because in the first stages of the supervision career the professional knowledge and experience are meager as compared to later stages, reflection was a more integral part of the expert supervisors’ practices. The same line of thought may explain the larger number of references to criticism: In order to criticize oneself, one must have developed criteria in view of which to criticize/evaluate his or her work as well as the professional confidence to do so. The category of Knowledge and Change yielded the second large difference between the two groups. The more expert supervisors mentioned this topic more than the novice ones. They related to the developmental aspect of knowledge, analyzed the ways in which they developed their practical knowledge of supervision, and raised the question of whether supervision has a solid knowledge base. The novice supervisors did not relate to change, most probably because of lack of time perspective to do so. Instead, they related to the extent of relevancy of the university courses in which they had participated. Since they needed guidance in their new role, they expected to find it in the literature on supervision. this may be the reason why they related to Theory and Research to a larger extent as compared to their more expert colleagues. As was suggested previously, personal and practical knowledge need time to develop. Lacking this kind of knowledge, theory and research constituted the major sources for the novice supervisors to rely upon. Nevertheless, there was a tone of disappointment with these sources of knowledge. As mentioned, the more expert supervisors differed from the novice supervisors in relating more to Ideology and Vulues. This finding may be explained both on developmental and on Israeli historical -social grounds. From a developmental perspective it seems only natural that being concerned with the difficulties encountered in facing a new role and with the need to become acquainted to new situations does not leave too much space to deal ideology. The concrete day-to-day problems absorb all the attenIn adopting Maslow’s tion and energy. conception of hierarchical needs we perceive ideology and values as needs which are high on this hierarchy and thus can be dealt with only after having satisfied bore basic needs.
Expert
and Novice
Student Teachers’
From a historical -social perspective there is a general feeling that the Israeli society has moved from a very idealistic life orientation towards a materialistic one. This feeling was clearly expressed by the more expert supervisors. It may also be, however, that we witness a nostalgia phenomenon. Human Relations and Dificulties were the only categories of reference that were related by the novice more than by the expert supervisors. Human relations connote affective rather than cognitive aspects of supervision, they do not depend on professional knowledge and experience as much as Knowledge and Change, and Reflection and Criticism do, and are not specific to supervision. The ability involved in human relations may have developed during the teaching and other past experiences. The fact that the novice supervisors related to Difficulties much more that the expert ones seems only natural, as the time lapse may have erased some of the memories of the more expert supervisors in relation to the difficulties they had encountered. It also may be that the experts have been accustomed to difficulties and perceive them as a role characteristic which they had learnt to accept. In addition to the differences that were noted within the categories two developmental trends emerged. A developmental trend towards specification which is characteristic of human development in general - was noted in the development of supervisors as well. This trend was reflected in the ways that student teachers were perceived. The next two excerpts illustrate this developmental trend: “I realized that Sarah needed more help and attention, she was very creative and would not adhere to prescribed methods. . . It took me some years before I could sense such specific individual needs. . .“, and “I accept now individual differences and supervise accordingly. . _” These statements made by expert supervisors also represent a more colzcrefe style of narration, as opposed to the more abstract style and general terms used by the novices, like: .. . . at this age you cannot expect them to. . .” or “. . . my aim is to help them develop as good teachers. .” The more expert supervisors illustrated their narrations with concrete examples drawn from their experience.
Supervisors
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The novice supervisors, not having a rich experience to rely on, tended to relate to their experiences by using abstract terms borrowed from the professional literature they had been acquainted with. This finding is in line with findings in a study in which novice and expert teachers were compared in their relation to classroom discipline problems and in which the expert ones formed more elaborate heuristic statements and placed a priority on clear definition and representation of the problems more that the novice teachers did (Swanson, O’Connor, & Cooney, 1990). As far as institutional characteristics Kibbutz versus General State Colleges - are concerned, only minor differences between the two interviewed groups were noted. These differences pertained to the aims of student teaching: While the supervisors in the Kibbutz College stressed the importance of collaborative teachmg and learning - collaboration being one of the Kibbutz ideals - no specific aim that could differentiate between the two groups of supervisors was mentioned. It appears then that the number of years in supervision makes a more substantial difference than the institutional affiliation. In sum, the comparison of the two groups clearly points to the idiosyncrasy of the more expert group of supervisors which is reflected mainly in the categories of Reflection and Criticism and of Knowledge and Change. Student Teachers ’ Supervisors and Teachers: A Career Stages Comparison The developmental trends and characteristics of the supervisors and professional development that emerged in the interview data were somewhat different from those of teachers, as reported in the literature. No survival period in the sense of the one experienced by teachers was identified in the interview protocols. The first years are for teachers a period of survival, of questioning their career choice and suitability to their new role. For supervisors it is a period of search for knowledge to guide their work. Although lack of specific preparation for the supervision role was mentioned by all interviewees, no “reality shock” or concern with survival were noted. The “ebb and flow” that characterized
