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The Tolerance of Different Ages of Domestic Fowl to Body Water Loss1
1S64
T. W. SULLIVAN, H. M. HEIL AND M. E. ARMINTEOUT
SUMMARY Four experiments were conducted to study the young turkey's dietary requirement for thiamine and pyridoxine. The results suggest or indicate the following: 1. Young turkeys to four weeks of age required at least 1.2 p.p.m. of dietary thiamine. Maximum livability and body growth were obtained with levels of about 2.0 p.p.m. in two experiments.
Therefore, the minimum dietary requirement was apparently between 1.6 and 2.0 p.p.m. 2. The dietary pyridoxine requirement was greater than 3.9 and not over 4.4 p.p.m. for maximum livability and body growth of poults to four weeks of age. REFERENCES Duncan, D. B., 1955. Multiple fange and multiple F tests. Biometrics, 1 1 : 1-42. Fuller, H. L., and P. E. Kifer, 1959. The vitamin B a requirement of chicks. Poultry Sci. 38: 255-260. Hogan, A. G., 1950. The vitamin requirements of poultry. Nutrition Abstr. Rev. 19: 751-791. Kratzer, F. H., F. H. Bird, V. S. Asmundson and S. Lepkovsky, 1947. The comparative pyridoxine requirements of chicks and turkey poults. Poultry Sci. 26:453-456. National Research Council, 1966. Nutrient requirements of domestic animals. No. 1, Nutrient requirements of poultry, 5th rev. ed., Publication 1345. Robenalt, R. C , 1960. The thiamine requirement of young turkey poults. Poultry Sci. 39: 354360. Snedecor, G. W., 1956. Statistical Methods. 5th ed. The Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa.
The Tolerance of Different Ages of Domestic Fowl to Body Water Loss1 GEORGE J. MULKEY 2 AND TILL M. HUSTON Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30601 (Received for publication May 1, 1967)
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IKE all animals, birds produce water by ' their metabolism. Because of their high metabolic rates, the quantity of water thus produced by birds is greater in rela1
University of Georgia, College of Agriculture Experiment Stations, Journal Paper number 539. College Station, Athens. 2 Present address: Department of Poultry Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland.
tion to body size than for other vertebrates. Birds, however, from the standpoint of water conservation, have a high rate of evaporative water loss, but they have one important physiological advantage over mammals; their nitrogen excretion involves uric acid instead of urea. Uric acid can be excreted in a semi-solid suspension, whereas urea must be excreted in an aqueous solution which inevitably, involves a considera-
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between 3.9 and 4.4 p.p.m. of dietary pyridoxine. This compares with 3.0 p.p.m. suggested by Kratzer et al. (1947) and the National Research Council (1966). Hogan (1950) stated that the poult's dietary requirement was probably greater than 3.0 p.p.m. Poultry feeds composed of common feed ingredients (yellow corn, soybean meal, etc.) furnish between 5.0 and 6.0 p.p.m. of pyridoxine (Fuller et al., 1959). There is presently no evidence to indicate that supplemental pyridoxine is needed in practical turkey feeds. This situation could be altered with any major change in current ingredient usage.
BODY WATER LOSS
and physiological factors influence the survival time of animals deprived of water. It would be of interest to know whether the same degree of dehydration occurs consistently prior to death and if this level can be predicted. The present study was initiated to determine on the average what percent body water loss causes death. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Three trials were conducted using different age groups of White Plymouth Rock males for each trial. The age groups were 8, 12, and 18 weeks in trials 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The birds used in trials 1 and 2 were raised in the environments in which the experiments were to be conducted, but the birds used in trial 3 were raised in an uncontrolled temperature until they were 14 weeks of age. They were then placed in the environmental chambers 4 weeks prior to the beginning of the experiment. The two environmental chambers used in the experiment were held constant between 9-ll°C. and 29-31°C. Total body water was measured by using tritiated water as a tracer substance and applying dilution principles. The method used was a modification of one used by Richmond et al. (1960). Body weight loss and hemoconcentrations were measured at the same time that the water was measured. Total body water of all birds was determined while they were on feed and water. In each trial 20 birds were placed in each room with 15 birds on treatment and 5 birds as controls. The controls remained on feed and water throughout the experiment. The treated birds received no feed or water during the experimental period. Previous studies have shown that individual feed consumption varies greatly when birds are deprived of water. Consequently, it was decided that withholding feed as well as water would provide a more uniform result. Total body water was measured every third day.