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periods of enthusiasm. of frustration, of “stock taking” throughout the teachers’ career stages did not emerge in the student teachers supervisors’ career as they themselves perceived it and thought of it. These differences may lie in the fact that the teaching that preceded supervision was usually a successful one (Why should unsuccessful teachers be promoted to supervision?). The experienced success probably contributed to some confidence, which because of the similarities between the two roles - teaching and supervision, both involving the promotion and facilitation of learning - may have been transferred to the new role. The fact that no period of frustration or of intent to leave were reported by the supervisors may be explained by the nature of supervision which, as some supervisors indicated, is not as stressful and burning out as teaching: “. . .you don’t have to face large groups of pupils for hours every day . . . working on individual bases is not as exhausting as teaching . . . you don’t have to deal with discipline problems. . .*‘. As a result, there is no intention of job leaving. This lack of intention may also be attributed to the supervision professional status which is higher than that of teaching. The most common feature that characterizes teachers’ and supervisors’ development is professional growth and sensitivity to students. It appears, however, that supervisors focus in reflective supervision more than teachers do on reflective teaching. Conclusion Before reaching any conclusion, we would like to draw attention to two facts: The interviews which were selected as a tool for data selection may be “contaminated” by subjective views and by selective memories. Despite their questionable validity we perceive them as an important source of information on a topic which has not yet been investigated. Also, we are aware that no generalization may be drawn from six interviews. Hence, we perceive this study as a first exploration into a topic worthwhile of further investigation. The content analysis of the protocolled interviews shed some light on the reflections of
student teachers’ supervisors with regard to their career. The answer obtained in relation to the first question posed in this study points to the topics of reflection which were mentioned and interpreted in the previous section. Within these topics several questions worthwhile of consideration emerged. One question concerns the knowledge base of supervision: Is there such a specific knowledge base that can be identified? If this question receives an affirmative answer: What does this knowledge base cover? Since the literature on supervision does not deal directly with these questions we may be informed by borrowing from the relevant literature on teaching. In relating to the question of knowledge base in teaching Floden and Klinzing (1990) propose that if research on the knowledge of expert teachers included an examination of teachers’ schemata, teacher educators would be better informed on how to prepare novices for classroom work. While accepting that teacher education would be improved if it were informed by research on practicing teachers’ expertise, Lampert and Clark (1990) raise additional questions: “What is expertise in teaching‘? How is expertise communicated from experts to novices? How do we decide who is an expert?” (p. 21). These same questions preoccupied the student teachers’ supervisors interviewed in this study. In relating to these questions two alternate positions emerge. According to one position expertise can be defined, distilled, and acquired by others, according to another position “teaching is such a complex act that requires constant adjustments to fit continually changing and uncertain conditions . . adjustments are contextual, interactive and speculative” (Lampert & Clark, 1990, p. 2 1). While the first mentioned position implies the need for a well planned and specified professional development program, the second position questions the benefit of such programs, especially in view of the problem of transfer from academic settings to classroom situations. We claim that while each of these positions leaves much to be desired their use in an intertwined manner bears some promise for an effective strategy, and is apt to fulfil a wide range of individual needs and of varying situations. The
Expert
and Novice
Student Teachers’
notion of aptitude-treatment interaction (Cronbath & Snow, 1977) which in several studies on teacher development proved to be beneficial (Kremer-Hayon, Moore, & Nevat, 1987) supports this claim. We find no reason to believe that teaching and supervision are different in this respect. On the contrary: both practices involve a variety of personalities and situations which demand varying ways of preparation, and hence we propose that the arguments presented above in relation to teaching may well apply to supervision. The need to adopt and use varying ways of development in conjunction was also brought up by the more expert interviewees in this study, who in reflecting upon their career described the changes that occurred in their supervision practices as a result of which they became more flexible and reflective while acting. Why did these changes occur? Are these changes inherent in the process of professional development? If there a developmental trend that moves from a “technical rationality” towards “reflection-in-action”? (Schon, 1983). If such an inherent trend indeed exists, the question of whether it is helpful to hasten this process by the aid professional development programs is necessary and useful should be considered. Further studies aimed at answering these questions are apt to enrich the theoretical knowledge base of supervision as well as to guide supervision practices. An additional possible theoretical contribution of the study concerns the comparison of the professional development characteristics of teachers and of student teachers’ supervisors. If indeed the features disclosed in this study will be identified in other studies as well, we shall witness first steps toward proposing developmental modes of additional groups of professionals. While the study provides some answers to the questions posed, it raises additional questions of interest both theoretically and practically. References Berliner. D. C. (1986 August-Septcmbcr). In pursuit of the expert pedagogue. .!%ccczrion Research. pp. 5- 13. Burden. P. R. (1982). Teachers ‘perc~eprions of their personal crud professional deve/opmenf. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwestern Educational Research Association. Des IMoines. IA.
43-l
Supervisors
L. J.. & Snow, R. (1977). Aprirude and insrrucriorrul methods: A handbook for research on inreracrions. New York: Irvington.
Cronbach.
Erickson. F. (1986). Qualitative methods in research on teaching. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.). Handbook ofresearch on reaching (3rd ed.. pp. Il9171). New York: Macmillan. Fessler. R. (1985). A model for teacher professional growth and development. In P. J. Burke & R. G. Heideman (Eds.). Cdreur tony reacher educarion. Springfield. IL: Charles C. Thomas. Fessler, R. (in press). Dynamics of the teacher career cycle. In L. Kremer-Havon. H. C. Vonk. & R. Fessler (Eds.). Teacher professiohl development. London: Falmer‘Pressl Floden. R.. & Klinzing, G. (1990). What can research on teacher thinking contribute to teacher preparation? A second opinion. Educarion Researcher, 19. 15-20. Fox. D. (1960). 77te research process in education. New York: Holt. Rinehart & Winston. Fuller, F. (1969). Concerns of teachers: A developmental perspective. American Educatianal Research Journal. 6,
207 -226. Fuller,
F.,
&
Bown.
0.
(1975).
Becoming
a teacher.
Teacher Educafion Sevenry-Fourth Yearbook of the National Society for Ihe S~ucly of Education. Purr 2. Chicago:
University
of Chicago
Press.
Grcgorc. A. C. (1973). Developing plans for professional growth. NASSP Bulteriu. I -8. Hubcmlan. M. (1989). On teachers’ careers: Once over lightly with a brush. hternariorwl Journal of Educurional Research.
13. 317-361. Huberman. M. (in press). Steps towards a developmental model of teaching career. In L. Kremer-Hayon, H. C. Vonk, & R. Fesslcr (Eds.), Teacher professional developmvu. London: Falmer Press. Katz, L. G. (1972). Development stages of preschool tcuchers. Etemenfury School Journal, 73, 50-54. (ERIC No. EJ 064 759). Krcmer-Hayon. L. (in press). Teacher self evaluation - A tool in professional development. In L. Kremer-Hayon, H. C. Vonk. & R. Fessler (Eds.), Teacher professional development. London: Falmer Press. Krcmer-Hayon, L., Moore, M.. & Nevat, R. (1987). Dogmatism in teacher education: Effects of aptitude treatment interaction. Research in Educurion. 36, 19-26. Lampert, M.. & Clark, C. M. (1990). Expert knowledge and expert thinking in teaching: A response to Floden and Klinzing. Educational Researcher, 19, 21-23. Marton. F. (1981). Phenomenography - describing conceptions of the world around us. tnsrrucrional Science. 10, 177-200. Peterson, A. (1979). Teachers ’ changing perceprions ofsetf
and orhers rhrougtrour the reaching career.’ Some perspecri\e.sfrom an inren,ierc study ofjifi retired seconda~ school retrc~tuvs.Paper presented to Southwest Erlucation Research Association. San Francisco. Powney. 1.. & Watts,, M. ( 1987). tnrenie~ving in educarion research. London: Routledge. Kegan & Paul Schon. D. ( 1983). 77n, rc~~,cri~,epracrifioner. New York: Basic Books. Swanson. L. H.. O’Connor, J. E.. & Cooney. J. B. (1990). An information processing analysis of expert and novice
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teachers’ problem solving. iimericun
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Educarional Research
Journal, 27. 533 -556. Super, D. E. (1957). 7he psychology of careers. New York: Harper and Row. Unruh. A.. & Turner, H. E. (1970). Supervision for change and innowrion. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Veenman. S. A. M. (1984). Perceived problems of begin-
ning
teachers.
Review of Educarional Research. 54.
143- 178. Vonk. J. H. C. (in press). The professional development of beginning teachers. In L. Kremer-Hayon, H. C. Vonk, & R. Fessler (Eds.), Teacher professional development. London: Falmer Press.
THE STORIES OF EXPERT AND NOVICE STUDENT TEACHERS’ SUPERVISORS: PERSPECTIVES ON PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT LYA KREMER-HAYON University
of Haifa.
Israel
Abstract-The study is aimed at disclosing some of the ways in which student teachers’ supervisors perceive their professional development and think about it. Three expert and three novice student teachers’ supervisors were interviewed in-depth in relation to this topic. The contentanalysis of the interview protocols revealed several topics of thought. regarding their professional development: Knowledge and Change; Reflection and Criticism: Theory and Research; Ideology and Values; Human Relations: and Difficulties. The thoughts of experts and novices were analyzed. compared, and interpreted. A comparison of the developmental trends that were identified in this study with those identified in studies on teacher developmental stages yielded substantial differences. Several implications and questions of theoretical and practical interest are put forward
The professional development of teachers has recently captured a considerable amount of the interest of educational researchers. The process of the professionalization of teaching that has generated the need to develop a teaching knowledge base and an attitude of accountability and of commitment has no doubt contributed to this interest. Within the general context of professional development research on expert and novice teachers has emerged as a more specific topic of interest, and a relatively large number of studies has been conducted on this topic (Berliner, 1986). The findings of these studies have enriched the knowledge and understanding of how teachers develop. Following the studies on teacher development the investigation of the professional development of the student teachers’ supervisors who help teachers develop seems to be in order. As student teachers’ supervisors play an important role in teacher education practices. the understanding of their professional development is apt to contribute to the progress of teacher education. It is thus the aim of this study to disclose and investigate some of the features that characterize the professional development of student teachers’ supervisors. More specific427
ally, the study is aimed at providing some answers to the following questions: I. What are the features that characterize the professional development of student teachers’ supervisors, according to their own perceptions? 2. Can any differences between the professional development features of novice and those of expert student teachers’ supervisors be detected? 3. Do the identified features follow any specific and identifiable sequence or mode of development comparable to those of the professional development of teachers? The latter question is of specific interest from several aspects: While teachers need to be certified before they can be employed, there is no specific certification for supervisors. Moreover, while teachers usually go through a sequential planned curriculum including student teaching experience before they are certified, there is no specific curriculum that supervisors have to go through. Supervisors are not requested to have prior training in supervision. Although such training is preferable, it is not a formal request. A literature search on the professional
428
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development of student teachers’ supervisors yielded only a paucity of studies on this topic, and hence the first question that came to mind was: Can the knowledge on teacher development inform the professional development of student teachers’ supervisors? In order to answer this question a literature survey on the professional development of teachers is in order. This is offered in the next section.
with the “self’ going through “tasks” and reaching concerns about the “impact” upon pupils. It should be emphasized, however, that these concerns have been observed in the course of student teachers’ development. As far as teachers are concerned, the 70s and the 80s have witnessed a growing number of studies: Unruh and Turner (1970) proposed a series of career stages that include an initial teaching period which lasts for about 5 to 6 years and in which teachers strive towards being accepted by pupils, parents, peers, and superiors; a period Perspectives of Teacher Development of building security which goes on for the next 9 years, approximately, and in which teachers In relating to studies conducted on teacher develop professional skills and security, and developmental phases, Huberman claims that finally, a period of maturity characterized by these studies are vulnerable from two points of involvement in educational matters outside the classroom, and by trying to implement new view: One pertains to a tendency to underestiideas and concepts. mate the importance of social and historical In a number of additional studies rather factors, and the other to the tendency of viewing similar conceptions were put forward: Periods individuals normatively and thereby passively of survival, consolidation, renewal, and maturity were suggested by Katz (1972). Stages somewhat like marionettes whose development strings are being pulled at critical ages, or in of becoming, growing, maturing, and of fully response to a ‘time clock’. As it happens, a large jimctioning were proposed by Gregorc (1973), part of individual development is “teleological”, and of survival, adjustment, and maturity were that is. individuals observe, study and plan out the put forward by Burden (1982). sequences through which they pass, and can thereby influence or even determine the nature of the succesIn the late 80s two rather extensive studies sion of stages in their career. (Huberman. in press) were conducted: one by Fessler (1985) and further developed by Fessler (in press) in the Bearing these vuinerabilities in mind and U.S., and the other by Huberman (1989, in based upon a variety of investigations a myriad press) in Europe. Fessler identified stages of preset-vice, inducof sequences, stages, phases, and cycles have building, enthusiasm and been proposed by educational researchers. A (ion, competency career frustration, career stability, glimpse into these proposals may illuminate the growing, scene of professional development throughout career wind down, and career exit. He sugthe teaching career. gested that these cycles should not be viewed as A significant part of the studies on teacher fixed, but rather as a tentative paradigm open to developmental sequences or stages in this area modifications and refinements, and as dynamic has its roots in the work done by Fuller (1969) cycles in an ebb and flow movement. Furtherwho suggested that development into the profes- more, he claimed that these cycles respond to conditions: “A supportive, sion revolves around several clusters of con- environmental nurturing, reinforcing environment can assist a cerns: Pre-teaching concerns are experienced by student teachers in their roles as pupils; teacher in the pursuit of a rewarding, positive survival concerns include doubts about having career progression” (in press). Drawing upon a number of Swiss studies and chosen the right occupation and about the supervisor’s evaluation; teaching concerns pertain to upon a rich data base of 4-6 hours of semithe employment of the right teaching methods. clinical interviews with 260 informants Huberman suggested to abandon the idea of “stages” Finally, it is the concerns about pupils’achievement, motivation, and satisfaction that preoc- and settle for “modal sequences” (Huberman, 1989, in press). He proposed a schematic model cupy the mind. These concerns develop in a sequence starting that constitutes modal sequences of the teacher