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ble loss of water (Sturkie, 1965). The kangaroo rat, Dipodomys merriami, which has an unusually efficient kidney, can excrete urea in a concentration only 20 to 30 times greater than that in its blood whereas birds can excrete uric acid in a concentration some 3,000 times greater than that in the blood (Smith, 1956). Although it seems unlikely that any small bird under natural conditions can survive solely on the water produced by its metabolism, at least some individuals of three different species weighing less than 50 g. are known to be capable of surviving without drinking water for many days in captivity on a diet of dry seeds. Salt marsh Savannah Sparrows, Passerculus sandwichensis and domesticated stocks of two xerophillous Australian birds, the Budgerygah, Melopsittacus undulatus and the Zebra Finch possess such an ability (Cade and Bartholomew, 1959; Cade and Dybas, 1962). It is expected that water consumption, like evaporative water loss, will increase with increasing environmental temperature. This relationship has been examined in passerine birds (Bartholomew and Dawson, 1954; Bartholomew and Cade, 1956). Kellerup et al. (1965) restricted water consumption of chicks to 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 percent of the amount consumed the previous day by controls with water ad libitum. They found that feed consumption decreased with each increment of water restriction, but no significant mortality rates were found at any of the levels of water restriction. Medway and Kare (1957) found that the amount of evaporative water loss and percent body water are higher in one-day-old chicks than in older birds. Wilson (1948) showed that body temperature was affected severely when air temperature rose above 30°C. Water consumption at 34°C. was double that at 20°C. It is known that various environmental
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G. J. MULKEY AND T. M. HUSTON
using a one way analysis of variance. In the three trials paired observation analysis was used to analyze changes in hemoconcentrations. The birds used to obtain hematocrits while on feed and water were the same birds used in the deprivation studies, therefore, paired observation analysis was an accurate measurement of hemoconcentration changes. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Trial 1. In Trial 1 the birds in the 30°C. environment lost on an average of 46.9% body weight before death (Table 1). Since total body water was determined every third day using tritium, data were not available for the time period between the last injection of tritium and death. This period of time ranges from 0 to 3 days because the birds were injected once every three days. A 42.3% water loss (Table 1) was observed before death and this number was obtained by averaging the percent water losses as determined by the last sample taken on each bird. During the same period of time a 42.5% body weight loss occurred (Fig. 1). The 46.9% (Table 1) represents a time period which ends when the last tritium sample was taken. On the average the birds lived 1.9 days after the last sample. At the
TABLE 1.—A comparison of hematocrits, water and body weight losses, and survival time of nine birds held at different environmental temperature Body water loss Trial
Temp.
Birds
no. I I II II III III
°C. 30 9 30 9 30 9
no. IS 15 13 13 10 12
At final determination
%
42.3 40.2 40.8 40.0 42.S 45.7
Extrapolated at death
%
47.6 45.7 46.0 46.8 45.8 50.3
Hematocrit • Average survival At time of time 1 Initial Final 2 death
Body weight loss At final determination
%
42.5 39.0 41.4 40.0 47.7 43.8
%
46.9 47.7 44.9 46.7 43.3 52.0
* Significant (P<0.05). ** Highly significant (P<0.01). 1 Statistical comparisons are between environments. 2 Statistical comparisons are between initial and final hematocrits.
(days) 13 10 17** 10 15 21*
%
27.8 32.3 26.4 32.0 30.0 29.8
%
35.3* 36.5* 31.5* 37.7* 33.4 34.8*
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On the first day of the experimental period each bird was injected with tritiated water. An amount equal to 0.25% of body weight was injected. A 30 minute period of time was allowed for uniform distribution of the tritiated water throughout the body. Blood samples were taken via a heart puncture. The plasma was frozen and stored to be counted at a later date. The plasma was prepared for counting by adding 4 ml. of 10% trichloroacetic acid to 1 ml. of plasma to precipitate the plasma proteins. After centrifuging, 1 ml. of the supernatant was pipetted into 10 ml. of scintillation fluid (100 g. of maphthalene, 10 g. of 2.5 diphenyloxazole and 0.25 g. of l,4-bis-2-(5-phenyloxazolyl)-benzene added to 1 liter of Dioxane. These samples were counted in a Packard Tri-Carb Scintillation Counter. Hematocrits were taken each time blood samples were drawn. Three days from the time of first sampling, another pre-injection blood sample was taken. The test solution was then injected and a post-injection sample was taken 30 minutes later. From these samples and those of the previous period, total body water was determined. Differences between environments, age groups and survival times were analyzed
1567
BODY WATER LOSS
Trial 2. Birds 12 weeks of age in the 30°C. environment lost 44.9% body weight before death. An extrapolated value of 46.0% for body water loss occurred (Table 1). Birds in the 9°C. environment lost 46.7% body weight before death and the extrapolated water loss was 46.8%. In the case of the 8-week-old birds no significant differ-
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FIG. 1. A comparison of body water losses between 8-week-old birds held at 9°C. or 30° C. environments (trial 1).
DAYS OF SURVIVAL
FIG. 2. A comparison of body water losses between 12-week-old birds held at 9°C. or 30°C. environments (trial 2).
ences were found between environments for percent water loss and body weight loss (Fig. 2). The wanner environment had an average survival time of 17 days as compared to 10 days for the cooler environment. The birds in the 30°C. environment were losing 1.6% water per day at death while those in the 9°C. environment were losing 4.5% per day at death. Deprivation of feed and water increased hematocrits by at least 10% in both environments. Trial 3. The birds in the 30°C. environment lost 43.3% body weight before death. An extrapolated value of 45.8% was found for body water loss (Table 1). In the 9°C. environment the birds lost 52.0% of their body weight before death (Table 1). The extrapolated value for water loss was found to be 50.3% (Table 1). In trials 1, 2 and 3 the birds died after approximately a 45% loss of body weight and body water (Fig. 3). A large amount of the weight loss could be explained on the
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time of the last injection the birds were losing 2.7% body water per day. The extrapolated value at the time of death was 47.6% of body water loss (Table 1). The birds in the 9°C. environment lost 47.4% body weight before death (Table 1). The extrapolated value for body water loss was 45.7%. No significant differences were found between environments for percent body weight loss and body water loss. There was a gradual daily decline in both environments. The warmer environment had an average survival time of 13 days, but the environment did not significantly influence survival time. Deprivation of feed and water did cause a significant increase in hematocrits.
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G. J . MULKEY AND T . M . HUSTON
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FIG. 3. A comparison of body water losses between 18-week-old birds held at 9°C. and 30°C. environments (trial 3).
basis of body water loss. Regardless of environmental temperature death usually occurred when the percent body water dropped below 55% of its original composition. The domestic fowl withstands a greater loss of body weight before death than the Florida mouse Peromyscus floridapus (Fertig and Layne, 1963), domestic cats (Caldwell, 1931 and tropical Merino sheep (Macfarlane et al., 1960), which all lost about 30% of their original body weight before death when deprived of water. Domestic fowl compared with rabbits which survived 2 months without water and lost about 50% of their original body weight before death (Hayward, 1961). Although the older birds of trial 3 in the 30°C. environment survived a shorter period of time than those of the 9°C. environment, they lived as long as the birds from the warmer environment of trials 1 and 2. The birds of trial 3 from the warmer environment showed signs (panting) of heat prostration which were not observed in trials 1 and 2. More water would be needed for evaporative cooling to maintain normal body temperature in this group. It appears as the bird ages heat stress becomes more
REFERENCES Bartholomew, G. A., and W. R. Dawson, 1954. Body temperature and water requirements in the Mourning Dove, Zenaidura macroura marginella. Ecology, 35: 181-187. Bartholomew, G. A., and T. J. Cade, 1956. Water consumption of House Finches. Condor, 58: 406-412. Cade, T. J., and G. A. Bartholomew, 1959. Seawater and salt utilization by Savannah Sparrow. Physiol. Zool., 32: 230-238. Cade, T. J., and J. A. Dybas, 1962. Water economy of the Budgerygah. Auk, 79: 345-364. Caldwell, G. T., 1931. Studies in water metabolism of the cat. Physiol. Zool. 4 : 324-359. Fertig, D. S., and J. N. Layne, 1963. Water relationship in the Florida mouse. J. Mammal. 44:322-334.