Expert and Novice Student Teachers’ Supervisors
career cycle. This model constitutes several theses/phases: career entry, stabilization, e.rperimentationldiversification, stocktaking/ conservatism, interrogation, serenity, and disengagement. A meta-analysis of the studies mentioned above does not reveal major substantial and significant conceptual differences concerning the type of experiences that teachers go through in the course of their career. Minor differences with regard to the duration of the various stages, their sequences, and the terms used to describe them - theme, phase, stage - do not seem to constitute basic theoretical differences. There is also an overall agreement regarding the impact of personal and environmental influences upon the sequence, the cycles, the duration, and the seniority level at which the various stages occur. A summary and integration of the proposed stages/phases/cycles into an inclusive model point to several developmental characteristics of the teaching career: The pre-teaching period, described by Fuller and Bown (1975) and by Vonk (in press) is followed by a period of career entry. The latter is typically characterized as a period of survival and discovery, a period of exploration in which teachers try to find out what teaching is really about, to “feel” and “touch” the nature of teaching experiences. This period is also described as a “reality shock” period (Veenman, 1984) resulting from the confrontation with the complexities of teaching, and with concerns with one’s adequacy as a teacher. Huberman (in press) suggests that it is the challenge and excitement of discovery that sometimes brings about the attrition of day-to-day survival. The beginning years are followed by a period of stabilization, in which teachers make attempts at understanding better what teaching is about, at focusing upon specific areas of interest, and at improving their teaching functions (Super, 1957). They develop teaching skills and competencies (Fessler, in press), and describe themselves as “consolidating and then refining a basic set of instructional repertoires on which they can, finally, rely” (Huberman, in press). As a result there is a period of greaterflexibility, of a more assertive autonomy, of instructional mastery, enthusiasm, experimentation, and diversification. This is also a period of socialization into the profession and of joining
429
groups of peers. Viewed in an eclectic manner, this stage is characterized by growth and stabilization. The next stage is one of “stock taking” and mid-career interrogation, in which teachers contemplate about their careers, review their life as teachers, some go through a process of self-questioning (Huberman, in press). In the career cycles proposed by Fessler this is a stage of frustration, of dissatisfaction, and of disillusionment with teaching. Like Huberman, Fessler describes this stage as one in which “teachers begin to question why they are doing this work” (Fessler, in press). The stage that follows is described by Huberman as one of serenity and conservatism, and by Fessler as one of stability and stagnancy. In this period there is a lack of enthusiasm and of commitment to continuing growth and excellence. The level of ambition decreases. Teachers at this stage work more mechanically and tend to set more modest career objectives and feel less engaged. In Peterson’s study (1979) they are described as going home after school “peacefully, leaving it all behind”. The last identified period is described by Huberman as one of disengagement, and by Fessler as a stage of career wind down. While this may be a pleasant period with many memories of positive experiences, it may be an unpleasant period for others who cannot wait to retire from an unsatisfying job. This journey through the literature was brought forth as a preliminary step from which an investigation of the career cycles of student teachers’ supervisors, aS well as a comparison between supervisors and teachers with respect to this topic, may be started. Method As the study was not aimed at verifying any specific and operational hypotheses derived from theory, but rather to provide prefi&a~ answers to the questions raised, interpretive modes of research seemed most suitable (Erickson, 1986). Within these methods the interview was selected as an appropriate tool for obtaining the expected information. The subjects were three expert and three novice student teachers’ supervisors, all of
430
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whom have been selected on the basis of recommendations received from their superiors as being highly evaluated by student teachers. The seniority range was 20-30 years for the expert supervisors and 3-5 years for the novice ones. One supervisor in each of these groups was affiliated with a Kibbutz college and the others with the regular State colleges. The inclusion of these two types of institutions was aimed at detecting any. possible effects of environmental factors: The Kibbutz Colleges curricula are known to be more autonomous as compared with the regular State Colleges. They are also characterized by a more open-progress educational orientation. The supervisors in both types of institutions share the same role: They supervise the planning, the implementation. and the evaluation of their student teachers’ teaching, they work with their student teachers in groups as well as on individual bases, and teach courses on teaching methods in which they try to make linkages between theory and practice. Inteniervs
The student teachers’ supervisors were interviewed in-depth by two trained interviewers. Each interview lasted for about 2 hours. The interview started with an open-ended question to allow for any topics that the interviewees thought relevant to emerge. After some rapport has been established the interview started as follows: “Looking in retrospect at your career as a supervisor could you please tell the story of your professional development?” The interviewers were instructed not to stop the flow of talk of the interviewees, unless they reached an impasse. It was only then that probing questions aimed at getting more information were posed. Data Analysis
The interviews were audiotaped and transcribed verbatim. The transcripts of the by two protocols were content-analyzed independent analyzers, after having reached 90% of inter-judge agreement. Following Marton’s distinction (1981) the data were analyzed in view of two perspectives: A firstorder perspective which is more amenable to statistical analysis and pertains to the questions
of “what”, “how much”, “how many”, and a second-order perspective which is less amenable to this sort of approach and it relates to the questions of “how” and “why”. Although sometimes this latter approach is amenable to statistical analysis, it usually lends itself better to interpretive analysis (Powney & Watts. 1987). In adopting the first mentioned perspective, key concepts from each sentence which served as units of analysis were derived, listed, counted, and classified into broader categories. The frequency count within each category was then turned into percentages to allow for comparisons (Fox, 1969). The second-order perspective constituted data interpretation, and attempts at disclosing tacit tendencies and underlying orientations. Results The results are reported from the two perspectives mentioned above: (a) quantitative, and (b) qualitative. Quantitatively, the category frequencies are presented for the whole group as well as for each group of expert and novice supervisors separately. Qualitatively, the content of the interviewees’ perceptions and thoughts regarding their professional development is reported and interpreted.