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0
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severe. This age difference apparently explains the difference between trials in the different environments. Differences were found between age groups with the older birds living longer than the younger birds. These data indicate that domestic fowl can survive approximately a 45% body water loss before death. This is fairly consistent regardless of environmental temperature. Body weight loss closely parallels body water loss. SUMMARY Immature domestic fowl of three different ages were deprived of feed and water. The effects of different environmental temperature upon body water loss was determined. Groups of birds 8, 12 and 18 weeks of age were held at either 9°C. or 30°C. It was found that domestic fowl can survive approximately a 45% body water loss before death. Apparently the major cause of body weight loss was due to body water loss since they were closely correlated. In most cases the range was 42-45% for body weight loss and water loss, but some individuals lost 50% of initial body weight and body water before death. Survival time ranged from 10 to 21 days. The 18 weeks old birds survived longer than the young birds. The older birds survived longer in the cooler environment.
1569
BODY WATER LOSS Hayward, J. S., 1961. The ability of the wild rabbit to survive conditions of water restriction. C.S.I.R.O. Wildlife Res. 6: 160-175. Kellerup, S. U., J. E. Parker and G. H. Arscott, 1965. Effect of restricted water consumption on broiler chicks. Poultry Sci. 44: 78-83. Macfarlane, W. V., R. J. Morris, B. Howard, J. McDonald and O. E. Budtz-Olsen, 1960. Water and electrolyte changes in Tropical Merino sheep exposed to dehydration during summer. Australian J. Agric. Res. 12: 889-912. MacMillen, R. E., 1962. The minimum water requirements of Mourning Doves. Condor, 64: 165-166.
Medway, W., and M. R. Kare, 1957. Water metabolism of the domestic fowl from hatching to maturity. Am. J. Physiol. 190: 139-141. Richmond, C. R. Trujillo, T. T. and D. W. Martin, 1960. Volume and turnover of body water in Dipodomys deserti with tritiated water. Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. Med., 104: 9-11. Smith, H. W., 1956. Principles of Renal Physiology. Oxford University Press, New York. Sturkie, P. D., 1965. Avian Physiology. Ithaca New York. Cornell University Press, pp. 766. Wilson, W. O., 1948. Some effects of increasing environmental temperatures in pullets. Poultry Sci. 27: 813-817.
J. E. JONES, 3 H. R. WILSON, R. H. HARMS, C. F. SIMPSON AND P. W. WALDROUP4 Poultry Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 (Received for publication May 1, 1967)
L
OW LEVELS of dietary protein have ' been found to delay sexual maturity in pullets (Waldroup and Harms, 1962). Arscott and Parker (1963) stated that adult males fed 6.9% protein had higher fertility than the males fed 10.7% or 16.0% protein; there was no effect on hatchability. Wilson et al. (1965) found that body growth was inversely related to the level of dietary protein when levels of 16.0, 9.0, 6.75 and 4.5% were fed during the growing period. Sexual maturity was delayed in the low protein groups, but after being fed a 17.0% protein diet for 7 weeks sperm con1 Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series No. 2564. 2 This work supported in part by the American Poultry and Hatchery Federation, and by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (grant HD 0029-01A2). "Present address: Cooperative Mills, Baltimore, Maryland. * Present address: Department of Animal Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas.
centrations were about equal in all groups. Fertility was higher in the males which had been fed 9.0 and 6.75% protein during the growing period. Hatchability of fertile eggs was not affected by the level of protein fed. The following experiments were designed to study the effects of low dietary protein during the growing period on body and testicular development and subsequent reproductive performance. PROCEDURES
Experiment 1. This experiment was divided into 2 phases; the first dealt with the influence of dietary protein levels on testicular growth and development. The second phase dealt with the effects of dietary protein levels on semen production and quality. Single Comb White Leghorn (S.C.W.L.) cockerel chicks were utilized in both phases. They had been brooded in floor pens on wood shavings litter with infra-red lamps as the source of heat. They were sub-
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Reproductive Performance in Male Chickens Fed Protein Deficient Diets During the Growing Period1'2
T. W. SULLIVAN, H. M. HEIL AND M. E. ARMINTEOUT
SUMMARY Four experiments were conducted to study the young turkey's dietary requirement for thiamine and pyridoxine. The results suggest or indicate the following: 1. Young turkeys to four weeks of age required at least 1.2 p.p.m. of dietary thiamine. Maximum livability and body growth were obtained with levels of about 2.0 p.p.m. in two experiments.