Quantitative
aspects
i%e Frequency of the Perceptions Thought References
and
The content analysis yielded seven relatively broad categories under which the key concepts derived from each unit of analysis classified. These were, in descending order of frequency, the following: Knowledge and Change; Reflection and Criticism; Human Relations; Theory and Research; Ideology and Values; and Difficulties. Table 1 presents these frequency distributions transformed into percentages to allow for easier comparisons. The frequency distribution of the categories points to a cognitive rather than to an affective nature of the supervisors’ references: Three of
Expert
Table
and Novice
Student
Teachers’
431
Supervisors
I
Topics of Reference
-
Percenrage
Means Novice
Experts Topics
12
Knowledge Change Reflection Criticism
3x‘
4
5
18
15
6x
and 30
20
20
23.3
18
17
and 15
30
34
26.3
14
19
19
17.3
20
15
10
15
20
15
23
19.3
and Research
15
20
15
16.6
23
20
20
21
and Values
20
15
IO
15
10
18
8
12
8
4
15
13
12
Human
Relations
Theory Ideology
Difficulties
4-
the six categories - Knowledge and Change, Reflection and Criticism, and Theory and Research - may be more easily identified with cognitive aspects of supervision. Only two categories - Human Relations, and Ideology and Values connote affective aspects. The Difficulties category covers both aspects. The same tendency appears to emerge for the expert and novice interviewees. The findings presented in Table 1 point to the features of the supervisors’ professional development according to their own perceptions. The differences in the contents and in the intensity of reference which were noted will be presented later in the next section in which qualitative analyses and interpretations are discussed.
Qualitative
The most senior supervisor, who had been affiliated with a Kibbutz College for 25 years, expressed herself in this matter: There is so much to know in addition to teaching models and strategies, classroom management, psychology of learning and so many other areas related to teaching. These are actually the topics of my supervision, but in addition there are the processes through which student teachers develop towards becoming teachers that I have to understand and know how to facilitate. In fact, my professional knowledge has to cover two levels of learning: that of the pupils and that of the student teachers. Despite some similarities, student teaching is different as it involves in addition to the need for professional preparation extensive knowledge on adult development and learning.
Other supervisors related to their initial lack of supervision knowledge as a result of lack of preparation:
aspects
What Were the Perceptions and Thoughts Brought up in Relation to Each Category the Professional Development?
13.3
of
Knowledge and Change. The most salient topic that emerged under this category constituted dilemmas regarding the knowledge that supervisors must have. Is it enough to have good experience in teaching in order to supervise student teachers? Is there any specific knowledge base without which efficient supervision cannot occur? If there is such a knowledge base, what is it?
The only preparation I had when I started by supervision career was some experience as a classroom teacher. I did not have at that time even a Bachelor’s Degree. (At the time of the interview she had a Master’s degree and had several publications in the field of teacher education.) I had to struggle for knowledge by myself, to look for literature and this was not always relevant to my circumstances. I tried hard to understand the ways in which my student learnt. Intuitively. I tried out a variety of supervision styles. It took me some time to recognize that I had to adapt my supervision to students’ individual characteristics. Nevertheless, I am glad I had to struggle and create supervision knowledge on my
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own. It was a difficult, however, a fascinating and rewarding experience . it is still a constant intellectual challenge . . . My development as a supervisor is in constant interaction with my general development as a human being. Once I started supervising a lot of things that I learnt in university courses, which at that time seemed irrelevant. helped me in understanding the underlying processes in my interactions with students courses that I took after having some exberience in supervision were even more helpful. . I was fascinated in discovering that a lot of things I did intuitively had a theoretical basis . . In the course of the years I got the feeling that there is a structure of knowledge in supervision, that there are some principles that work. .
As far as Change is concerned, the following protocol excerpts may illustrate the perceptions in this respect: I feel I keep growing, I think that thanks to my students I have changed, I grew in my understanding of human nature, I sympathize more with individual problems and difficulties that my students face while student teaching . . .
Another supervisor perceived the changes that she experienced as processes of absorption and incubation: I perceive my development as a supervisor as a process of absorption from the outside and elaboration and incubation on the inside . it is an inner dialect between the two. it takes you ,off your balance for a while, but after a period of assimilation you get back on your feet . . . I argue with every new idea I encounter, I think about the pros and cons it is like an inner debate a discussion with myself If I would compare my professional profile today with the one in the past I would get an entirely different one self confrontation helped me a lot in changing my perceptions of students . the main change was from looking at my student teachers and treating them as a group towards seeing each one as a unique person. I no more expected all of them to implement and carry out exactly the teaching methods which I presented, but rather encouraged each one to use these methods flexibly the more I became confident and at each with my supervision the more I could tolerate individual differences and adapt my supervision accordingly.
tunity to observe many classroom situations, varying teaching methods, and mainly by watching and analyzing. I started as a teacher after having been well prepared in the College. As a teacher I was highly evaluated by my superiors, parents, and pupils and became very confident and sure of myself. My start as a supervisor was different: I had no specific knowledge of supervision, I lost my confidence and had to start anew, and struggle day by day without having a rich perspective or rationale to guide me. I learnt by doing.