Therefore, the minimum dietary requirement was apparently between 1.6 and 2.0 p.p.m. 2. The dietary pyridoxine requirement was greater than 3.9 and not over 4.4 p.p.m. for maximum livability and body growth of poults to four weeks of age. REFERENCES Duncan, D. B., 1955. Multiple fange and multiple F tests. Biometrics, 1 1 : 1-42. Fuller, H. L., and P. E. Kifer, 1959. The vitamin B a requirement of chicks. Poultry Sci. 38: 255-260. Hogan, A. G., 1950. The vitamin requirements of poultry. Nutrition Abstr. Rev. 19: 751-791. Kratzer, F. H., F. H. Bird, V. S. Asmundson and S. Lepkovsky, 1947. The comparative pyridoxine requirements of chicks and turkey poults. Poultry Sci. 26:453-456. National Research Council, 1966. Nutrient requirements of domestic animals. No. 1, Nutrient requirements of poultry, 5th rev. ed., Publication 1345. Robenalt, R. C , 1960. The thiamine requirement of young turkey poults. Poultry Sci. 39: 354360. Snedecor, G. W., 1956. Statistical Methods. 5th ed. The Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa.
The Tolerance of Different Ages of Domestic Fowl to Body Water Loss1 GEORGE J. MULKEY 2 AND TILL M. HUSTON Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30601 (Received for publication May 1, 1967)
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IKE all animals, birds produce water by ' their metabolism. Because of their high metabolic rates, the quantity of water thus produced by birds is greater in rela1
University of Georgia, College of Agriculture Experiment Stations, Journal Paper number 539. College Station, Athens. 2 Present address: Department of Poultry Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland.
tion to body size than for other vertebrates. Birds, however, from the standpoint of water conservation, have a high rate of evaporative water loss, but they have one important physiological advantage over mammals; their nitrogen excretion involves uric acid instead of urea. Uric acid can be excreted in a semi-solid suspension, whereas urea must be excreted in an aqueous solution which inevitably, involves a considera-
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on May 7, 2015
between 3.9 and 4.4 p.p.m. of dietary pyridoxine. This compares with 3.0 p.p.m. suggested by Kratzer et al. (1947) and the National Research Council (1966). Hogan (1950) stated that the poult's dietary requirement was probably greater than 3.0 p.p.m. Poultry feeds composed of common feed ingredients (yellow corn, soybean meal, etc.) furnish between 5.0 and 6.0 p.p.m. of pyridoxine (Fuller et al., 1959). There is presently no evidence to indicate that supplemental pyridoxine is needed in practical turkey feeds. This situation could be altered with any major change in current ingredient usage.
BODY WATER LOSS
and physiological factors influence the survival time of animals deprived of water. It would be of interest to know whether the same degree of dehydration occurs consistently prior to death and if this level can be predicted. The present study was initiated to determine on the average what percent body water loss causes death. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Three trials were conducted using different age groups of White Plymouth Rock males for each trial. The age groups were 8, 12, and 18 weeks in trials 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The birds used in trials 1 and 2 were raised in the environments in which the experiments were to be conducted, but the birds used in trial 3 were raised in an uncontrolled temperature until they were 14 weeks of age. They were then placed in the environmental chambers 4 weeks prior to the beginning of the experiment. The two environmental chambers used in the experiment were held constant between 9-ll°C. and 29-31°C. Total body water was measured by using tritiated water as a tracer substance and applying dilution principles. The method used was a modification of one used by Richmond et al. (1960). Body weight loss and hemoconcentrations were measured at the same time that the water was measured. Total body water of all birds was determined while they were on feed and water. In each trial 20 birds were placed in each room with 15 birds on treatment and 5 birds as controls. The controls remained on feed and water throughout the experiment. The treated birds received no feed or water during the experimental period. Previous studies have shown that individual feed consumption varies greatly when birds are deprived of water. Consequently, it was decided that withholding feed as well as water would provide a more uniform result. Total body water was measured every third day.
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on May 7, 2015
ble loss of water (Sturkie, 1965). The kangaroo rat, Dipodomys merriami, which has an unusually efficient kidney, can excrete urea in a concentration only 20 to 30 times greater than that in its blood whereas birds can excrete uric acid in a concentration some 3,000 times greater than that in the blood (Smith, 1956). Although it seems unlikely that any small bird under natural conditions can survive solely on the water produced by its metabolism, at least some individuals of three different species weighing less than 50 g. are known to be capable of surviving without drinking water for many days in captivity on a diet of dry seeds. Salt marsh Savannah Sparrows, Passerculus sandwichensis and domesticated stocks of two xerophillous Australian birds, the Budgerygah, Melopsittacus undulatus and the Zebra Finch possess such an ability (Cade and Bartholomew, 1959; Cade and Dybas, 1962). It is expected that water consumption, like evaporative water loss, will increase with increasing environmental temperature. This relationship has been examined in passerine birds (Bartholomew and Dawson, 1954; Bartholomew and Cade, 1956). Kellerup et al. (1965) restricted water consumption of chicks to 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 percent of the amount consumed the previous day by controls with water ad libitum. They found that feed consumption decreased with each increment of water restriction, but no significant mortality rates were found at any of the levels of water restriction. Medway and Kare (1957) found that the amount of evaporative water loss and percent body water are higher in one-day-old chicks than in older birds. Wilson (1948) showed that body temperature was affected severely when air temperature rose above 30°C. Water consumption at 34°C. was double that at 20°C. It is known that various environmental
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G. J. MULKEY AND T. M. HUSTON
using a one way analysis of variance. In the three trials paired observation analysis was used to analyze changes in hemoconcentrations. The birds used to obtain hematocrits while on feed and water were the same birds used in the deprivation studies, therefore, paired observation analysis was an accurate measurement of hemoconcentration changes. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Trial 1. In Trial 1 the birds in the 30°C. environment lost on an average of 46.9% body weight before death (Table 1). Since total body water was determined every third day using tritium, data were not available for the time period between the last injection of tritium and death. This period of time ranges from 0 to 3 days because the birds were injected once every three days. A 42.3% water loss (Table 1) was observed before death and this number was obtained by averaging the percent water losses as determined by the last sample taken on each bird. During the same period of time a 42.5% body weight loss occurred (Fig. 1). The 46.9% (Table 1) represents a time period which ends when the last tritium sample was taken. On the average the birds lived 1.9 days after the last sample. At the
TABLE 1.—A comparison of hematocrits, water and body weight losses, and survival time of nine birds held at different environmental temperature Body water loss Trial
Temp.
Birds
no. I I II II III III
°C. 30 9 30 9 30 9
no. IS 15 13 13 10 12
At final determination
%
42.3 40.2 40.8 40.0 42.S 45.7
Extrapolated at death
%
47.6 45.7 46.0 46.8 45.8 50.3
Hematocrit • Average survival At time of time 1 Initial Final 2 death
Body weight loss At final determination
%
42.5 39.0 41.4 40.0 47.7 43.8
%
46.9 47.7 44.9 46.7 43.3 52.0
* Significant (P<0.05). ** Highly significant (P<0.01). 1 Statistical comparisons are between environments. 2 Statistical comparisons are between initial and final hematocrits.