These are only a few of the expressions that represent the interviewees’ perceptions and thoughts in the area of knowledge and change. In sum, there is a general mixed feeling about having had no specific training and preparation for the job, which on the one hand resulted in lack of confidence and hard work and in the need to built up their own practical knowledge, but on the other hand in a feeling of experiencing a satisfying challenge. The question of whether supervision may be built upon a solid knowledge base remained unsolved. Rejlection and Criticism. Thinking about the supervision method and style during the process of supervision was reported by the more senior supervisors as an important constituent of their professional development. This ability developed in the course of time and made it possible to make corrections and changes on the spot. The thinking processes described in the interviews are parallel to those termed by Schon (1983) as reflection in action. Interestingly, as one supervisor remarked, such thinking could occur only after having developed some criteria, or at least images of effective supervision in view of which they could analyze and evaluate what they were doing. This notion was expressed by one supervisor as follows: During the first 2 years I was preoccupied and involved in the process itself to such an extent that I could not supervise and at the same rifle think of what was going on . . now I can play two roles at the same time, that of the supervisor and that of the spectator who looks at the process and thinks about it.
The next two excerpts point to the sources from
which
they
derived
their
knowledge:
I learnt about teaching from supervision much more than from my own teaching by having the oppor-
Another supervisor remarked: It is my own experience and my constant self evaluation that guides me in practice, it is like building a
Expert
and Novice
Student Teachers’
home and rebuilding and innovating and changing its furniture . . . the feedback I got from students guided me in reshaping my style of work.
Although some of these references could easily be classified under Change, we preferred to classify them under Reflection in order to emphasize this specific and important aspect of professional knowledge. Human Relations. The wisdom of practice which points to the importance of human relations seems to have been transferred from previous education experiences, as some interviewees noted: As a teacher I learnt that good relationships with pupils enhance their learning it also makes your work more pleasant . it is like a chain reaction, the more supportive the atmosphere the better the learning. . . I made the transfer from my interactions with pupils to those with my student teachers.
Other remarks made on this topic were: “If you want to work with people, peel off your facade, don’t cover up your weaknesses, admit that you can be wrong, this way your strengths will emerge. . .“, “Look at your student as if it a unique being . . .“, “Students have to trust you, this is a precondition for learning. . . .“. Theory and Research. This category constituted a specific and distinct aspect of the more general nature of Knowledge. Most of the references made in this respect concerned the contribution of theory and research to the quality of supervision and student teaching. this category hosted extreme Interestingly, variations. On the one hand, theory and research were not too highly regarded: “. . . research is remote from real situations. . .“, and “I could never solve my problems with the aid of theories . . . when it comes down to concrete classroom situations it is my personal experience rather than research that guides my supervision”. On the other hand, however, supervisors found theory and research helpful in guiding their work: “I was guided by what I learnt in university courses . . . the concepts of ‘support’ and ‘acceptance’ that I learnt from Carl Rogers helped me to shape my practice accordingly”.
Supervisors
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Ideology and Values. The supervisors’ references to ideology and values pointed to several dilemmas and concerns. The emphasis on values at the expense of the development of professional skills created a dilemma for some of the interviewees: In the extremely limited time we have for the implementation of our teacher education curriculum it seems impossible to deal both with the development of specific teaching skills and with value education. I would like to have more time for discussions on educational issues that transcend the immediate classroom environment, but then the question is: at the expense of what?
Additional worries that were expressed cerned more specific value issues:
con-
I am worried because of the growing materialistic orientation I fear that our students learn to take and not to give . you don’t lose anything by giving. on the contrary, you only gain I would not like to live and educate in such a society we have to strive towards a better society and towards a value orientation in teacher education.
Finally, a fear of being unaware of indoctrination that might occur was stated: “I have to be careful not to inflict my values upon them, they should develop their own values . . . this is a real danger . . not to use my authority . . .” Dificulties. The main difficulty encountered was lack of collegial support: I
was offered a position as a student teacher supervisor. which I gladly accepted as an interesting challenge, but I had no idea that I’ll have nobody to help me and advise me on a formal basis. A senior colleague told me “you can do this and that” but for a beginner like me this was not enough. 1 learnt by trial and error, which was sometimes frustrating My students were by teachers We learnt together.
Another difficulty concerned the relations with cooperating schools: “Bureaucracy on the part of cooperating schools was a pain in the neck . . they would not let my students try out teaching methods that were different than theirs. ” I did not succeed in introducing change in the cooperating schools with which I worked and this made it really difficult to make the linkage between
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theory and practice, because 1 could not show my students that the teaching methods that I suggested and discussed do work in real classroom situations.
The evaluation of student teachers constituted an additional difficulty, because of lack of clear and unambiguous criteria: “I failed several times in evaluating my students. Students whom I evaluated highly in student teaching did not do well, and others whom I evaluated as poor in student teaching proved to be successful in schools”. The interview excerpts quoted above represent the contents classified under the various categories of each category for the interviewed group as a whole. However, the two groups of the student teachers’ supervisors - novice and expert - differed in several way.