(days) 13 10 17** 10 15 21*
%
27.8 32.3 26.4 32.0 30.0 29.8
%
35.3* 36.5* 31.5* 37.7* 33.4 34.8*
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On the first day of the experimental period each bird was injected with tritiated water. An amount equal to 0.25% of body weight was injected. A 30 minute period of time was allowed for uniform distribution of the tritiated water throughout the body. Blood samples were taken via a heart puncture. The plasma was frozen and stored to be counted at a later date. The plasma was prepared for counting by adding 4 ml. of 10% trichloroacetic acid to 1 ml. of plasma to precipitate the plasma proteins. After centrifuging, 1 ml. of the supernatant was pipetted into 10 ml. of scintillation fluid (100 g. of maphthalene, 10 g. of 2.5 diphenyloxazole and 0.25 g. of l,4-bis-2-(5-phenyloxazolyl)-benzene added to 1 liter of Dioxane. These samples were counted in a Packard Tri-Carb Scintillation Counter. Hematocrits were taken each time blood samples were drawn. Three days from the time of first sampling, another pre-injection blood sample was taken. The test solution was then injected and a post-injection sample was taken 30 minutes later. From these samples and those of the previous period, total body water was determined. Differences between environments, age groups and survival times were analyzed
1567
BODY WATER LOSS
Trial 2. Birds 12 weeks of age in the 30°C. environment lost 44.9% body weight before death. An extrapolated value of 46.0% for body water loss occurred (Table 1). Birds in the 9°C. environment lost 46.7% body weight before death and the extrapolated water loss was 46.8%. In the case of the 8-week-old birds no significant differ-
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FIG. 1. A comparison of body water losses between 8-week-old birds held at 9°C. or 30° C. environments (trial 1).
DAYS OF SURVIVAL
FIG. 2. A comparison of body water losses between 12-week-old birds held at 9°C. or 30°C. environments (trial 2).
ences were found between environments for percent water loss and body weight loss (Fig. 2). The wanner environment had an average survival time of 17 days as compared to 10 days for the cooler environment. The birds in the 30°C. environment were losing 1.6% water per day at death while those in the 9°C. environment were losing 4.5% per day at death. Deprivation of feed and water increased hematocrits by at least 10% in both environments. Trial 3. The birds in the 30°C. environment lost 43.3% body weight before death. An extrapolated value of 45.8% was found for body water loss (Table 1). In the 9°C. environment the birds lost 52.0% of their body weight before death (Table 1). The extrapolated value for water loss was found to be 50.3% (Table 1). In trials 1, 2 and 3 the birds died after approximately a 45% loss of body weight and body water (Fig. 3). A large amount of the weight loss could be explained on the
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on May 7, 2015
time of the last injection the birds were losing 2.7% body water per day. The extrapolated value at the time of death was 47.6% of body water loss (Table 1). The birds in the 9°C. environment lost 47.4% body weight before death (Table 1). The extrapolated value for body water loss was 45.7%. No significant differences were found between environments for percent body weight loss and body water loss. There was a gradual daily decline in both environments. The warmer environment had an average survival time of 13 days, but the environment did not significantly influence survival time. Deprivation of feed and water did cause a significant increase in hematocrits.
1568
G. J . MULKEY AND T . M . HUSTON
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DAYS OF SURVIVAL
FIG. 3. A comparison of body water losses between 18-week-old birds held at 9°C. and 30°C. environments (trial 3).
basis of body water loss. Regardless of environmental temperature death usually occurred when the percent body water dropped below 55% of its original composition. The domestic fowl withstands a greater loss of body weight before death than the Florida mouse Peromyscus floridapus (Fertig and Layne, 1963), domestic cats (Caldwell, 1931 and tropical Merino sheep (Macfarlane et al., 1960), which all lost about 30% of their original body weight before death when deprived of water. Domestic fowl compared with rabbits which survived 2 months without water and lost about 50% of their original body weight before death (Hayward, 1961). Although the older birds of trial 3 in the 30°C. environment survived a shorter period of time than those of the 9°C. environment, they lived as long as the birds from the warmer environment of trials 1 and 2. The birds of trial 3 from the warmer environment showed signs (panting) of heat prostration which were not observed in trials 1 and 2. More water would be needed for evaporative cooling to maintain normal body temperature in this group. It appears as the bird ages heat stress becomes more
REFERENCES Bartholomew, G. A., and W. R. Dawson, 1954. Body temperature and water requirements in the Mourning Dove, Zenaidura macroura marginella. Ecology, 35: 181-187. Bartholomew, G. A., and T. J. Cade, 1956. Water consumption of House Finches. Condor, 58: 406-412. Cade, T. J., and G. A. Bartholomew, 1959. Seawater and salt utilization by Savannah Sparrow. Physiol. Zool., 32: 230-238. Cade, T. J., and J. A. Dybas, 1962. Water economy of the Budgerygah. Auk, 79: 345-364. Caldwell, G. T., 1931. Studies in water metabolism of the cat. Physiol. Zool. 4 : 324-359. Fertig, D. S., and J. N. Layne, 1963. Water relationship in the Florida mouse. J. Mammal. 44:322-334.
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severe. This age difference apparently explains the difference between trials in the different environments. Differences were found between age groups with the older birds living longer than the younger birds. These data indicate that domestic fowl can survive approximately a 45% body water loss before death. This is fairly consistent regardless of environmental temperature. Body weight loss closely parallels body water loss. SUMMARY Immature domestic fowl of three different ages were deprived of feed and water. The effects of different environmental temperature upon body water loss was determined. Groups of birds 8, 12 and 18 weeks of age were held at either 9°C. or 30°C. It was found that domestic fowl can survive approximately a 45% body water loss before death. Apparently the major cause of body weight loss was due to body water loss since they were closely correlated. In most cases the range was 42-45% for body weight loss and water loss, but some individuals lost 50% of initial body weight and body water before death. Survival time ranged from 10 to 21 days. The 18 weeks old birds survived longer than the young birds. The older birds survived longer in the cooler environment.
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BODY WATER LOSS Hayward, J. S., 1961. The ability of the wild rabbit to survive conditions of water restriction. C.S.I.R.O. Wildlife Res. 6: 160-175. Kellerup, S. U., J. E. Parker and G. H. Arscott, 1965. Effect of restricted water consumption on broiler chicks. Poultry Sci. 44: 78-83. Macfarlane, W. V., R. J. Morris, B. Howard, J. McDonald and O. E. Budtz-Olsen, 1960. Water and electrolyte changes in Tropical Merino sheep exposed to dehydration during summer. Australian J. Agric. Res. 12: 889-912. MacMillen, R. E., 1962. The minimum water requirements of Mourning Doves. Condor, 64: 165-166.
Medway, W., and M. R. Kare, 1957. Water metabolism of the domestic fowl from hatching to maturity. Am. J. Physiol. 190: 139-141. Richmond, C. R. Trujillo, T. T. and D. W. Martin, 1960. Volume and turnover of body water in Dipodomys deserti with tritiated water. Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. Med., 104: 9-11. Smith, H. W., 1956. Principles of Renal Physiology. Oxford University Press, New York. Sturkie, P. D., 1965. Avian Physiology. Ithaca New York. Cornell University Press, pp. 766. Wilson, W. O., 1948. Some effects of increasing environmental temperatures in pullets. Poultry Sci. 27: 813-817.
J. E. JONES, 3 H. R. WILSON, R. H. HARMS, C. F. SIMPSON AND P. W. WALDROUP4 Poultry Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 (Received for publication May 1, 1967)
L
OW LEVELS of dietary protein have ' been found to delay sexual maturity in pullets (Waldroup and Harms, 1962). Arscott and Parker (1963) stated that adult males fed 6.9% protein had higher fertility than the males fed 10.7% or 16.0% protein; there was no effect on hatchability. Wilson et al. (1965) found that body growth was inversely related to the level of dietary protein when levels of 16.0, 9.0, 6.75 and 4.5% were fed during the growing period. Sexual maturity was delayed in the low protein groups, but after being fed a 17.0% protein diet for 7 weeks sperm con1 Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series No. 2564. 2 This work supported in part by the American Poultry and Hatchery Federation, and by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (grant HD 0029-01A2). "Present address: Cooperative Mills, Baltimore, Maryland. * Present address: Department of Animal Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas.
centrations were about equal in all groups. Fertility was higher in the males which had been fed 9.0 and 6.75% protein during the growing period. Hatchability of fertile eggs was not affected by the level of protein fed. The following experiments were designed to study the effects of low dietary protein during the growing period on body and testicular development and subsequent reproductive performance. PROCEDURES
Experiment 1. This experiment was divided into 2 phases; the first dealt with the influence of dietary protein levels on testicular growth and development. The second phase dealt with the effects of dietary protein levels on semen production and quality. Single Comb White Leghorn (S.C.W.L.) cockerel chicks were utilized in both phases. They had been brooded in floor pens on wood shavings litter with infra-red lamps as the source of heat. They were sub-
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Reproductive Performance in Male Chickens Fed Protein Deficient Diets During the Growing Period1'2