Novice
and e,rpert srlpenisors they different 1
-
How are
The content analysis of the expert and novice supervisors yielded the same categories of reference, however, the two groups differed substantially in the frequency of reference to the various topics and in the intensity of reference. In three categories Reflection and and Knowledge and Change, Criticism, Ideology and Values - the expert supervisors appeared to be substantially different when compared to their novice colleagues. More specifically, the category of Rejlection und Criticism yielded the largest frequency difference between the novice and expert supervisors. The latter related to this topic more than the novice supervisors. Reflection and Criticism are no doubt two high levels of thought that need time to develop when studying a new area. Furthermore, it is only natural that at the career entry stage supervisors, like any other professionals, are concerned with adapting themselves to the new situations they encounter, and with developing the skills and knowledge that are necessary in order to function effectively. Also, in order to reflect, one must have something to reflect upon: Reflection is not an independent process, there must be some content to reflect upon. In the area of teaching reflection must be practiced on the basis of professional knowledge (Kremer-Hayon, in press). It is only
logical to propose that because in the first stages of the supervision career the professional knowledge and experience are meager as compared to later stages, reflection was a more integral part of the expert supervisors’ practices. The same line of thought may explain the larger number of references to criticism: In order to criticize oneself, one must have developed criteria in view of which to criticize/evaluate his or her work as well as the professional confidence to do so. The category of Knowledge and Change yielded the second large difference between the two groups. The more expert supervisors mentioned this topic more than the novice ones. They related to the developmental aspect of knowledge, analyzed the ways in which they developed their practical knowledge of supervision, and raised the question of whether supervision has a solid knowledge base. The novice supervisors did not relate to change, most probably because of lack of time perspective to do so. Instead, they related to the extent of relevancy of the university courses in which they had participated. Since they needed guidance in their new role, they expected to find it in the literature on supervision. this may be the reason why they related to Theory and Research to a larger extent as compared to their more expert colleagues. As was suggested previously, personal and practical knowledge need time to develop. Lacking this kind of knowledge, theory and research constituted the major sources for the novice supervisors to rely upon. Nevertheless, there was a tone of disappointment with these sources of knowledge. As mentioned, the more expert supervisors differed from the novice supervisors in relating more to Ideology and Vulues. This finding may be explained both on developmental and on Israeli historical -social grounds. From a developmental perspective it seems only natural that being concerned with the difficulties encountered in facing a new role and with the need to become acquainted to new situations does not leave too much space to deal ideology. The concrete day-to-day problems absorb all the attenIn adopting Maslow’s tion and energy. conception of hierarchical needs we perceive ideology and values as needs which are high on this hierarchy and thus can be dealt with only after having satisfied bore basic needs.
Expert
and Novice
Student Teachers’
From a historical -social perspective there is a general feeling that the Israeli society has moved from a very idealistic life orientation towards a materialistic one. This feeling was clearly expressed by the more expert supervisors. It may also be, however, that we witness a nostalgia phenomenon. Human Relations and Dificulties were the only categories of reference that were related by the novice more than by the expert supervisors. Human relations connote affective rather than cognitive aspects of supervision, they do not depend on professional knowledge and experience as much as Knowledge and Change, and Reflection and Criticism do, and are not specific to supervision. The ability involved in human relations may have developed during the teaching and other past experiences. The fact that the novice supervisors related to Difficulties much more that the expert ones seems only natural, as the time lapse may have erased some of the memories of the more expert supervisors in relation to the difficulties they had encountered. It also may be that the experts have been accustomed to difficulties and perceive them as a role characteristic which they had learnt to accept. In addition to the differences that were noted within the categories two developmental trends emerged. A developmental trend towards specification which is characteristic of human development in general - was noted in the development of supervisors as well. This trend was reflected in the ways that student teachers were perceived. The next two excerpts illustrate this developmental trend: “I realized that Sarah needed more help and attention, she was very creative and would not adhere to prescribed methods. . . It took me some years before I could sense such specific individual needs. . .“, and “I accept now individual differences and supervise accordingly. . _” These statements made by expert supervisors also represent a more colzcrefe style of narration, as opposed to the more abstract style and general terms used by the novices, like: .. . . at this age you cannot expect them to. . .” or “. . . my aim is to help them develop as good teachers. .” The more expert supervisors illustrated their narrations with concrete examples drawn from their experience.
Supervisors
435
The novice supervisors, not having a rich experience to rely on, tended to relate to their experiences by using abstract terms borrowed from the professional literature they had been acquainted with. This finding is in line with findings in a study in which novice and expert teachers were compared in their relation to classroom discipline problems and in which the expert ones formed more elaborate heuristic statements and placed a priority on clear definition and representation of the problems more that the novice teachers did (Swanson, O’Connor, & Cooney, 1990). As far as institutional characteristics Kibbutz versus General State Colleges - are concerned, only minor differences between the two interviewed groups were noted. These differences pertained to the aims of student teaching: While the supervisors in the Kibbutz College stressed the importance of collaborative teachmg and learning - collaboration being one of the Kibbutz ideals - no specific aim that could differentiate between the two groups of supervisors was mentioned. It appears then that the number of years in supervision makes a more substantial difference than the institutional affiliation. In sum, the comparison of the two groups clearly points to the idiosyncrasy of the more expert group of supervisors which is reflected mainly in the categories of Reflection and Criticism and of Knowledge and Change. Student Teachers ’ Supervisors and Teachers: A Career Stages Comparison The developmental trends and characteristics of the supervisors and professional development that emerged in the interview data were somewhat different from those of teachers, as reported in the literature. No survival period in the sense of the one experienced by teachers was identified in the interview protocols. The first years are for teachers a period of survival, of questioning their career choice and suitability to their new role. For supervisors it is a period of search for knowledge to guide their work. Although lack of specific preparation for the supervision role was mentioned by all interviewees, no “reality shock” or concern with survival were noted. The “ebb and flow” that characterized
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436
periods of enthusiasm. of frustration, of “stock taking” throughout the teachers’ career stages did not emerge in the student teachers supervisors’ career as they themselves perceived it and thought of it. These differences may lie in the fact that the teaching that preceded supervision was usually a successful one (Why should unsuccessful teachers be promoted to supervision?). The experienced success probably contributed to some confidence, which because of the similarities between the two roles - teaching and supervision, both involving the promotion and facilitation of learning - may have been transferred to the new role. The fact that no period of frustration or of intent to leave were reported by the supervisors may be explained by the nature of supervision which, as some supervisors indicated, is not as stressful and burning out as teaching: “. . .you don’t have to face large groups of pupils for hours every day . . . working on individual bases is not as exhausting as teaching . . . you don’t have to deal with discipline problems. . .*‘. As a result, there is no intention of job leaving. This lack of intention may also be attributed to the supervision professional status which is higher than that of teaching. The most common feature that characterizes teachers’ and supervisors’ development is professional growth and sensitivity to students. It appears, however, that supervisors focus in reflective supervision more than teachers do on reflective teaching. Conclusion Before reaching any conclusion, we would like to draw attention to two facts: The interviews which were selected as a tool for data selection may be “contaminated” by subjective views and by selective memories. Despite their questionable validity we perceive them as an important source of information on a topic which has not yet been investigated. Also, we are aware that no generalization may be drawn from six interviews. Hence, we perceive this study as a first exploration into a topic worthwhile of further investigation. The content analysis of the protocolled interviews shed some light on the reflections of
student teachers’ supervisors with regard to their career. The answer obtained in relation to the first question posed in this study points to the topics of reflection which were mentioned and interpreted in the previous section. Within these topics several questions worthwhile of consideration emerged. One question concerns the knowledge base of supervision: Is there such a specific knowledge base that can be identified? If this question receives an affirmative answer: What does this knowledge base cover? Since the literature on supervision does not deal directly with these questions we may be informed by borrowing from the relevant literature on teaching. In relating to the question of knowledge base in teaching Floden and Klinzing (1990) propose that if research on the knowledge of expert teachers included an examination of teachers’ schemata, teacher educators would be better informed on how to prepare novices for classroom work. While accepting that teacher education would be improved if it were informed by research on practicing teachers’ expertise, Lampert and Clark (1990) raise additional questions: “What is expertise in teaching‘? How is expertise communicated from experts to novices? How do we decide who is an expert?” (p. 21). These same questions preoccupied the student teachers’ supervisors interviewed in this study. In relating to these questions two alternate positions emerge. According to one position expertise can be defined, distilled, and acquired by others, according to another position “teaching is such a complex act that requires constant adjustments to fit continually changing and uncertain conditions . . adjustments are contextual, interactive and speculative” (Lampert & Clark, 1990, p. 2 1). While the first mentioned position implies the need for a well planned and specified professional development program, the second position questions the benefit of such programs, especially in view of the problem of transfer from academic settings to classroom situations. We claim that while each of these positions leaves much to be desired their use in an intertwined manner bears some promise for an effective strategy, and is apt to fulfil a wide range of individual needs and of varying situations. The
Expert
and Novice
Student Teachers’
notion of aptitude-treatment interaction (Cronbath & Snow, 1977) which in several studies on teacher development proved to be beneficial (Kremer-Hayon, Moore, & Nevat, 1987) supports this claim. We find no reason to believe that teaching and supervision are different in this respect. On the contrary: both practices involve a variety of personalities and situations which demand varying ways of preparation, and hence we propose that the arguments presented above in relation to teaching may well apply to supervision. The need to adopt and use varying ways of development in conjunction was also brought up by the more expert interviewees in this study, who in reflecting upon their career described the changes that occurred in their supervision practices as a result of which they became more flexible and reflective while acting. Why did these changes occur? Are these changes inherent in the process of professional development? If there a developmental trend that moves from a “technical rationality” towards “reflection-in-action”? (Schon, 1983). If such an inherent trend indeed exists, the question of whether it is helpful to hasten this process by the aid professional development programs is necessary and useful should be considered. Further studies aimed at answering these questions are apt to enrich the theoretical knowledge base of supervision as well as to guide supervision practices. An additional possible theoretical contribution of the study concerns the comparison of the professional development characteristics of teachers and of student teachers’ supervisors. If indeed the features disclosed in this study will be identified in other studies as well, we shall witness first steps toward proposing developmental modes of additional groups of professionals. While the study provides some answers to the questions posed, it raises additional questions of interest both theoretically and practically. References Berliner. D. C. (1986 August-Septcmbcr). In pursuit of the expert pedagogue. .!%ccczrion Research. pp. 5- 13. Burden. P. R. (1982). Teachers ‘perc~eprions of their personal crud professional deve/opmenf. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwestern Educational Research Association. Des IMoines. IA.
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Erickson. F. (1986). Qualitative methods in research on teaching. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.). Handbook ofresearch on reaching (3rd ed.. pp. Il9171). New York: Macmillan. Fessler. R. (1985). A model for teacher professional growth and development. In P. J. Burke & R. G. Heideman (Eds.). Cdreur tony reacher educarion. Springfield. IL: Charles C. Thomas. Fessler, R. (in press). Dynamics of the teacher career cycle. In L. Kremer-Havon. H. C. Vonk. & R. Fessler (Eds.). Teacher professiohl development. London: Falmer‘Pressl Floden. R.. & Klinzing, G. (1990). What can research on teacher thinking contribute to teacher preparation? A second opinion. Educarion Researcher, 19. 15-20. Fox. D. (1960). 77te research process in education. New York: Holt. Rinehart & Winston. Fuller, F. (1969). Concerns of teachers: A developmental perspective. American Educatianal Research Journal. 6,
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13. 317-361. Huberman. M. (in press). Steps towards a developmental model of teaching career. In L. Kremer-Hayon, H. C. Vonk, & R. Fesslcr (Eds.), Teacher professional developmvu. London: Falmer Press. Katz, L. G. (1972). Development stages of preschool tcuchers. Etemenfury School Journal, 73, 50-54. (ERIC No. EJ 064 759). Krcmer-Hayon. L. (in press). Teacher self evaluation - A tool in professional development. In L. Kremer-Hayon, H. C. Vonk. & R. Fessler (Eds.), Teacher professional development. London: Falmer Press. Krcmer-Hayon, L., Moore, M.. & Nevat, R. (1987). Dogmatism in teacher education: Effects of aptitude treatment interaction. Research in Educurion. 36, 19-26. Lampert, M.. & Clark, C. M. (1990). Expert knowledge and expert thinking in teaching: A response to Floden and Klinzing. Educational Researcher, 19, 21-23. Marton. F. (1981). Phenomenography - describing conceptions of the world around us. tnsrrucrional Science. 10, 177-200. Peterson, A. (1979). Teachers ’ changing perceprions ofsetf
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